L 


MODERN  SEAMANSHIP 


BY 

AUSTIN  M.  KNIGHT 

HEAR- ADMIRAL,  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


EIGHTH  EDITION 
REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


199  FULL  PAGE  PLATES 


NEW  YORK 

D.    VAN    NOSTRAND   COMPANY 
EIGHT  WARREN  STREET 
1921 


:    -'Copyright,  1901,  1910,  1914,  1917,  1921,  by 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 


AH  right*  reserved,  including  that  of  translations  into 
foreign  languages,  including  the  Scandinavian. 


PRINTED   IN    THE  UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA 


PREFACE  TO  EIGHTH  EDITION 

A  large  part  of  the  present  edition  of  Modern  Seamanship  has 
been  entirely  rewritten  and  the  remainder  carefully  revised.  At 
all  points  it  has  been  as  completely  as  possible  brought  up  to  date. 

A  comparison  with  the  Seventh  Edition  will  indicate  that  the 
most  extensive  changes  are,  as  would  naturally  be  expected,  in 
the  earlier  chapters ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  chapters  which  deal 
with  materials,  rather  than  with  principles.  Important  changes 
have,  however,  been  made  in  the  later  chapters  and  considerable 
new  matter  has  been  added.  The  chapters  on  Submarines  and 
Submarine  Chasers  and  the  final  chapter,  on  "  Assistance  by 
Public  Vessels  to  Vessels  in  Distress  "  are  entirely  new,  and  that 
on  Destroyers  is  practically  so. 

The  Rules  of  the  Road  have  been  re-arranged  to  provide  for 
easy  comparison  of  the  Inland  with  the  International  Rules. 

Much  care  has  been  taken  in  the  arrangement  of  plates  to 
bring  each  one  as  close  as  possible  to  the  text  with  which  it  is 
associated. 

In  the  preparation  of  this,  as  in  that  of  other  editions,  assist- 
ance has  been  sought  from  many  sources,  and  the  author  ac- 
knowledges with  high  appreciation  the  help  received  from  a 
large  number  of  his  brother  officers  of  the  Navy,  the  Coast 
Guard,  and  the  Merchant  Marine.  , 

The  Officers  of  the  Seamanship  Department  of  the.  Naval 
Academy  have  contributed  suggestions  of  much  value*  based 
upon  experience  in  the  use  of  the  work  as  a  text  book. 

Captain  W.  L.  Littlefield  of  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and 
Repair  has  been  untiring  in  his  interest  and  helpfulness.  A  large 
part  of  the  material  in  the  chapters  on  Ground  Tackle  and  Boats 
has  been  supplied  by  him,  with  the  approval  of  the  Chief  of 
Bureau. 

The  Chapter  on  Destroyers,  in  its  new  form,  is  chiefly  the  work 
of  the  Lieutenant  Commander  W.  W.  Smith  ;  that  on  Submarines 
is  by  Lieutenant  Wilder  D.  Baker,  and  that  on  Submarine  Chas- 
ers, by  Captain  A.  J.  Hepburn.  It  is  believed  that  these  three 

iii 


IV  PREFACE   TO   EIGHTH    EDITION. 

chapters  will  be  recognized  as  among  the  most  interesting  and 
valuable  in  the  book. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  the  generous  co-operation  of 
Commodore  W.  E.  Reynolds  and  other  officers  of  the  Coast 
Guard,  and  the  very  valuable  assistance  received  from  them,  in 
connection,  especially,  with  "Boats"  (Chapter  IX)  and  "As- 
sistance to  Vessels  in  Distress"  (Chapter  XXIX). 

Valuable  information  and  suggestions  were  received  from 
Rear  Admiral  W.  S.  Sims,  Rear  Admiral  H.  B.  Wilson,  Rear 
Admiral  J.  A.  Hoogewerff,  Rear  Admiral  H.  P.  Jones,  Rear 
Admiral  L.  H.  Chandler,  Captain  C.  T.  Vogelgesang,  Captain 
W.  A.  Moffett,  Captain  T.  T.  Craven,  Captain  C.  T.  Owens, 
Captain  C.  S.  Kempff,  Commander  R.  S.  Holmes,  Commander 
J.  P.  Lannon,  Commander  S.  C.  Hooper,  Lieutenant  T.  A.  M. 
Craven  and  Lieutenant  G.  D.  Barringer,  all  of  the  Navy,  and 
from  Captain  B.  H.  Camden,  Commander  H.  G.  Hamlett,  Lieu- 
tenant-Commander F.  C.  Billard,  and  Lieutenant-Commander  H. 
C.  Roach,  of  the  Coast  Guard.  Also  from  Captain  E.  K.  Roden 
of  the  International  Correspondence  Schools,  and  Captain  Felix 
Reisenberg,  recently  Editor  of  "  The  National  Marine." 

Information  was  courteously  furnished  by  the  American  Steel 
and  Wire  Co.,  The  Columbian  Rope  Co.,  The  Waterbury  Co., 
The  Plymouth  Cordage  Co.,  The  John  T.  Roebling's  Sons  Co., 
The  General  Electric  Co.,  The  Sperry  Gyroscope  Co.,  The  Amer- 
ican Balsa  Co.,  The  Steward  Davit  and  Equipment  Co.,  The 
American  Engineering  Co.,  The  Hyde  Windlass  Co.,  The  Kel- 
vin and  Wilfred  O.  White  Co.,  T.  S.  and  J.  D.  Negus,  and  John 
Bliss  &  Co. 

AUSTIN  M.  KNIGHT. 
WASHINGTON, 

August  30,  1921. 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 

An  attempt  is  made,  in  the  following  pages,  to  cover  a  wider 
field  than  that  covered  by  most  of  the  existing  works*  on  Sea- 
manship. 

The  admirable  treatises  of  Luce,  Nares,  and  Alston,  origi- 
nating in  the  days  when  seamanship  was  almost  wholly  con- 
cerned with  the  fitting  and  handling  of  vessels  under  sail,  have 
preserved  through  later  editions  the  general  characteristics  which 
they  naturally  assumed  in  the  beginning.  These  treatises  will 
never  be  out  of  date  until  the  time,  still  far  in  the  future,  when 
sails  shall  have  been  entirely  driven  out  by  steam.  It  will 
hardly  be  denied,  however,  that  the  Steamer  has  long  since 
established  its  claim  to  consideration  in  Seamanship,  and  that 
there  is  room  for  a  work  in  which  this  claim  shall  be  more  fully 
recognized  than  in  the  treatises  above  referred  to.  The  excel- 
lent work  of  Captains  Todd  and  Whall,  "  Practical  Seamanship 
for  the  Merchant  Service,'.'  deals  more  fully  than  either  of  its 
predecessors  with  the  handling  of  steamers  j  but  its  point  of  view 
is,  as  its  name  implies,  primarily  and  almost  exclusively  that  of 
the  Merchant  Service. 

Shortly  after  the  present  work  was  begun,  a  circular  letter 
was  addressed  to  officers  of  the  merchant  service  and  extensively 
circulated  through  the  Branch  Hydrographic  Offices  at  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Norfolk,  requesting  the  views 
of  the  officers  addressed. 

The  answers  received  to  these  questions  were  unexpectedly 
numerous  and  complete.  More  than  forty  prominent  officers  of 
the  Merchant  Service  replied,  many  of  them  writing  out  their 
views  and  describing  their  experiences  with  a  fullness  of  detail  far 
beyond  anything  that  could  have  been  anticipated. 

The  thanks  of  the  author  are  due  particularly  to  the  following 
for  letters  or  for  personal  interviews  covering  the  above  points : 
Capt.  W.  H.  Thompson,  S.  S.  Belgenland;  Capt.  T.  Evans,  S.  S. 
Runo  ;  Capt.  J.  Dann,  S.  S.  South wark  j  1st  Officer  T.  Anfind- 
sen,  S.  S.  Southwark  ;  Capt.  J.  C.  Jameson,  S.  S.  St.  Paul ; 
Capt.  H.  E.  Nickels,  S.  S.  Friesland  j  Capt.  G.  J.  Loveridge, 
S.  S.  Buffalo  j  Capt.  F.  M.  Howes,  S.  S.  Kershaw  ;  Capt.  T.  J. 
Thorkildsen,  S.  S.  Trojan  j  Capt.  Otto  Neilsen,  S.  S.  Pennland  ; 


Vi  PREFACE. 

Capt.  H.  Doxrud,  S.  S.  Noordland  ;  Capt.  C.  O.  Rockwell,  Clyde 
S.  S.  Co.  ;  Capt.  S.  W.  Watkins,  S.  S.  Montana  ;  Capt.  Anders 
Beer,  S.  'S.  Nordkyn  ;  Capt.  J.  M.  Johnston,  S.  S.  Sardinian  ; 
Capt.  A.  R.  Mills,  S.  S.  Westernland  ;  Capt.  J.  S.  Garvin,  S.  S. 
Cherokee  ;  Capt.  Robt.  B.  Quick,  S.  S.  El  Cid  ;  Capt.  Wm.  J. 
Roberts,  S.  S.  New  York  ;  Capt.  T.  Richardson,  S.  S.  Noran- 
more ;  Capt.  E.  O.  Marshall,  S.  S.  Maryland;  1st  Officer  H.  S. 
Lane,  S.  S.  Maryland  ;  Capt.  W.  F.  Bingham,  S.  S.  Marengo  ; 
Capt.  R.  Cowing,  S.  S.  Greathani;  Capt.  H.  J.  Byrne,  U.  S.  A.T. 
McPherson ;  Capt.  Paul  Grosch,  S.  S.  Stuttgart ;  Capt.  Geo. 
Schrotter,  S.  S.  Belgravia ;  Capt.  F.  C.  Saunders,  S.  S.  English 
King ;  Capt.  Chas.  Cabot,  S.  S.  Venango  j  Capt.  Chas.  Pink- 
ham,  S.  S.  Queen  Wilhelmina ;  Capt.  A.  Traue,  S.  S.  Miinchen  ; 
Capt.  W.  Thomas,  S.  S.  Quernmore  j  Capt.  H.  O.  Nickerson, 
Fall  River  Line ;  Capt.  Geo.  Lane,  Baltimore  Steam  Packet  Co. 

Important  assistance  was  received  from  Naval  Constructor  W. 
J.  Baxter,  U.  S.  Navy,  who  prepared  Chapters  I  and  XVIII; 
and  from  Lieutenant  E.  E.  Hay  den,  U.  S.  Navy,  who  contri- 
buted several  Charts  and  much  valuable  information  upon  Meteor- 
ology, for  Chapter  XIX. 

Chapter  V  was  suggested  by  a  paper,  "  Mechanical  Appli- 
ances on  board  Ship,"  by  Captain  Thomas  Mackenzie,  issued  by 
the  London  Shipmasters'  Society  as  No.  29  of  their  valuable 
series  of  publications. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  mention  all  the  naval  officers  who 
have  assisted  the  author  with  criticism  and  suggestions ;  but 
acknowledgment  is  especially  clue  to  Lieut.-Commander  A.  W. 
Grant,  Lieut.  John  Hood,  Lieut.  W.  R.  M.  Field,  Lieut.  John 
Gow,  Lieut.-Commander  W.  F.  Worthington,  Commander  J. 
E.  Pillsbury,  Lieut.  V.  S.  Nelson,  Lieut.  Ridgely  Hunt,  and 
Chief  Boatswain  W.  L.  Hill,  all  of  the  United  States  Navy. 

Above  all,  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Chief  Boatswain  C.  F. 
Pierce,  U.  S.  Navy,  who  not  only  assisted  in  the  preparation  of 
many  parts  of  the  text,  but  prepared  sketches  for  fully  one-half 
the  illustrations  of  the  volume. 

AUSTIN  M.  KNIGHT. 
UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY, 
APRIL  i,  1901. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  SHIP. 

Types  of  Ships.— Fighting  Ships.— Auxiliary  Ships.— Battleships.— Battle 
Cruisers. — Scout  Cruisers. — Light  Cruisers.— Destroyers. — Submarines. — 
Sailing  Ships. — Naval  Aviation  Page  i 

CHAPTER  II. 
THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP. 

Construction  and  Parts  of  Hull. — Keel. — Frames. — Double  Bottoms. — 
Longitudinals. — Stem  and  Stern. — Rudder. — Propellers. — Drainage. — Ven- 
tilation.— Steering  Gear. — Telemotor  Page  15 

CHAPTER  III. 

ROPE. 

Fibres  for  Rope. — Manila  Rope  — Hemp  Rope. — "  Small  Stuff  ". — Manu- 
facture of  Rope. — Wire  Rope. — Types  of  Wire  Rope. — Characteristics  of 
Various  Types. — Types  Suited  for  Various  Purposes. — Galvanizing — Care 
and  Handling  of  Wire  Rope.— Notes  on  Wire  Rope.— Wire  Hawsers. 

Page  33 
CHAPTER  IV. 

KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

Working  in  Hemp  and  Manila — Knots  and  Splices  in  Hemp  and  Man- 
ila.—Working  in  Wire  Rope.— Splicing  Wire  Rope.— Appliances  for  Use 
with  Wire  Rope  Page  48 

CHAPTER  V. 

MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES  ON  SHIPBOARD 
The  Composition  and  Resolution  of  Forces.— Analysis  of  Forces  in  Me- 
chanical   Appliances.— Mast   and   Boom.— The    Derrick— The    Span.— The 
Lever , Page  65 

CHAPTER  VI. 
BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

Blocks.— Types  of  Blocks.— Tackles.— Principles  of  Tackles —Power  of 
Tackles.— Effect  of  Friction  in  Tackles.— Types  of  Tackles.— Practical 
Rules  for  Strength  of  Rope,  Blocks,  and  Tackles  Page  77 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS. 

Rigging  Yards  and  Derricks  for  Handling  Heavy  Weights.— Analysis  of 
Forces  Involved.— Use  of  a  Span.— Use  of  a  Derrick.— Use  of  a  Boom-- 
Boat Crane.— Practical  Examples  in  Handling  Weights  Page  97 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  COMPASS  LOG  AND  LEAD-SUBMARINE  SIGNALS. 
The  Magnetic  Compass — The  Gyroscopic  Compass. — The  Radio  Com- 
pass.— The  Pelorus. — Bearings. — Measurement  of  Speed. — Patent  Logs. — 
Revolutions  of  the  Screw. — Sounding. — The  Hand  Lead — Sounding  Ma- 
chines.— Principles  of  Sounding  Machine. — Types  of  Sounding  Machines. 
—Sounding  by  Machine. — Submarine  Signals. — Principles  and  Applica- 
tions of  Submarine  Signals  Page  116 

CHAPTER  IX. 

BOATS. 

Construction  of  Boats. — Types  of  Boats. — Metallic  Boats. — Buoyancy  of 
Boats. — Classification  of  Boats. — Self-Bailing  Boats. — Self-Righting  Boats. 
— U.  S.  Coast  Guard  Boats. — Man-of-War  Boats. — The  Stowage  and 
Handling  of  Boats. — Davits. — Cradles. — Detaching  Apparatus  (Releasing 
Gear). — Lowering  Boats. — Hoisting  Boats. — Handling  Heavy  Boats. — 
Notes  on  Care  and  Handling  of  Power  Boats. — Diseases  of  Steamers  and 
Motor  Boats,  and  Remedies.— Rig  of  Boats  for  Sailing.— Handling  Boats 
Under  Sail. — Handling  Boats  Under  Oars. — Towing  Boats Page  147 

CHAPTER  X. 

HANDLING  BOATS  IN  A  SURF. 

Preliminary.— Rules  of  Royal  National  Lifeboat  Institution.— Rowing  to 
Seaward.— Running  before  a  Surf  to  the  Shore.— Beaching  or  Landing 
Through  a  Surf.— Practical  Notes  on  the  Management  of  Boats  in  a  Surf. 

Page  219 
CHAPTER  XI. 

GROUND  TACKLE. 

Anchors.— Types  of  Anchors.— Old-fashioned  and  Patent  Anchors.— Ad- 
vantages and  Disadvantages  of  Different  Types.— Housing  in  Hawse-pipe. 
—Chain  Cables —Details  of  Cables.— Manufacture  of  Cables.— Stowing 
Cables.— Overhauling  Cables.— Make-up  of  Cable.— Weight  and  Strength 
of  Chain.— Windlasses.— Details  of  Ground-Tackle.— Letting-go  Anchor- 
Speed  of  Ship  in  Letting-go— Anchoring  in  Squadron.— Anchoring  in 
Deep  Water.— Weighing.— Stowing  Anchors.— Foul  Anchor.— Anchoring 
by  the  Stern.— Riding  at  Single  Anchor.— Advantage  of  Long  Scope.— 
Dragging.— Mooring.— Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Mooring,— To 
Moor.— A  Flying  Moor.— Clear  and  Foul  Hawse.— The  Mooring-Swivel.— 
Putting  on  the  Swivel.— Taking  Off  the  Swivel —Tending  Ship  . .  Page  231 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  XII. 

CARRYING  OUT  ANCHORS. 

Occasions  for  Carrying  out  Anchors. — Difficulties. — Methods  of  Carry- 
ing On. — Fittings  Required. — Floating  Power  of  Boats. — Strength  of 
Spars. — To  Pick  up  an  Anchor. — Dragging  for  Anchor  or  Cable. — Weigh- 
ing by  Ship  or  With  Boat. — Lost  Bower  or  Sheet Page  301 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  STEERING  OF  STEAMERS. 

New  Terminology  of  United  States  Navy  as  to  Helm  and  Rudder. — The 
Elements  Entering  into  the  Steering  of  Steamers. — The  Rudder. — The 
Screw  Current. — Analysis  of  the  Screw  Current  and  its  Effects. — The  Side- 
wise  Pressure  of  the  Screw  Blades. — The  Wake  Current. — Ship  and  Screw 
Going  Ahead. — The  Turning  of  Ships. — The  Turning  Circle. — Ship  and 
Screw  Going  Astern. — Effects  of  Rudder  and  Screw  Currents. — Ship  Going 
Ahead,  Screw  Backing. — Forces  Involved  and  their  Effects. — Behavior  of 
the  Ship  under  Various  Conditions. — Ship  Going  Astern,  Screw  Going 
Ahead. — Forces  Involved  and  their  Effects, — To  Turn  in  a  Limited  Space. 
—Twin  Screws. — Advantages  of  Twin  Screws. — Turning  of  Twin-Screw 
Ships  under  different  Conditions. — Additional  Notes  upon  Steering. — 
Effect  of  Wind.— Effect  of  Sea.— Effect  of  Shallow  Water.— Heeling  of 
Ships  in  Turning. — Importance  of  Knowing  the  Manoeuvring  Power  of 
Ships  Page  320 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 

Various  Sets  ot  Rules  for  Preventing  Collision. — Authorities  to  be  Con- 
sulted upon  Rules. — International  and  Inland  Rules  (United  States)  in 
Parallel  Columns,  with  Notes.— Vessels'  Lights.— Sound  Signals  for  Fog, 
etc. — Speed  in  a  Fog. — Steering  and  Sailing  Rules. — Sound  Signals  for 
Vessels  in  Sight  of  each  other.— Miscellaneous  Rules.— Remarks  on  Rules 
of  the  Road. — Decisions  of  the  Courts  upon  Rules  of  the  Road. — Deci- 
sions upon  Speed  in  a  Fog. — Laws  Relating  to  Rules  of  the  Road. — Rules 
of  other  Nations  than  United  States  Page  360 

CHAPTER  XV. 

MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

Preliminary.— Steamers  Meeting.— Steamers  Crossing.— Relative  Speeds 
of  the  two  Vessels  as  Affecting  the  Point  of  Meeting.— Discussion  of  the 
Manoeuvres  proper  for  Avoiding  Collision  (with  diagrams).— Manoeuvre 
for  Giving-way  Ship — Manoeuvre  for  Holding-on  Ship. — A  Steamer  and 
a  Sailing  Vessel.— In  a  Fog.— General  Discussion.— Manoeuvres  Proper 
under  Various  Conditions.— Speed  in  a  Fog.— The  Law  as  to  Moderate 
Speed.— Reasonableness  of  the  Law.— Fallacy  of  the  Arguments  in  Favor 
of  High  Speed  Page  44* 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

PILOTING. 

1  ixing  the  Ship's  Position.— The  Chart.— Bearings.— Danger  Angle- 
Distance  of  an  Object  in  the  Horizon — Distance  of  an  Object  by  Two 
Bearings.— Bow  and  Beam  Bearings.— Currents.— Danger  Due  to  Currents. 
—Tidal  Currents.— Slack  Water  Distinguished  from  High  and  Low  — 
Effect  of  Local  Conditions  upon  Tidal  Currents.— Navigating  in  a  Fog  — 
Speed  in  a  Fog.— Navigating  by  Soundings. — Use  of  Sounding  Machine. — 
I'.u.u age.— General  Rules  as  to  Buoyage.— Buoyage  of  United  States 
Waters Page  4^5 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

HANDLING  A  STEAMER  ALONGSIDE  A  DOCK. 
Preliminary.— The  Effects  of  Lines,  Helm  and  Currents.— The  Effect  of 
a  "  Spring." — Advantages  of  Twin  Screws. — Practical  Cases. — Handling 
Steamers  without  Tugs.. — Putting  a  Right-handed  Screw  Vessel  Along- 
side under  Various  Conditions. — Head  Tide. — Fair  Tide. — Working  into 
a  Restricted  Berth. — Working  into  a  Slip. — Use  of  a  Spring. — Use  of  the 
Helm.— A  Head  Tide.— A  Fair  Tide.— Hauling  into  a  Dry  Dock.— To 
Wind  a  Steamer  at  a  Dock. — To  Wind  a  Steamer  in  Making  a  Landing. — 
Getting  Clear  of  a  Dock. — Handling  a  Large  Vessel  with  the  Aid  of 
Tugs. — Docking  of  a  Large  Ocean  Liner  at  New  York. — Undocking. 

Page  487 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
PLACING  A  SHIP  IN  DRY  DOCK. 

The  Docking  Plan. — Fittings  of  a  Dock. — Preparations  for  Docking. — 
Floating  the  Vessel  in. — Pumping  Out  the  Dock  and  Securing  the  Ship. — 
Precautions. — Inspection  of  Underwater  Hull — Flooding  the  Dock  and 
Floating  the  Ship  Page  516 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

WEATHER  AND  THE  LAWS  OF  STORMS. 

Weather,  Winds,  Clouds  and  Rainfall.— Weather  Maps  of  the  World 
for  January  and  July — Isobars. — Highs  and  Lows. — Cyclones  and  Anti- 
cyclones.— Weather  of  Cyclones  and  Anti-cyclones. — Velocity  of  Wind  De- 
pendent upon  Barometric  Gradient — Moisture  and  Precipitation. — General 
Wind  Circulation. — Explanation  of  the  Motion  of  Rotation  in  Cyclones 
and  Anti-cyclones.— Buys-Ballots  Law.— Trade  Winds.— Westerlies  —Gen- 
eral Eastward  Movement  of  the  Atmosphere  in  High  Latitudes.— Weather 
Changes  and  Weather  Prediction.— Weather  Maps  of  the  United  States.— 
Temperature  Changes. — Precipitation — Monsoons. — Land  and  Sea  Breezes. 
—The  Barometer.— Clouds.— The  Law  of  Storms— The  Origin  of  Trop- 
ical Hurricanes. — Air  and  Cloud-Circulation  in  a  Hurricane. — Motion  of 


CONTENTS.  xi 

Rotation.— Motion  of  Translation.— Chart  Illustrating  the  Progress  of  a 
Hurricane. — Shifts  of  Wind — The  Storm  Wave. — Indications  of  an  Ap- 
proaching Hurricane. — Rules  for  Manoeuvring  in  a  Hurricane. — Difference 
between  a  Steamer  and  a  Sailing  Vessel  Page  522 

CHAPTER  XX. 
HANDLING  STEAMERS  IN  HEAVY  WEATHER. 

Lying-to. — Lying-to  with  Sea  on  the  Bow. — Objections  to  the  Preceding 
Method  in  a  Modern  Steamer. — Drag  of  the  Propeller. — Lying-to  with 
Engines  Stopped. — Running  Slow  before  the  Sea. — Rolling  of  a  Ship  in 
Waves. — Relation  between  the  Period  of  the  Ship  and  That  of  the  Sea. — 
Importance  of  Breaking  up  Synchronism  between  Periods  of  the  Ship  and 
the  Waves. — Bringing  a  Steamer  up  Head  to  Sea  and  Holding  Her  There. 
— Sea-Anchors. — Anchors  for  Large  Ships. — Riding  Out  a  Gale  at  Anchor. 
—The  Use  of  Oil.— Advantages  of  Oil  —Method  of  Using  under  Different 
Conditions. — Opinions  of  Shipmasters  upon  Lying-to  in  Modern  Steam- 
ers    Page  5^5 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

Design  and  Characteristics  of  Destroyers. — Types  of  Destroyers. — Mo- 
tive Power. — Manoeuvring. — Handling  Alongside  Docks. — Handling  Along- 
side other  Vessels  at  Anchor.— Alongside  other  Vessels  Underway.— Re- 
ceiving Stores  or  Passengers  from  Vessels  Underway.— Behavior  at  Sea. — 
In  Heavy  Weather —Navigation.— In  Restricted  Waters— Towing.— As- 
sisting Vessels  in  Distress  Page  579 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  SUBMARINE  CHASERS. 

Development. — Characteristics. — Employment  of. — Handling. — Perform- 
ance at  Sea  •  Page  621 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

SUBMARINES. 

General  Features  of  Design  and  Construction.— Interior  Arrangements. 
—Ventilation —Operating  on  Surface.— Diving.— Preparation  and  Orders 
for  Diving.— Handling  Submerged  —Periscopes.—"  Do's  "  and  "  Don'ts  ". 
—Turning  Circles.— Emergencies.— Heavy  Weather  —Towing  . .  Page  630 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON. 

Difficulty  in  Keeping  Station.— Use  of  Instruments.— Importance  of  Uni- 
form Speed.— To  Regain  Position— In  a  Fog.— Danger  of  Collision  with 
Vessel  outside  of  Fleet.— Breakdown.— Man  Overboard  —Steaming  in  Line. 


xii  CONTENTS. 

—Steaming  in  Echelon.— To  Change  Course— Rules  for  Turning.— Turn- 
ing Inside.— Turning  Outside —Turning  More  than  Eight  Points.— Turn-- 
ing Simultaneously.— Anchoring.— Getting  Underway.— Handling  Turbine 
Ships.— Handling  a  Ship  Propelled  by  Electric  Drive.— Duties  of  Officers 
of  Deck.— "  Notes  B,  Handling  Ships"  Atlantic  Fleet '. . . .  Page  653 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

TOWING. 

The  Towline—  Should  be  Long  and  Heavy— Chain-cable.— Wire-rope  — 
Manila  and  Coir.— Advantage  of  Keeping  Ships  "In  Step  "—Securing  the 
Line  on  the  Towing  Vessel.— Securing  the  Line  on  the  Tow.— Towing  in 
Smooth  Water. — Tow-rope  Resistances. — Starting  a  Tow. — Taking  a  Dis- 
abled Vessel  in  Tow  at  Sea. — Importance  of  Considering  the  Drift  of  the 
Vessels. — Most  Favorable  Positions  for  Running  Lines. — Use  of  a  Boat. — 
Use  of  a  Float.— Code  of  Signals.— Rocket  Gun.— Running  Lines.— Casting 
off— Standard  Towing  Equipment,  United  States  Navy.— Towing  Engines. 
—Towing  Alongside. — Advantages  of  Towing  Engines. — Use  of  Wire- 
rope  with  Towing  Engines. — Towing  Alongside. — Making  Fast  Along-* 
side  Page  695 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A  WRECK. 

Manoeuvring. — Lowering  the  Boat. — Communication  between  the  Boat 
and  the  Wreck — Danger  of  Going  Alongside  to  Leeward. — Dropping 
Down  with  a  Line— The  Use  of  Oil.— Signals.— If  a  Boat  Cannot  be 
Lowered. — Examples  of  Rescues  Page  725 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
MAN  OVERBOARD. 

Danger  that  Man  will  be  Struck  by  Screw.— Engines  should  be  Stopped 
at  Once. — Lookout  from  Aloft. — Life-buoys. — Importance  of  Having  a 
Good  Marker. — Use  of  a  Light  for  a  Marker. — Manoeuvring  to  Pick  up 
the  Man. — Stopping  and  Backing. — Turning  the  Ship. — In  Case  of  Fog. 

Page  733 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
STRANDING. 

Backing  or  Pulling  off.— Possible  Danger  of  Backing  Immediately.— 
Precautions  to  be  Taken.— Sounding.— Laying  Out  Anchors.— Tidal  Cur- 
rents.—Lightening  Ship.— Assisted  by  Another  Vessel.— If  Assisting  Ves- 
sel Cannot  Anchor. — If  Beach  is  Steep  and  not  Rocky  Page  737 


CONTENTS.  xiij 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

ASSISTANCE  BY  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

Work  of  U.  S.  Coast  Guard.— Calls  for  Assistance.— Doctrine  of  Coast 
Guard  in  Rendering  Assistance. — Attitude  in  Cases  where  Commercial 
Assistance  is  at  Hand. — Removal  of  Derelicts. — Rescuing  Crew  of  Ship 
in  Danger  of  Foundering. — Taking  a  Disabled  Vessel  in  Tow. — Floating 
a  Stranded  Vessel. — Coast  Guard  Stations. — Coast  Patrol. — Assisting 
Stranded  Vessels. — Line-Throwing  Gun — Breeches  Buoy. — Life  Car. — 
Directions  to  Mariners  in  Case  of  Shipwreck  Page  745 

APPENDIX. 

§  I.  SAILING  SHIPS.  Various  Rigs. — Details  of  Rigging. — Sails. — Can- 
vas.— Running  Gear.  §11.  TONNAGE  OF  SHIPS  §111.  SHIP'S  PUMPS  AND 
THEIR  USES.  §  IV.  PERMITTED  DRAFT  OF  SHIPS.  PLIMSOLL  MARK.  §  V. 
DETAILS  OF  NAVY  BOATS.  §  VI.  ROPE.  U.  S.  NAVY.  §V1I.  NOMENCLA- 
TURE OF  DECKS.  §VIII.  PRESERVATION  OF  SHIPS.  §  IX.  DIRECTIONS  FOR 
OBTAINING  TACTICAL  DATA  OF  MEN-OF-WAR.  §  X.  BUOYAGE  §  XL  DI- 
RECTIONS FOR  RESTORING  THE  APPARENTLY  DROWNED.  Instructions  for  Sav- 
ing Drowning  Persons  by  Swimming  to  their  Relief Page  765 


(I) 


CHAPTER   I. 
THE  SHIP. 

The  size,  form,  speed,  power,  armor,  armament  and  rig  of  a 
ship  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  services  she  is  expected  to 
perform.  Whatever  her  design  may  be,  she  must  have  ample 
stability,  strength,  habitability,  and  a  complete  outfit  of  all  appli- 
ances, fixed  and  portable,  necessary  to  ensure  her  efficiency  under 
all  service  conditions. 

The  broadest  classification  of  ships  is  that  which  distinguishes 
them  as  Ships  of  War  and  Merchant  Ships.  Ships  of  War  in 
turn  may  be  distinguished  as  Fighting  Ships  and  Auxiliaries. 
Our  principal  concern  is  with  fighting  ships;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  in  these  days  of  large  naval  and  military  opera- 
tions, often  at  great  distances  from  home  ports,  the  life  of  the 
fighting  fleet  depends  very  largely  upon  its  auxiliaries — fuel 
ships,  supply  ships,  repair  ships,  etc. — forming  the  complex 
organization  known  as  the  Train. 

Fighting  Ships  are  of  many  classes,  used  for  widely  varying 
purposes  calling  for  widely  varying  designs — designs  which,  start- 
ing from  certain  definite  limitations  of  size  and  cost,  must  be 
developed  along  such  lines  and  with  such  a  balance  of  the  factors 
of  offensive  and  defensive  power  involved  as  shall  give  maximum 
weight  to  the  factors  most  important  for  the  purpose  in  hand 
without  unduly  sacrificing  the  remaining  factors. 

Modern  warships  are  usually  classified  as  follows : 

FOR  SERVICE  WITH  THE  FLEET. 

Fighting  Units.  Auxiliary  Units  (the  Train). 

Battleships  Fuel  ships 

Battle  cruisers  Transports 

Scout  cruisers  Supply  ships 

Light  cruisers  Repair  ships 

Destroyers  Mine  laying  and 

Submarines  Mine  sweeping  ships 


TIII-:  si i  ii'. 


;  ;\  ,  ^      FOR  INDEPENDENT  SERVICE. 

Cruisers  Training  ships,  etc. 

Gunboats 

FOR  COAST  DEFENSE. 

Second-line  battleships  Mine  layers 

Second-line  destroyers  Patrol  ships  and  scouts 

Monitors  Aircraft 

Battleships.  (Plate  1.)  A  battleship,  being  designed  to  take 
a  place  in  the  line  of  battle,  meeting  the  most  powerful  ships  of 
the  enemy  and  exchanging  blow  for  blow,  must  have  defensive 
qualities  to  resist  the  heaviest  blows  she  is  likely  to  receive. 
Hence  her  armor  must  be  heavy.  But  more  important  than  the 
power  to  resist,  is  the  power  to  strike.  It  is  an  axiom  that  "  the 
best  defense  is  a  vigorous  offense."  Thus,  for  a  battleship  the 
first  requisite  is  a  heavy  armament ;  the  second,  heavy  armor. 
Speed  is  not  here  of  maximum  importance,  although  by  no  means 
negligible.  In  the  design  of  a  battleship,  then,  we  sacrifice  some- 
thing in  weight  of  armor  for  weight  of  armament,  and  something 
in  weight  of  boilers  and  engines — that  is  to  say,  in  speed— for 
armament  and  armor  combined ;  while  for  these  three  primary 
factors  taken  together — armament,  armor,  and  speed — we  sacri- 
fice much  in  the  important  factor  of  fuel-endurance  and  in  other 
less  significant  factors  which  need  not  be  enumerated  here. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  1904-5,  and  for 
some  years  thereafter,  the  common  type  of  battleship  carried 
a  mixed  armament  of  heavy,  light,  and  intermediate  guns.  As  a 
result  of  experience  gained  in  that  war,  Great  Britain  in  1906 
laid  down,  with  much  secrecy,  a  new  type,  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  which  was  that  it  carried  only  guns  of  the  heaviest 
caliber  and  all  of  these  protected  by  the  heaviest  armor.  The 
first  of  these  "  all-big-gun  "  ships  was  named  the  "  Dreadnought " 
and  this  name  was  immediately  seized  upon  as  the  name  of  the 
type,  so  that  "Dreadnought"  came  to  signify,  at  first  an  all-big- 
gun  ship,  and,  later,  a  powerful  battleship  of  any  type  without 
reference  to  the  character  of  the  armament.  More  recently,  we 
have  had  "  Super-Dreadnoughts,"  the  term  being  used  in  a  popu- 
lar way  to  designate  a  ship  which  is  assumed  to  be  more  powerful 


Plate  No.    1 


THE    SHIP 


than  any  of  its  predecessors.  The  pendulum  whose  swing  from 
too  great  diversity  of  armament  led  for  a  time  to  the  removal 
of  all  except  the  heaviest  guns  has  swung  back  to  some  extent, 
and  even  the  super-dreadnought  of  today  carries  a  battery  of 
light  guns  for  defense  against  torpedo  craft  and  submarines, 
while  ships  of  every  class  carry  "  anti-aircraft  guns  "  capable  of 
firing  almost  directly  upward. 

Battle  Cruisers.  (Plate  2.)  In  a  battle  cruiser,  the  require- 
ment of  high  speed  comes  first,  accompanied  by  that  of  large 
fuel  supply,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  large  radius  of  operations. 
Next  in  importance  comes  armament ;  while  armor  protection 
drops  to  third  place  with  an  importance  much  below  that  of  the 
other  factors.  While  the  battleship  holds  its  place  in  the  battle 
line,  the  battle  cruiser  may  range  far  afield  searching  for  the 
enemy — thus  playing  the  part  of  an  advanced  scout — or  take  ad- 
vantage of  its  high  speed  and  heavy  armament  to  turn  the  enemy's 
flank  or  throw  itself  upon  some  part  of  the  line  where  its  weight, 
coming  perhaps  as  a  surprise,  may  produce  decisive  results.  A 
force  of  battle  cruisers  may  be  described  as  the  heavy  cavalry  of 
the  sea.  Such  a  force  gives  flexibility  to  the  fleet  of  which  it 
forms  a  part  and  lends  itself  to  combinations  which  afford  scope 
for  a  high  order  of  tactical  skill  on  the  part  of  the  commander- 
in-chief. 

Of  late  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  combine  the  character- 
istics of  the  battleship  and  the  battle  curiser  in  a  single  design. 
This  tendency,  if  carried  to  full  realization,  would  result  in  a  ship 
having  the  armor  and  armament  of  the  "  California  "  with  a  speed 
30  per  cent,  higher.  Such  a  combination  is  possible  only  by  an 
enormous  increase  in  displacement,  and  would  result  in  a  ship  of 
approximately  60,000  tons,  a  little  short  of  1,000  feet  in  length 
(to  admit  a  passage  through  the  locks  of  the  Panama  Canal)  and 
with  a  draft  of  nearly  or  quite  40  feet.  It  may  be  that  such  a 
ship  will  be  the  next  development  in  fighting-ship  design,  but  it 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  in  sight  today.  The  British  fast  battle- 
ship "Hood"  is  the  nearest  approach  to  it  thus  far  attempted, 
and  the  "Hood"  is  recognized  as  an  experiment  of  doubtful 
success. 

Scout  Cruisers.1     (Plate  3.)     A  scout  cruiser  needs,  first  of 

1  In   the   United   States   Navy,   Scout   Cruisers  are   now   called    "  Light 
Cruisers  of  the  First  Line." 


Plate  No.  2. 


THK    SHIP. 


all,  high  speed,  which,  however,  must  be  accompanied  by  large 
fuel  capacity  and  a  high  degree  of  seaworthiness,  both  of  which 
characteristics  are  necessary  to  make  high  speed  available  for 
distant  scouting  under  all  conditions  of  weather.  The  armament 
is  light,  though  one  long-range  gun  may  be  very  useful ;  and  little 
or  no  weight  can  be  spared  for  armor  except  for  an  armored  deck. 
The  function  of  a  scout  is  sufficiently  defined  by  the  name.  The 
scouting  area  that  can  be  covered  is  rapidly  being  extended  by 
the  development  of  aircraft,  which  can  now  be  carried  by  ships 
and  launched  from  their  decks,  while  the  power  of  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  commander-in-chief  and  sending  in  reports  of 
observations  is  being  coincidently  extended  by  improvements  in 
radio-telephony. 

All  this  makes  of  the  scout  of  today  a  vastly  different  craft 
from  that  of  only  a  few  years  ago  and  promises  to  revolutionize 
all  those  phases  of  naval  warfare  which  precede  and  lead  up  to 
the  actual  contact  of  opposing  fleets. 

Light  Cruisers  (Plate  3)  usually  operate  with  the  fleet,  espe- 
cially in  the  preliminary  stages  of  contact  with  the  enemy.  It  is 
their  function  to  keep  touch  with  the  enemy,  reporting  his  move- 
ments, his  forces,  etc.,  to  the  commander-in-chief  and  driving 
back  the  opposing  cruisers  and  destroyers  if  these  attempt  an 
attack.  Their  armament,  especially  designed  for  stopping  other 
cruisers  and  destroyers,  consists  of  a  large  number  of  light  rapid- 
firing  guns ;  and  as  they  carry  torpedoes  and  have  high  speed  and 
great  flexibility  of  maneuvering,  they  have  a  wide  range  of  use- 
fulness within  limits  which  do  not  take  them  far  from  base  or 
from  support. 

Destroyers.  (Plate  4.)  The  destroyer  has  passed  through 
many  phases  of  evolution  since  it  was  first  conceived  as  a  craft 
designed  to  "  destroy  "  the  torpedo  boats  by  which  torpedo  war- 
fare was  chiefly  conducted  forty  years  ago.  The  earlier  torpedo 
boat  rapidly  gave  place  to  the  larger  but  very  similar  craft  that 
had  been  called  into  existence  to  oppose  it,  and  the  name  "  tor- 
pedo-boat destroyer"  soon  gave  place  to  the  abbreviated  form 
now  in  every-day  use.  Primarily,  then,  the  destroyer  is  a  torpedo 
boat — large,  heavily  armed,  and  the  fastest  type  of  warship 
known.  The  light  guns  with  which  it  was  originally  equipped 
for  use  against  the  thin  plating  of  other  torpedo  craft  have  grown 
to  a  size  and  power  that  place  the  destroyer  offensively,  and  with- 


Plate  No.   3. 


to 


8  THE  SHIP. 

out  reference  to  its  torpedoes,  in  a  class  with  large  gunboats  and 
light  cruisers,  while  its  great  speed  and  the  large  number  of 
torpedoes  that  it  carries  place  it  distinctly  in  a  class  by  itself. 

The  World  War  of  1914  to  1918  resulted  in  great  develop- 
ments in  the  characteristics  of  the  destroyer  and  a  wide  extension 
of  its  field  of  usefulness.  It  proved  the  most  efficient  opponent 
of  the  submarine  and  the  most  successful  protector  of  commerce 
from  submarine  and  other  forms  of  attack.  Among  the  many 
novel  features  that  were  developed  as  weapons  during  the  war, 
the  most  interesting  were  the  depth  bomb  and  the  direction- 
listcnittf/  device,  both  of  which  found  their  most  important  and 
successful  application  on  destroyers. 

Submarines.  (Plate  4.)  The  submarine,  in  principle,  goes 
back  to  the  inventions  and  experiments  of  Bushnell  (1775)  and 
Fulton  (1801),  both  of  whom  had  a  fairly  complete  conception 
of  the  possibilities  of  warfare  under  water.  In  its  modern  and 
successful  application,  it  dates  from  the  pioneer  work  of  Holland 
(1875)  arjd  Lake  (1895).  Even  today,  submarine  navigation, 
whether  for  naval  or  for  commercial  purposes,  is  unquestionably 
in  the  early  stages  of  development,  in  spite  of  the  tremendous 
significance  of  its  operations  in  the  recent  war. 

By  devices  which  vary  with  different  types,  the  submarine  can 
pass  from  the  surface  of  the  water  to  a  depth  which  is  limited 
only  by  the  power  of  the  hull  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the 
water,  and  can  maneuver  there  at  the  will  of  those  in  control. 
While  there  are  important  differences  between  the  various  types 
of  submarines  which  have  had  more  or  less  success  within  the 
last  thirty  years,  the  essential  principle  of  the  most  successful 
types  may  be  stated  as  follows:  Under  normal  conditions,  the 
boat  floats  like  any  other  craft.  Certain  compartments  are  fitted 
for  the  admission  of  seawater  through  valves  operated  by  the 
person  in  charge  of  maneuvering.  With  these  compartments 
filled,  the  boat  still  has  sufficient  buoyancy  to  remain  on  the  sur- 
face although  very  deeply  immersed.  In 'other  words,  the  boat 
has  a  certain  small  amount  of  reserve  buoyancy  when  all  her  sink- 
ing tanks  are  filled.  To  submerge,  it  is  necessary  that  she  should 
be  steered  under  water,  by  going  ahead,  with  her  horizontal  fin- 
like  rudders  technically  known  as  "  hydroplanes  "  swung  down- 
ward, in  which  position  their  action  is  to  steer  the  craft  down  ex- 
actly as  an  ordinary  vertical  rudder,  when  swung  to  the  right, 


Plate  No.  4. 


A  LIGHT  CRUISER.     (SECOND  LINE) 


A  DESTROYER. 


A   SUBMARINE. 


IO  THE    SHIP. 

steers  the  boat  to  the  right.  Conversely,  of  course,  the  hydro- 
planes, when  swung  upward,  steer  the  boat  toward  the  surface. 
The  moment  that  the  rudders  are  brought  to  the  midship  (hori- 
zontal) position,  the  reserve  bouyancy  asserts  itself,  and  the 
boat  rises.  The  same  result  occurs,  of  course,  if  the  headway  is 
stopped.  Thus  there  is  always  a  tendency,  inherent  in  the  craft 
itself,  to  seek  safety  by  rising  to  the  surface,  and  a  positive  force 
must  be  applied,  by  the  motion  of  the  boat  combined  with  the  ef- 
fect of  a  "  down  rudder,"  to  maintain  submersion.  In  this  lies 
the  characteristic  feature  of  the  modern  type  of  submarine.  In 
operating  on  the  surface,  the  power^used  is  that  of  gas  engines ; 
under  water,  that  of  electric  storage  batteries.  When  completely 
immersed,  the  submarine  is  not  only  invisible  to  others  but  is  it- 
self blind,  since  practically  nothing  can  be  seen  from  it  through 
the  water.  At  moderate  depths  this  difficulty  is  met  by  the  use 
of  the  periscope,  a  long  tube  which,  at  depths  up  to  about  30  feet, 
projects  above  the  surface,  with  lenses  which  give  a  good  view 
around  the  horizon. 

Contrary  to  the  general  impression,  the  normal  life  of  a  subma- 
rine is  on  the  surface,  where  she  navigates  freely  under  her  gas 
engines  and  where  the  crew  have  opportunities  for  rest  and  fresh 
air  and  a  limited  amount  of  exercise  on  deck.  Both  the  speed 
and  the  distance  which  can  be  run  when  submerged  are  very 
limited,  owing  to  the  limitations  of  the  electric  batteries.  After 
a  few  hours  of  running  submerged  the  power  of  these  becomes 
exhausted  and  the  submarine  must  return  to  the  surface,  where 
the  gas  engines  can  be  used  to  recharge  the  batteries,  after  which 
another  period  of  submerged  running  becomes  practicable.  It 
follows  from  this  that  the  submarine  is  by  no  means  the  always- 
invisible  enemy  that  it  is  generally  considered.  Unless  the  peri- 
scope at  least  is  above  water,  the  submarine  is  blind.  And  if  the 
periscope  is  exposed,  small  as  it  is,  it  is  open  to  detection  by  a 
lookout  sufficiently  keen.  To  this  danger  of  detection  by  sight 
is  added  an  equally  serious  danger  of  detection  by  sound;  for 
devices  by  which  the  noise  of  a  propeller  can  be  detected  and  its 
direction  and  approximate  distance  determined  are  now  installed 
on  all  vessels  designed  to  cope  with  submarines.  It  is  found, 
moreover,  that  an  aircraft  flying  at  a  height  of  a  few  hundred 
feet  can  see  to  a  considerable  distance  below  water,  especially  if 
the  water  is  smooth,  and  can  locate  a  submarine  even  when  the 


THE    SHIP.  U 

periscope  is  not  exposed.  A  submarine  once  detected  and  ap- 
proximately located  is  in  very  serious  danger.  If  she  exposes 
herself  on  the  surface  she  is  subject  to  attack  by  gun-fire.  If  she 
remains  submerged,  she  is  in  almost  equal  danger  of  attack  by 
depth-bombs,  which,  loaded  with  heavy  charges  of  high  explosive, 
are  dropped  overboard  as  near  as  possible  to  the  spot  where  she 
is  supposed  to  be,  with  fuses  adjusted  to  produce  explosion  at  a 
depth  of  100  feet  or  thereabouts  below  the  surface.  Approxi- 
mately fifty  German  submarines  are  reported  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  depth-bombs  during  the  last  year  of  the  World  War. 

From  what  precedes  it  may  be  concluded  that  while  the  sub- 
marine is  probably  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  future 
wars,  it  will  be  a  part  lacking  much  of  the  stealthiness  and  mys- 
tery which  characterized  its  operations  in  the  early  months  of 
the  recent  war.  To  a  large  extent,  its  fangs  are  drawn.  It  re- 
mains a  serious  danger,  but  a  danger  which  does  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  other  dangers  with  which  modern  naval  warfare 
abounds. 

Naval  Auxiliaries. — Space  does  not  permit  a  description  of 
these,  nor  is  such  description  necessary.  But  no  list  of  types 
would  be  complete  which  did  not  recognize  their  importance  and 
the  highly  specialized  characteristics  which  they  have  taken  on  in 
recent  years.  It  is  no  longer  felt  that  the  upkeep  of  the  fleet  can 
be  left  to  the  chance  of  finding  merchant  ships  which  at  need 
can  be  utilized  to  carry  fuel,  ammunition,  provisions,  etc.,  for 
fifty  or  a  hundred  men-of-war  of  various  types  acting  in  distant 
waters,  whether  in  peace  or  war. 

Cruising  Ships. — The  desirability — indeed  the  necessity — of 
keeping  the  fighting  fleet  together,  to  be  constantly  in  training  for 
operations  as  a  unit,  makes  it  necessary  for  Governments  having 
interests  in  distant  quarters  of  the  world  to  maintain  a  certain 
number  of  ships  for  independent  service  in  foreign  waters.  As 
a  rule,  the  ships  employed  in  this  service  are  unarmored  cruisers 
or  gunboats  of  moderate  size,  preferably  armed  with  many  guns 
of  medium  and  small  caliber,  and  carrying  crews  large  enough  to 
permit  the  landing,  in  case  of  necessity,  of  an  effective  force 
of  men. 

Coast  Defense  Ships.— For  the  "Second  Line  of  Defense" 
reliance  is  placed  upon  battleships  and  destroyers  a  little  out  of 
date  for  the  "First  Line"  (the  fleet),  associated  with  such  other 


12  THE    SHIP. 

craft,  usually  rather  heterogeneous  in  character,  as  may  be  avail- 
able. Mine-layers  are  likely  to  develop  into  a  definite  and  useful 
type  as  a  rr-ult  of  the  experience  gained  during  the  World  War; 
and  air-craft,  operating  far  to  seaward  from  a  land  base,  or  from 
a  new  type  of  ship — the  "  Sea-plane  Carrier" — of  good  size, 
high  speed  and  ample  deck  space,  equipped  with  elaborate  facili- 
ties for  the  stowage,  handling,  launching  and  landing  of  air-craft, 
will  be  a  feature  of  all  future  defensive  operations.  Small,  light, 
fast  craft  of  the  general  type  known  during  the  recent  war  as 
"submarine  chasers"  will  patrol  the  coast,  and,  in  connection 
with  destroyers,  convoy  merchant  vessels  through  regions  where 
submarine  activities  are  to  be  feared. 

Although  the  Monitor  type  of  coast  defense  ship  is  nearly 
obsolete,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  here,  if  only  because  of  its 
relation  to  the  Dreadnought  of  today.  The  Dreadnought  is,  in 
fact,  the  logical  outgrowth  of  the  American  Monitor  of  1862.  In 
the  original  Monitor  we  have  a  typical  "  all-big-gun  "  ship,  with 
all  (both)  of  its  guns  of  the  heaviest  caliber  known  at  that  day, 
and  all  (both)  of  these  guns  carried  in  a  revolving  turret  behind 
heavy  armor.  The  hull,  too,  was  protected  as  completley  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  ship  was  maneuvered  from  an  armored  conning 
tower.  From  the  Monitor  to  the  Super-Dreadnought  the  road  is 
long,  but  direct;  or,  if  the  road  has  sometimes  deviated  from  a 
straight  line,  it  has  been  only  to  come  back  to  the  line  marked  out 
by  Ericsson. 

Merchant  Steamers  (Plate  5)  are  of  many  types,  varying  in 
their  characteristics  even  more  widely  than  men-of-war.  They 
may  be  broadly  divided  into  freight  carriers  and  passenger 
carriers,  although  most  passenger  carriers  carry  freight  also.  In 
time  of  war  they  may  carry  guns,  usually  for  defensive  purposes 
only.  They  are  never  armored.  While  a  first-class  passenger 
steamer  will  cross  the  ocean  at  a  speed  of  from  20  to  25  knots, 
the  average  "Tramp"  makes  from  8  to  n  knots  only;  economy 
of  fuel  and  personnel  being  of  the  first  importance  to  such  ships. 
The  interior  arrangements  and  the  division  of  space  are  deter- 
mined by  the  necessities  of  the  service ;  the  handling  and  storage 
of  cargo  being  among  the  vital  factors  considered.  In  steamers 
carrying  passengers,  modefn  laws  require  that  great  attention  be 
given  to  boats  and  other  life-saving  apparatus. 

In  merchant  ships,  as  in  men-of-war,  water-tight  subdivision 


Plate  No.    5. 


A  MERCHANT  STEAMER.     (TRANSPORT). 


A   SAILING   SHIP. 


!4  THE   SHIP. 

and  integrity  are  vitally  important.  As  merchant  ships  habitu- 
ally, though  not  invariably,  lie  at  a  dock  when  in  port,  while  men- 
of-war  commonly  ride  at  anchor,  the  sides  of  merchant  ships  are 
clearer  of  projecting  obstructions  than  those  of  men-of-war,  the 
guns  of  the  latter  alone  often  proving  an  embarrassment  in  going 
alongside  a  dock  or  another  vessel. 

Sailing  Ships  (Plate  5),  which  a  few  years  ago  seemed  likely 
to  disappear  from  the  seas,  are  increasing  in  number,  and  appear 
to  be  entering  upon  a  new,  though  limited,  career  of  usefulness 
in  the  transportation  of  non-perishable  cargoes.  They  are  often 
equipped  with  engine  power  sufficient  to  drive  them  at  a  moderate 
speed  when  the  wind  fails. 

Naval  Aviation  is  yet  in  its  infancy  and  no  one  can  say  what 
lines  of  technical  development  it  is  to  follow.  Whatever  these 
lines  may  prove  to  be,  the  resulting  machines  must  be  small,  com- 
pact and  strong,  capable  of  being  assembled  and  disassembled 
simply  and  quickly.  They  must  stow  in  a  small  space,  must  be 
easily  handled  for  launching  and  hoisting  in,  even  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  of  weather,  and  must  be  fitted  to  withstand  the 
severe  strains  incident  to  landing  on  rough  water  and  riding  out 
a  gale  if  necessary.  These  requirements  are  radically  different 
from  those  involved  in  the  design  of  land  planes  and  far  more 
difficult  of  realization.  They  account  fully  for  the  backwardness 
of  naval,  as  compared  with  military  and  commercial  aviation. 

The  principal  fields  of  Naval  Aviation  are  Scouting,  Bombing, 
and  Spotting  (Fire  Control). 

In  Scouting,  sea-planes,  sent  out  either  from  individual  fighting 
ships  or  from  specially  designed  "Sea-Plane  Carriers"  accom- 
panying the  fleet,  will  cover  a  wide  area  of  vision,  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  commander-in-chief  by  wireless  telephone,  and 
giving  notice  of  the  appearance  and  the  movements  of  an  enemy 
force  many  hours  before  contact  can  be  made  in  any  other  way. 
Attacks  by  bombing  will  be  directed  not  only  against  capital  ships, 
but  aganist  destroyers  and  submarines.  Planes  of  special  types 
will  carry  torpedoes  to  be  launched  at  high  speed  and  from  con- 
siderable elevation.  Finally,  spotting  by  air-planes  or  by  captive 
balloons  will  make  it  possible  to  direct  the  fire  of  the  heavy  guns 
against  targets  far  beyond  the  ship's  horizon. 


d5) 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  hull  of  a  modern  ship  are  named 
below,  and  the  locations  of  many  of  them  are  shown  on  Plates 
6,  7,  8.  These  are  views  of  the  midship  section,  bow  and  stern 
of  a  battleship. 

The  Keel  in  a  large  ship  is  usually  composed  of  the  outer  keel, 
the  inner  keel,  the  vertical  keel,  and  the  middle  strake  of  the  inner 
bottom  plating,  called  the  keelson,  with  their  accompanying  angle 
bars.  In  some  merchant  ships  a  vertical  outside  keel,  or  bar  keel, 
is  fitted.  At  its  forward  end  the  keel  joins  the  stem,  which  is  of 
great  strength,  and  at  its  after  end  joins  the  stern-post,  also  very 
strong  and  arranged  to  carry  the  propellers  and  rudder. 

To  the  keel  are  attached  the  frames,  built  up  of  main  frame 
bars,  floor-plates,  and  reverse-frame  bars,  all  of  which  are 
strengthened  and  stiffened  by  longitudinals  of  various  types.  To 
the  framing,  the  outside  or  shell  plating  is  secured,  the  garboard 
strokes  being  adjacent  to  the  keel  plates  and  the  sheer  strokes 
being  adjacent  to  main  or  upper  deck  beams. 

An  inner  bottom  is  fitted  on  all  large  ships ;  this  extends  up  the 
ship's  side  to  the  armor  shelf  on  armored  ships,  and  to  the  margin 
plates  on  other  vessels. 

It  is  subdivided  into  small  compartments  by  water-tight  floors 
and  longitudinals,  so  that  leakage  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  if  the 
ship  touches  bottom.  The  frames  near  the  bow  and  stern  are 
sometimes  spaced  more  closely  than  elsewhere  to  provide  local 
strength,  and  breast  hooks,  panting  stringers,  transom  plates  and 
counters  are  fitted  for  like  reasons. 

Bulkheads  are  used  to  vertically  subdivide  the  ship's  interior 
into  water-tight  compartments  for  the  preservation  of  buoyancy 
and  stability ;  oil-tight  bulkheads  are  fitted  to  form  the  necessary 
fuel  oil  tanks,  and  non-water-tight  bulkheads  are  fitted  to  provide 
stowage  and  living  spaces  where  water-tightness  is  not  essential. 

Decks  are  used  primarily  to  provide  shelter,  working  ^spaces 
and  living  quarters ;  and  secondarily  to  horizontally  subdivide  the 


i6 


Plate  No.    6. 


—  Lightening  Holes 


Decking 
over  Steel  Deck 


-Deck 

Stanchion 
-Deck 

Plating 
.-Deck 

Beams 


Armored  Deck 

Covered  with 

Linoleum 


Armor  Belt 
(Tapered) 


Center  line 
or  Long. 
Bulkhead 


a-lnner  Strokes 
b-  Outer  Strokes 
Armor  Sheff— . 


Stringer  or 
Tie  Plate 

Flat 
Keelson 


Longmjdinal---- 
Reverse  Frame  -  -  - 
Lightening 

Angle  Clip- 


p*~  Longitudinal 

Mctin  Frame 
Coql  Bunkejr 


MIDSHIP  SECTION  OF  A  BATTLESHIP 


Plate  No.   7. 


Warping 

afock 


Wood  T)eck  Plank — • 
Deck  Plating ... 


Deck  Beam- 


-fr  B 


(Rabbet 
\  ftr  Side 

\Armor 

i\  and 
Plating. 


T^evnhardtr 


Bow  OF  A    BATTLESHIP., 


i8 


Plate  No.   8. 


THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP.  19 

hull  into  a  still  greater  number  of  water-tight  compartments. 
Those  used  for  the  latter  purpose  are  of  steel,  and  may  or  may 
not  be  covered  with  planking  or  linoleum.  Other  decks  may  be 
planked  and  calked  only ;  but  in  this  case,  deck  stringer  plates  and 
tie-plates  are  used  to  stiffen  the  deck  beams.  Deck  beams  are 
supported  by  stanchions,  giving  the  decks  support  additional  to 
that  afforded  by  the  bulkheads,  and  are  fastened  to  the  frames  by 
means  of  beam  arms  or  beam  knees.  In  addition  to  providing 
subdivision,  decks  are  absolutely  necessary  to  ensure  the  ship's 
structural  strength,  both  longitudinally  and  transversely.  (For 
Nomenclature  of  Decks,  see  Appendix.) 

To  .secure  accessibility  to  all  parts  of  the  ship,  numerous 
hatches,  doors,  scuttles  and  manholes  are  provided;  these  are 
water-tight  where  necessary,  and  those  on  the  upper  decks  are 
always  fitted  for  battening  down  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water 
to  the  interior  of  the  ship  in  the  event  of  the  decks  being  swept 
by  heavy  seas. 

Fighting  Ships  are  provided  with  protective  decks  of  steel  to 
protect  the  propelling  machinery  and  other  objects  below  the 
water-line ;  and  even  on  gunboats  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
a  steel  water-tight  deck,  which  assists  in  preventing  loss  of 
stability  if  the  outside  plating  should  be  penetrated  near  the 
water  line. 

Ventilation  is  provided  to  secure  a  circulation  of  air  within 
the  hull's  interior  and  to  replace  foul  air  by  fresh  air  taken  from 
the  outside  atmosphere.  Natural  ventilation  is  provided  by  cowls 
and  windsails,  which,  when  trimmed  to  the  wind,  send  fresh  air 
below  to  replace  foul  air  which  is  forced  outboard  through 
hatches,  air-ports,  etc.,  or  through  exhaust  cowls  which  are 
trimmed  from  the  wind  to  increase  the  rapidity  of  air  circulation. 
Artificial  ventilation  is  provided  by  steam  or  electric  blowers, 
which  drive  fresh  air  from  outboard  and  discharge  it  through 
ducts  and  louvres  into  the  ship's  interior;  or  which  draw  foul 
air  from  the  interior  and  discharge  it  outboard.  In  large  ships, 
both  of  these  artificial  systems  are  frequently  combined ;  one  set 
of  blowers  supplying  fresh  air,  and  another  set  exhausting  foul 
air.  In  all  ships,  natural  ventilation  is  extensively  provided,  and 
careful  attention  to  apparently  small  details  is  necessary  to  secure 
efficient  circulation. 

In  modern  ships  the  ventilation  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a 


2O  THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP. 

large  number  of  independent  systems  so  distributed  that  water- 
tight bulkheads  are  seldom  pierced  by  the  piping. 

Earlier  ventilation  systems  provided  cold  air  only.  Later  ships 
are  equipped  with  combined  heating  and  ventilating  systems  for 
living  spaces. 

Coal  Bunkers  must  be  ventilated  on  account  of  the  gases 
formed  in  them,  which,  when  mixed  with  air,  may  cause  an  ex- 
plosion. Exhaust  piping  is  led  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
bunkers  to  the  smoke-pipe  uptakes,  and  fresh  air  is  supplied  from 
the  boiler  rooms.  In  some  cases  a  small  exhaust  pipe  from  each 
bunker  is  led  to  the  vicinity  of  the  bridge.  Smoke  escaping  from 
such  a  pipe  would  give  warning  of  fire  in  the  bunker. 

Drainage.  To  provide  for  the  removal  of  large  quantities  of 
water  from  the  bilges,  the  main  circulating  pumps  are  provided 
with  bilge  suctions  and  are  also  usually  connected  with  a  main 
drain  pipe  of  large  size  which  generally  extends  from  the  forward 
fire-room  bulkhead  to  the  after  engine-room  bulkhead,  with  suit- 
able valves  permitting  the  inlet  of  water  from  any  main  compart- 
ment which  is  to  be  drained.  In  recent  battleships,  the  boiler 
rooms  have  independent  motor-driven  pumps  with  independent 
outboard  discharges.  The  pumps  are  of  the  centrifugal  type  and 
are  capable  of  operating  submerged,  as  the  motors  for  driving 
them  are  placed  on  a  higher  deck-level  than  the  pumps,  and  the 
valves  opening  into  the  sea-valves  can  also  be  operated  from  a 
higher  deck. 

There  is  also  a  secondary  drain  connected  to  numerous  pumps, 
which  enables  small  quantities  of  water  to  be  removed  from  any 
compartment  in  the  following  manner:  A  metal  chest  called  a 
manifold,  containing  a  number  of  suitable  valves,  is  located  in  a 
convenient  position.  One  of  these  valves  is  connected  by  piping 
to  an  adjacent  pump,  another  to  the  secondary  drain,  another  to 
the  sea,  and  each  one  of  the  remainder  to  some  particular  com- 
partment above  or  within  the  double  bottoms.  To  remove  water 
from  any  compartment  containing  water,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
open  the  valve  connecting  the  compartment  with  the  manifold, 
and  the  valve  connecting  the  manifold  with  a  convenient  pump, 
and  then  to  operate  the  pump. 

The  Firemain  usually  consists  of  a  lead-lined  steel  pipe  running 
fore  and  aft  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  ship,  and  placed,  on 


THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP.  21 

warships,  underneath  the  protective  deck.  It  is  connected  to  the 
fire  and  bilge  pumps  and  is  maintained  full  of  water  at  a  pressure 
of  one  hundred  pounds  per  square  inch.  Numerous  branches  are 
located  in  suitable  positions  on  the  various  decks,  to  which  are 
attached  hose  plugs  to  furnish  water  for  fire  and  wash-deck 
purposes.  On  recent  warships  the  various  upper  outlets  are  con- 
nected by  vertical  branches  or  risers  to  the  firemain  below  the 
protective  deck,  each  having  a  stop  valve  by  which  it  may  be  cut 
off  from  the  rest  of  the  systems ;  so  that  any  one  set  of  outlets  may 
be  disabled  without  disabling  the  others.  Fire  hose  ready  for 
instant  use  is  stowed  near  each  plug.  Branches  from  the  fire- 
main  are  frequently  led  into  the  coal  bunkers  for  use  in  ex- 
tinguishing fires  caused  by  spontaneous  combustion.  The  salt 
water  required  for  flushing  the  heads  and  lavatories  is  sometimes 
supplied  from  the  firemain  direct,  and  sometimes  by  a  separate 
system  of  flushing  pipes  which  are  filled  by  certain  special  steam 
and  hand  pumps. 

The  Sanitary  and  Flushing  System  provides  a  supply  of  salt 
water  for  use  in  toilets,  washrooms,  laundries,  galleys,  ash 
chutes,  sick  bay,  etc.  In  a  battleship,  the  flushing  main  is  about 
six  inches  in  diameter  and  is  carried  underneath  the  second  deck 
beams,  being  supplied  by  risers  from  the  sanitary  pump  and  cross- 
connected  to  the  fire  and  bilge  pumps.  Branches  as  required  lead 
to  the  various  compartments.  The  crew's  lavatories  on  recent 
large  battleships  are  often  flushed  by  an  independent  system  sup- 
plied by  motor-driven  pumps.1 

Fresh  Water  for  use  in  the  boilers  and  for  drinking  purposes  is 
carried  in  steel  tanks  which  can  be  filled  from  shore,  from  water 
boats,  or  from  the  ship's  own  distillers.  For  a  battleship  with  a 
crew  of  1,000  men,  the  capacity  of  the  evaporating  and  distilling 
plant  is  about  one  hundred  tons  of  fresh  water  every  twenty-four 
hours. 

Magazines  are  flooded  when  necessary  through  pipes  connected 
to  the  sea,  one  or  more  flood  cocks  being  provided  in  each  ammuni- 
tion room,  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  opened  from  the  handling 
space  and  also  from  an  upper  deck. 

Propellers  for  warships  (Plate  9),  are  generally  of  the  three- 

1  See  Appendix  for  "  Pumps  and  Their  Uses." 


22 


Plate  No.   9. 


THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP.  33 

bladed  type,  while  for  merchant  ships,  four  blades  are  generally 
used.  The  three-bladed  propeller  is  lighter  and  of  higher  effi- 
ciency, but  many  engineers  prefer  the  four-bladed  propeller  on 
account  of  the  reduced  tendency  to  vibration  in  rough  water. 
Propellers  for  high  speed  turbine  installations  are  characterized 
by  their  small  diameter.  Propellers  are  now  ordinarily  made  of 
manganese  bronze,  as  more  strength  and  a  much  better  surface 
can  be  obtained  with  this  material  than  with  cast-iron  or  cast  steel. 
When  bronze  propellers  are  used,  however,  it  is  generally  neces- 
sary that  zincs  be  fitted  to  the  ship's  hull  in  their  vicinity  to  pre- 
vent galvanic  action  upon  the  steel  of  the  hull. 

The  Propeller  Struts  are  used  for  supporting  the  propeller  and 
tail-shaft  outside  the  hull,  and  in  recent  ships  are  of  pear-shaped 
or  oval  section  to  diminish  the  resistance  to  their  passage  through 
the  water.  In  addition  to  having  this  shape  of  section,  the  longi- 
tudinal axes  of  the  strut-arms  are  placed  in  the  path  of  the 
stream-lines  at  the  stern  of  the  ship,  to  still  further  decrease  their 
resistance.  » 

Steering  Gear.  The  rudder  of  a  warship  (Plates  9  and  10)  is 
unusually  large  and  the  steering  gear  unusually  strong,  in  order 
that  such  a  vessel  may  be  under  more  perfect  control  than  is  con- 
sidered necessary  in  merhantmen.  The  rudder-stock  is  made  of 
special  forged  steel,  its  size  depending  upon  the  speed  and  size 
of  the  ship  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  necessary  to  put  the 
helm  hard  over  when  the  ship  is  at  her  maximum  speed.  The 
rudder-frame  is  usually  of  cast  steel,  which  is  filled  in  with  wood 
and  covered  with  steel  plating.  On  most  ships,  the  weight  of  the 
rudder  is  taken  on  a  suitable  carrier  within  the  ship,  firmly  sup- 
ported by  the  hull  structure  and  so  arranged  that  the  stuffing  box 
and  gland  attached  to  the  rudder-post  casting  may  be  accessible. 
(Plate  9.) 

The  rudder  is  attached  to  the  stern-post  by  "pintles"  and 
"  gudgeons  "  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  unshipped  in  drydock. 
The  pintles  are  forged  pins  on  the  forward  edge  of  the  rudder. 
The  gudgeons  are  the  lugs  on  the  after  side  of  the  stern-post  into 
which  the  pintles  are  engaged. 

Rudders  may  be  either  balanced  or  unbalanced,  the  balanced 
type  being  used  principally  on  men-of-war,  the  unbalanced  on 
merchant  vessels.  When  a  balanced  rudder  is  put  over,  the  water 


Plate  No.    10. 


Spaces  around  bolts  connecting 
rudder  stock  to  frame  to  be 
packed  with  fallow. 


-Stock 


^  Cover  Plate 

FIG.  i.    RUDDER  OF  A  BATTLESHIP. 


UNSHIPPING 
OF  RUDDER 

1.  Remove  casing 
around  space 
between  p!ntle9 
and  turn  hard 
over. 

2.  Remove  filling, 
loclc ing  plates,  8e 
lifting  eye  from 
lower  pintle. 

\Drivedown  upper 
pintle  (thru  hole 
in  stock)  and  sup* 
port  same  by 
blocking  when- 
attaching  sling 
for  removal. 
^.Reinsert  lifting 
eye  in  lower  pin* 

upper  and  lower      tie,  remove  cover 
pintles  to  be  filled     plate,  and  drive 
with  spruce  and      up  lower  pintle  ' 
interstices  poured      thru  tube  prov/'d* 
full  of  tallow.          "d  for  this  pur* 
pose.      When 
raised  about  9* 
remove  eye  bolt, 
and  raise  and 
remove  by  sling 
fitted  around 
exposed  part  of 
pintle. 

^.Block  up  rudder, 
and  remove  up» 
per  bearing  and 
stuffing  box  on 
sternfrarpe  offer 
dismounting  cross* 
head,  etc* 
6.  Swing  rudder  aft 
as  tar  as  possible 
and  lower  at  the 


W.  T.  Armored  Hatch  Cover 

(5 


Ring  for  Lift  ing  Tack/e 


Bearing  Ring.^\^-' 

\ 

Act/osteble  Glanc/-..?- 
Stuffing-Box  Casting^.. 

Rue/c/er  Stock- — ~ 


-  —  Connecting  Rod 
—  Bushing 
~—  Cast/ng 
/--/%?/ 'form  or  F/at. 


— Packing  Space 
—  Outer  6 fan  of 

~  ~  Shrunken  Jacket 

•Cast  Steel 


FIG.  2.    SECTION  THROUGH  RUDDER  STOCK. 


THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP.  25 

pressure  on  the  part  forward  of  the  rudder-post  acts  with  the 
tiller  and  greatly  reduces  the  power  required  to  put  it  over  and  to 
hold  it  in  position.  (Plates  9,  10.) 

To  the  rudder  head,  the  rudder  cross-head  or  the  tiller  is  firmly 
secured.  Sometimes  both  are  fitted. 

It  frequently  occurs  that  the  run  of  the  ship  is  so  fine  that  it  is 
necessary  to  fit  a  secondary  cross-head  placed  further  forward,  in 
order  to  provide  space  for  the  steering  gear  and  its  connections, 
the  two  cross-heads  being  connected  by  suitable  rods.  It  is  not 
uncommon,  where  space  permits,  to  use  a  straight  tiller  or  quad- 
rant which  is  connected  to  the  steering  mechanism  by  chain  or 
wire  rope.  The  rudder  is  thus  turned  through  an  angle  of  about 
35  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  centre  line,  hard-over  stops  being 
fitted  to  the  rudder  post  and  the  rudder  frame  to  limit  the  amount 
of  travel  should  accidents  occur  to  the  steering  mechanism.  The 
motive  power  is  usually  steam,  hydraulic  or  electric,  hand  power 
being  always  provided  for  use  in  cases  of  complete  breakdown. 

Where  a  rudder  cross-head  is  used  (Plate  11),  the  engine 
turns  a  shaft  having  a  right  and  left-handed  thread  which  drives 
two  nuts  connected  to  the  cross-head  by  side  rods.  By  turning 
the  engine  in  one  direction  the  nuts  recede  from  each  other  and 
the  cross-head  turns  in  one  direction,  and  by  turning  the  engine 
in  the  reverse  direction,  the  nuts  approach  each  other  and  the 
cross-head  is  turned  in  the  reverse  direction.  When  hydraulic 
power  is  used,  the  side  rod  from  each  side  of  the  cross-head  con- 
nects with  a  suitably  guided  piston  rod,  having  a  piston  within  a 
cylinder,  each  end  of  which  permits  the  entrance  of  water  at  high 
pressure,  and  also  its  exhaust.  By  admitting  water  at  the  for- 
ward end  of  one  cylinder  and  the  after  end  of  the  other  while  at 
the  same  time  opening  the  exhausts  at  the  opposite  ends,  the 
cross-head  is  turned  in  one  direction,  and  will  be  turned  in  the 
opposite  direction  by  reversing  the  operation. 

With  quadrants  and  tillers,  the  chain  or  wire  rope  is  wound 
around  a  drum  which  can  be  turned  in  either  direction,  suitable 
provisions  being  made  to  prevent  any  slack  occurring. 

The  hand  gear  consists  of  steering  wheels  of  large  size  located 
in  various  parts  of  the  ship,  which  by  shafting,  chain,  or  wire- 
rope,  operate  the  rudder  in  the  manner  shown  on  the  plans. 

Arrangements  are  provided  for  shifting  quickly  from  power 
to  hand  gear,  and  from  hand  to  power. 


26 


Plate  No.    11 


Plate  No.    12. 


28  THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP. 

Steering  wheels  are  usually  provided  in  the  conning-tower,  in 
the  "  Central  Station,"  and  on  the  bridge ;  and  where  practicable 
arc  arranged  with  clutches  so  that  any  one  wheel  can  be  turned 
without  turning  the  others.  From  the  conning-tower  stand,  a 
steel  rod  extends  downwards  through  the  armored  tube  and  below 
the  protective  deck,  where  it  rotates  a  transmission  drum,  which 
in  turn  rotates  a  second  drum  located  in  the  steering  room,  the 
two  being  connected  by  the  steering  rope.  The  valve  controlling 
the  admission  and  exhaust  of  steam  or  water  is  automatically 
operated  by  the  transmission  drum  so  that  the  rudder  is  turned 
whenever  the  helmsman  turns  the  power  steering  wheel,  and  re- 
mains stationary  at  any  angle  when  the  wheel  is  kept  stationary 
at  the  corresponding  position,  the  helm  indicator  showing  at  each 
instant  the  actual  position  of  the  helm.  Various  electric  and 
hydraulic  appliances  are  also  used  to  accomplish  these  same 
purposes. 

The  application  of  electricity  has  passed  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage,  and  in  recent  ships  the  steam  steering  engine  is 
replaced  by  an  electric  motor.  In  the  very  latest  dreadnaughts, 
the  power  used  for  steering  is  electro-hydraulic, 

ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC  STEERING  GEAR. 

The  electro-hydraulic  steering  gear  which  is  being  installed 
on  the  latest  vessels  consists  essentially  of  a  hydraulic  steering 
gear  of  the  usual  type  which  takes  its  supply  of  operating  fluid 
from  a  variable  stroke  pump  connected  to  a  continuously  run- 
ning electric  motor,  instead  of  taking  its  supply  from  a  constant 
pressure  source,  such  as  the  ship's  hydraulic  mains  or  an  ac- 
cumulator supplied  by  steam  pumps. 

Plate  12  shows  the  principles  of  operation.  Two  hydraulic 
plungers  p  and  P'  have  connecting  rods  to  the  rudder  cross-head 
and  operate  in  double  opposed  hydraulic  cylinders  A,  B,  c,  and  D. 
The  cylinders  are  connected  by  piping  to  a  variable  stroke  pump, 
s,  operated  by  a  continuously  running  electric  motor  M.  It 
is  seen  that  if  the  operating  fluid  (oil)  is  pumped  out  of  cylinders 
A  and  D  and  into  cylinders  B  and  c  the  rudder  will  be  moved  to 
starboard ;  and  correspondingly  if  pumped  from  cylinders  B  and 
c  into  A  and  D  the  rudder  will  move  to  port. 

The  pump  s,  is  the  pump  end  of  a  Waterbury  Hydraulic 
Speed  Gear,  which  has  been  used  on  all  late  vessels  .for  turret 


THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP.  2Q 

turning  and  gun  elevating.  The  amount  of  oil  pumped  and  the 
direction  of  its  flow  is  controlled  by  a  control  shaft  E.  When 
the  control  shaft  is  in  its  neutral  position  no  fluid  is  pumped, 
when  it  is  turned  in  either  direction  from  neutral  the  flow  is 
in  a  corresponding  direction,  and  the  amount  of  oil  pumped 
is  proportional  to  the  amount  the  control  shaft  is  moved  from 
neutral.  Thus  the  control  shaft  performs  all  the  functions  of 
the  reversing  valve  ordinarily  used  on  hydraulic  steering  gears, 
and  by  turning  it  the  rudder  is  moved.  The  speed  of  the  rudder 
is  proportional  to  the  amount  the  control  shaft  is  moved  from 
its  neutral  position,  and  when  the  control  shaft  is  at  neutral  the 
rudder  is  held  stationary.  The  control  shaft  is  connected  through 
a  follow-up  mechanism  (not  shown  in  sketch)  to  a  trick  wheel 
and  also  to  some  part  which  moves  with  the  rudder,  so  that  the 
rudder  follows  the  movement  of  the  trick  wheel.  Connection 
between  the  steering  wheel  on  the  bridge  and  the  trick  wheel 
(actually  the  trick  wheel  shaft)  can  be  made  by  any  desired 
method,  such  as :  wire  rope  transmission,  hydraulic  telemotor, 
or  electric  pilot  motor  and  controller.  If  either  of  the  first  two 
methods  is  used  there  is  an  actual  steering  wheel  on  the  bridge 
with  follow-up  control  between  it  and  the  rudder.  If  the  electric 
pilot  motor  is  used  its  controller  is  placed  on  the  bridge  and 
non- follow-up  control  is  obtained  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
present  straight  electric  steering  gears. 

The  efficiency  of  the  hydraulic  cylinders  and  the  variable  stroke 
pump  is  very  high,  while  the  efficiency  of  the  right  and  left 
hand  screw  (usually  used  with  the  straight  electric  steering  gear) 
is  very  low.  Thus  the  amount  of  power  required  is  much  less 
with  the  electro-hydraulic  than  with  the  straight  electric  gear. 
Also  by  limiting  the  amount  that  the  control  shaft  may  be 
turned  when  the  rudder  is  nearly  at  the  hard-over  position  the 
maximum  peak  of  the  power  required  during  the  cycle  of  hard- 
over  to  hard-over  can  be  considerably  reduced.  The  combina- 
tion of  these  two  properties  results  in  a  very  much  less  demand 
on  the  ship's  electric  generators  when  the  electro-hydraulic  de- 
sign is  used. 

The  Steering  gear  for  the  most  recently  designed  Battleships 
and  Battle  Cruisers  of  the  United  States  Navy  (North  Carolina 
and  Lexington  Classes)  will  consist  of  hydraulic  rams  directly 
connected  to  the  rudder  and  operated  by  motor-driven  variable- 


3O  THE  HULL  AND  FITTINGS  OF  A  SHIP. 

stroke-pump  equipment,  essentially  like  the  gear  above  described. 

The  Telemotor  is  a  device  for  furnishing  a  connection  between 
the  steering  engine  and  the  steering  wheel,  such  that  the  wheel 
shall  not  only  control  the  engine  but  indicate  at  all  times  the  posi- 
tion of  the  rudder.  In  vessels  of  early  design  this  connection  was 
made  by  wires,  chains,  or  shafting,  with  a  complicated  lead  which 
involved  many  joints  and  turns.  In  the  telemotor,  the  connection 
is  sometimes  electrical  but  more  often  hydraulic. 

In  some  ships  the  Telemotor  System  is  doubled  throughout  so 
that  in  case  one  line  of  piping  is  out  of  commission  the  other  may 
be  used. 

The  hydraulic  telemotor  used  in  battleships  of  recent  design  is 
shown  on  Plate  13. 

Fig.  i  shows  the  vertical  section  of  a  pump,  A,  fitted  with  the  usual 
piston,  B,  which  is  moved  up  and  down  by  a  rack,  C,  into  which  gears  a 
pinion,  D,  the  shaft  of  which  is  made  to  revolve  by  the  wheel,  F,  the  pinion, 
G,  and  the  hand-steering  wheel.  The  cylinder  A,  when  the  piston  is  where 
shown  on  the  drawing,  i.e.,  in  mid-position,  admits  of  a  free  passage  of 
water  above  and  below  the  piston,  so  that  there  are  two  cylinders,  the 
upper  one  and  the  lower  one. 

From  the  by-pass  valve,  S,  which  is  connected  to  the  top  of  cylinder  by 
pipe  H,  and  directly  to  the  lower  cylinder,  two  pipes,  H  and  I,  Fig.  i,  pass 
and  join  up  to  a  cylinder  K,  Fig.  3.  These  pipes  correspond  to  pipes  M 
and  L,  Fig.  3.  The  cylinder  K  is  fitted  with  a  piston  N  and  with  the  usual 
piston  rod  and  connecting  link  O,  which  is  attached  by  a  lever  to  the 
follow-up  mechanism  of  the  steering  engine.  The  piston  rod  has  cross- 
heads  P  and  P,  between  which  are  two  spiral  springs  Q  and  Q,  the  object 
being  to  cause  the  piston  end  to  fly  into  mid  gear,  unless  put  out  of  that 
position  by  pressure  of  water  on  either  side. 

As  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  on  the  bridge  is  in  every  respect  the 
same  as  that  aft,  it  follows  that  when  the  apparatus  is  fully  charged  with 
fluid,  any  movement  of  the  steering  wheel  will  bring  about  a  similar  move- 
ment1 of  the  aft  motor-piston  and  the  valve  gear  of  the  steering  engine. 
Inputting  the  wheel  over,  it  will  be  felt  to  become  sensibly  stiffer  until 
it  is  hard  over,  and  on  letting  it  go  it  will  run  back  of  its  own  accord 
amidships. 

The  telemotor  on  the  bridge  is  fitted  with  an  indicator  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
which  shows  the  actual  position  of  the  helm. 


Plate  No.    13. 


FIG. I 


FI6.3 


FIG.  2. 


TELEMOTOR. 


Plate  No.    14. 


FIG.  i.    THE    HEMP    PLANT. 


FIG.  2.    THE    ABACA    PLANT. 
(Manila    Fibre.) 


FIG.  3.    HEMP  FIBRE.  FIG.  4.     MANILA  FIBRE. 

ROPE  FIBRES. 


(33) 


CHAPTER   III. 

ROPE. 

§  I.    FIBRE  ROPE. 

The  rope  commonly  used  on  shipboard  is  of  three  kinds: 
Hemp,  tarred  and  untarred,  Manila  and  Wire.  Ropes  are  made 
also  of  flax  and  cotton,  but  these  are  not  suitable  for  use  at  sea. 

Full  particulars  as  to  rope  of  all  types  used  in  the  United  States  Navy 
are  given  in  tables  in  the  Appendix,  which  tables  should  be  consulted  in 
connection  with  this  Chapter. 

Much  confusion  results  from  the  common  practice  of  designat- 
ing all  ropes  made  from  vegetable  fibre,  as  "hemp."  This  mis- 
take is  almost  universally  made  by  other  than  sea-faring  people  in 
referring  to  manila,  which  is  sometimes  called  "  manila  hemp," 
but  oftener  simply  "hemp." 

Hemp  rope  is  made  of  fibres  from  the  stalk  of  the  hemp  plant, 
which  is  cultivated  extensively  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  but 
especially  in  Italy,  Russia  and  the  United  States.  American  hemp 
is  very  generally  used  for  cordage  in  the  United  States. 

Manila  rope  is  made  from  the  fibre  of  the  "  abaca,"  or  wild 
banana,  and  comes  principally  from  the  Philippine  Archipelago. 
As  has  been  noted  above,  it  is  commonly  designated  as  "  Manila 
hemp."  It  has  to  a  great  extent  displaced  the  true  hemp  for  gen- 
eral purposes,  especially  on  shipboard. 

How  wide  is  the  difference  between  Manila  fibre  and  true 
Hemp  is  indicated  on  Plate  14,  where  both  the  plants  and  the 
fibres  are  contrasted.  In  spite  of  this  difference  and  of  all  that 
can  be  said  in  favor  of  a  more  correct  nomenclature,  Manila  rope 
will  doubtless  continue  to  be  called  "  Manila  Hemp,"  but  it  is 
desirable  that  sea-faring  men  should  know  the  difference,  even 
though  they  may  find  it  convenient  to  fall  in  with  the  commercial 
practice  of  ignoring  the  distinction. 

Rope  is  sometimes  made  of  Coir  ("Kyar"),  the  fibre  of 
cocoanut  husks.  This  rope  is  light  and  permanently  buoyant; 
that  is  to  say,  it  does  not  become  water-logged.  It  is  thus  well 
suited  for  running  lines  over  water,  and  while  only  about  half  as 


34 


ROPE. 


strong  as  Manila,  is  strong  enough  for  hauling-lines  and  might 
well  be  supplied  to  ships  for  that  purpose,  in  sizes  of  three  inches 
or  thereabouts. 

In  the  manufacture  of  rope  from  the  original  fibres,  the  fibres 
are  twisted  into  yarns,  which,  in  turn  are  twisted  into  strands.  A 
number  of  strands  are  twisted  into  a  rope  and  sometimes  several 
ropes  are  twisted  into  a  cable.  Plate  15,  Fig.  3. 

The  fibres  of  the  hemp  or  manila  having  been  separated  by 
appropriate  mechanical  processes  from  the  woody  matter  with 
which  they  are  associated  in  the  plant,  are  inspected,  graded  as  to 
quality,  and  baled  for  shipment.  At  the  factory,  they  are  passed 
through  processes  of  carding  and  spinning  from  which  they 
emerge  as  long  yarns,  wound  on  bobbins.  The  yarns  are  twisted 
into  strands  and  the  strands  into  ropes,  by  machinery  of  the  gen- 
eral character  illustrated  in  Plate  16. 

The  individual  fibres  of  manila  have  a  tensile  strength  of 
approximately  30,000  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  Something  of  the 
strength  is  lost  by  the  twisting  processes  of  manufacture  but  the 
twisting  reduces  the  tendency  of  the  fibres  to  slip,  one  upon 
another,  and  in  this  way  adds  to  the  strength  of  the  rope  as  a 
whole.  It  adds  also  to  the  elasticity  of  the  rope,  giving  it,  in  fact, 
something  of  the  character  of  a  spiral  spring. 

To  counteract  the  tendency  to  unlay,  the  successive  twists  are 
taken  in  opposite  directions ;  yarns  being  usually  right-handed, 
strands  left-handed,  ropes  right-handed,  and  cables  left-handed. 
The  above  rule  may  be  reversed,  producing  "  left-handed "  or 
"  back-handed  "  rope. 

Rope  is  commonly  made  with  three  strands,  but  four  are  some- 
times used. 

Hemp  Rope  is  now  but  little  used.  When  used  it  is  almost 
invariably  tarred.  In  this  form  it  is  used  on  shipboard  for  such 
of  the  standing  rigging  as  is  not  of  wire  and  for  the  heaviest  of 
the  running  rigging  of  sailing  ships.  The  tar  preserves  the  rope 
from  deterioration  due  to  dampness  but  reduces  its  strength  and 
flexibility.  Untarred  hemp  is  the  strongest  rope  made  except 
wire. 

In  present  United  States  Naval  practice,  hemp  is  used  only  for 
"small  stuff " :— roundline,  houseline,  etc.,  all  rope  larger  than 
"24  thread  stuff"  (1%  inch  circumference)  being  made  of 
Manila. 


Plate  No.    15. 


35 


FIG.  i.     MANILA  FIBRE,  BALED. 


FIG.  2.    ROPE    IN    COIL. 


•••yarns 


Fibres-* 
FIG.  3.    MANILA   ROPE. 


FIG.  4.    CROSS  SECTION,  3-SiRAND  ROPE. 


MANILA  ROPE. 


Plate  No.    16. 


ROPE.  37 

g 

Both  the  manila  rope  and  hemp  rope  of  commerce  vary  greatly 
in  quality.  At  their  best,  both  should  show  a  smooth,  even  sur- 
face when  laid  up,  with  few  projecting  ends  of  the  fibres.  When 
unlaid,  the  strands  should  show  long  and  glossy,  without  admix- 
ture of  short  ends  or  "  tow." 

For  special  purposes,  rope  is  sometimes  plaited  instead  of  laid. 
This  does  away  with  the  tendency  to  kink. 

Fibre  Rope  is  designated  as  to  size  by  its  circumference,  and 
runs  from  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  to  sixteen  inches  and 
even  more ;  but  the  largest  sizes  are  never  seen  on  shipboard, 
twelve  inches  in  manila  and  seven  inches  in  wire  being  about 
the  maximum  that  even  the  largest  ship  would  carry.  The  length 
is  measured  in  fathoms  of  six  feet  each.  For  shipment  it  is  made 
up  in  coils.  (Plate  15.) 

Small  cordage  is  usually  known  on  shipboard  as  "  small-stuff," 
and  designated  either  by  the  number  of  threads  that  it  contains, 
as  "i8-thread  stuff,"  "  15-thread  stuff,"  etc. :— or  as  "Ratline 
stuff,"  "  Seizing  stuff,"  "  Marline,"  "  Spun-yarn,"  etc.  These  are 
usually  of  American  hemp,  tarred,  and  are  measured  in  some 
cases  by  the  fathom,  in  other  cases  by  the  pound. 

The  following  are  the  most  common  varieties  of  small-stuff 
used  on  shipboard. 

Spun-yarn.  A  rough  and  comparatively  cheap  stuff  made 
from  long  tow  and  loosely  laid  up,  left-handed,  of  two,  three  or 
four  strands.  It  is  more  used  on  shipboard  than  any  other 
variety  of  small-stuff,  being  convenient  for  seizings,  service,  etc., 
where  great  neatness  is  not  required. 

Houseline,  Roundline  and  Marline  are  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  spun-yarn,  but  make  neater  work,  being  laid  up  more 
smoothly  and  of  better  material. 

Marline  is  2-stranded  left-handed,  Houseline  3-stranded  left- 
handed,  and  Roundline  3:  stranded  right-handed.  All  of  the 
above  are  used  for  seizings,  but  where  a  heavier  and  stronger 
material  is  needed,  a  higher  grade  of  stuff  is  used,  laid  up  by  rope- 
making  machinery  and  finished  like  the  larger  sizes  of  rope, 
although  classed  as  small-stuff.  This  is  called  Seizing  Stuff.  It 
is  usually  3-stranded,  right-handed,  and  may  have  2,  3  or  4 
threads  to  the  strand,  making  6-thread,  Q-thread  or  12-thread 
seizing  stuff. 

Ratline  Stuff  does  not  differ  from  seizing  stuff  in  its  general 


38  ROPE. 

characteristics,  but  is  larger.  It  is  3-stranded,  right-handed,  and 
may  have  4,  5,  6,  7  or  8  threads  to  the  strand,  making  "  12- 
thread,"  "  15-thread,"  "  i8-thread"  Ratline  Stuff,  and  so  on. 

Rope-yarns  are  used  for  many  purposes  on  board  ship,  and  a 
good  supply  of  them  should  always  be  on  hand.  They  are  made 
by  unlaying  condemned  hemp  cordage,  tarred. 

Two  yarns  twisted  up  together  by  hand,  or  single  yarns  twisted 
up  against  their  natural  lay  and  rubbed  smooth,  are  called 
"  foxes  "  and  are  often  used  for  light  seizings,  being  much  neater 
than  spun  yarn.  (For  further  details  as  to  Cordage,  see  Ap- 
pendix.) 

Rope  tends  to  contract  when  wet,  and  unless  allowed  to  do  so 
freely  may  be  injuriously  strained.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
running  gear  is  slacked  in  damp  weather.  On  the  other  hand, 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  this  tendency  for  tautening  lashings, 
etc.,  by  wetting  the  rope. 

As  rope  deteriorates  rapidly  from  continued  dampness,  it 
should  never  be  stowed  away  unless  perfectly  dry.  This  caution 
is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  hawsers,  which  are  rarely 
used  without  being  wet.  It  is  a  reason  also  for  the  rule  that 
hemp  and  manila  should  not  be  covered  except  when  absolutely 
necessary,  as  the  covering  not  only  holds  the  moisture  but  pre- 
vents the  deterioration  from  being  seen. 

Unlike  the  metals  and  other  similar  substances,  rope  made  of 
vegetable  fibre  has  not  a  permanent  elastic  limit  within  which  it 
may  be  worked  indefinitely  without  injury.  Owing  to  the  tend- 
ency of  the  fibres  to  slip  one  upon  another  in  spite  of  the  twist, 
the  rope  gradually  loses  its  cohesion  under  repetition  of  very 
moderate  tensions,  and  may  be  seriously  weakened  by  constant 
working,  without  ever  having  been  subjected  to  anything  ap- 
proaching a  breaking  stress ;  while  if  subjected  even  once  to  a 
stress  approaching  that  of  breaking,  its  strength  is  permanently 
reduced  and  it  may  be  expected  to  give  way  under  a  very  moder- 
ate pull. 

While  the  thought  of  lubrication  is  not  usually  associated  with 
the  thought  of  hemp  or  manila  rope,  it  is  a  very  important  factor, 
making  for  preservation  as  against  both  excessive  dampness  and 
excessive  heat.  From  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the 
finished  rope  consists  of  oil,  which  is  sprayed  upon  the  fibres 
before  the  process  of  manufacture  begins. 


|PE-  39 

§  II.    WIRE  ROPE. 

Wire  rope  (Plate  17)  is  made  of  steel  or  iron  wires  laid  up  like 
yarns  to  form  strands,  which  strands  are  in  turn  laid  up  to  form 
a  rope.  The  characteristics  of  the  wire  and  the  manner  of 
making  it  up  vary  within  wide  limits  in  accordance  with  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  rope  is  intended.  Where  great  flexibility  is 
wanted,  as  in  the  case  of  rope  to  be  worked  over  pulleys,  this 
quality  is  secured  at  some  sacrifice  of  strength.  Such  rope  should 
not  be  galvanized  unless  it  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  or 
to  extreme  dampness.  Where  a  steady  stress  is  to  be  provided 
for,  as  in  the  case  of  standing  rigging,  the  tensile  strength  is  of 
maximum  importance;  and  in  this  particular  instance  (standing 
rigging),  galvanizing  is  essential  because  of  the  necessary  ex- 
posure to  weather.  The  number  of  strands  will  depend  upon  the 
purpose  for  which  the  rope  is  designed,  as  will  also  the  nature  of 
the  heart.  As  a  rule,  six  strands  are  used,  laid  up  around  a 
hempen  heart.  The  number  of  wires  to  a  strand  varies  widely 
but  the  two  most  commonly  used  types  consist  of  6  strands  of  19 
and  37  wires  to  the  strand.  In  both  of  these  types,  known  as 
the  "6x19"  and  the  "6x37"  types,  the  strands  have  wire 
hearts  and  the  rope  a  hemp  heart.  Approximately  75  per  cent, 
of  the  wire  rope  used  in  the  United  States  is  of  the  6x  19  type, 
this  being  considered  to  give  the  best  all-around  combination  of 
qualities  and  the  best  balance  of  strength  and  flexibility.  Where 
greater  flexibility  is  required,  the  6x37  type  should  be  selected, 
or  the  6x24;  or,  if  strength  is  not  important,  the  6x12.  Both 
the  6x24  and  the  6x  12  types  have  a  hemp  heart  for  each  strand 
as  well  as  for  the  rope.  (Figs.  I,  2,  3,  4,  Plate  17.) 

The  use  of  hemp  for  the  heart  of  the  rope  not  only  contributes 
to  flexibility  but  has  the  further  advantage  that  the  hemp  forms  a 
cushion  upon  which  the  strands  close  in  as  the  rope  contracts 
under  a  heavy  pull,  thus  acting  with  the  elasticity  of  the  wire  and 
the  "  give  "  which  results  from  the  spiral  lay,  to  reduce  the  effect 
of  sudden  stresses.  If  it  happens  that  the  hemp  heart  has  ab- 
sorbed its  share  of  the  lubricant  which  should  be  used  upon  the 
rope  from  time  to  time,  this  cushioning  will  result  in  a  lubrication 
of  the  interior  wires  and  greatly  reduce  the  interior  friction. 

Manufacturers  commonly  designate  the  size  of  wire  rope  by 
the  diameter  and  this  designation  is  used  in  circulars  and  in 
specifications  of  the  United  States  Naval  authorities;  but  sea- 


4o 


ROPE. 


men  adhere  to  the  habit  of  designating  it,  like  Hemp  and  Manila, 
by  circumference.  This  difference  sometimes  leads  to  confusion, 
but  as  the  ratio  of  circumference  to  diameter  is  approximately  3 
to  I,  no  serious  misunderstanding  is  likely  to  result  as  to  the  size 
of  rope  referred  to  in  any  individual  case.  It  is  well,  however, 
to  take  the  precaution  of  stating  whether  the  size  mentioned 
represents  diameter  or  circumference.  (See  method  of  measur- 
ing diameters  in  Plate  18.) 

Galvanising  is  the  simplest  and  most  efficient  means  known  for 
preserving  wire  from  corrosion,  but  it  involves  exposing  the  wire 
to  a  high  temperature,  which  reduces  the  strength  by  something 
like  10  per  cent.  The  process  of  galvanizing  consists  of  draw- 
ing the  wire  slowly  through  a  bath  of  molten  zinc,  from  which 
it  takes  on  a  thin  but  very  tenacious  coating,  sufficient  to  protect 
it  from  the  corrosive  action  of  moisture.  Such  protection  is 
especially  important  for  wire  which  is  to  be  exposed  to  salt  water. 

As  a  general  rule,  galvanized  rope  should  not  be  used  for 
working  over  sheaves  except  in  cases  where  the  sheaves  are  large 
and  the  motion  slow.  Under  other  conditions — sheaves  small 
or  motion  rapid — the  zinc  coating  wears  off  in  a  short  time,  fre- 
quently breaking  and  peeling,  and  corrosion  at  points  thus  exposed 
to  moisture,  and  especially  to  salt  water,  proceeds  more  rapidly 
(through  electrolytic  action)  than  if  no  zinc  were  present. 

Wire  rope,  galvanised,  is  used  for  the  standing  rigging  of 
ships,  and  for  spans,  slings,  ridge-ropes,  topping  lifts,  guys,  etc. 
It  is  used  also  for  running  gear  in  special  cases  where  exposure 
to  weather  is  involved  and  where  the  sheaves  are  large ;  as  in 
single  pendants  and  in  the  slow-running  tackles  of  cranes. 

Wire  hawsers  are  always  galvanized. 

Wire  rope  ungalvanized  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes, 
especially  for  work  over  sheaves  comparatively  small,  and  for 
general  work,  without  reference  to  the  size  of  sheaves,  in  places 
where  no  excessive  exposure  to  moisture  is  involved. 

Where  there  is  a  conflict  between  the  rules  laid  down  as  to  the  use  of 
galvanized  and  ungalvanized  rope,  it  will  not  usually  be  difficult  to  decide 
which  rule  should  prevail. 

It  will  be  clear  from  what  precedes,  that  the  suitability  of  a 
rope  for  any  given  purpose  depends  not  only  upon  its  strength  but 
upon  several  other  qualities.  For  many  purposes,  flexibility  is 
more  important  than  strength.  In  cases  where  much  wear  is  in- 


ROPE.  4, 

volved,  it  is  desirable  that  the  individual  wires  should  be  fairly 
large,  so  that  the  outside  wires  shall  not  wear  through  too  quickly. 
For  standing  rigging,  a  wire  core  is  admissible,  while  for  running 
rigging  of  all  kinds,  a  hemp  core  is  absolutely  necessary.  If  a 
rope  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  it  must  be  galvanized ;  other- 
wise, not. 

It  is  important,  in  ordering  wire-rope,  to  specify  the  purpose 
to  which  it  is  to  be  applied  and  as  many  of  the  conditions  of  its 
use  as  practicable. 

Plate  17  shows  various  types  of  wire  rope  suitable  for  different 
purposes.  As  a  rule  these  types  are  made  in  the  following 
grades  of  material,  with  tensile  strength  in  the  wire  used,  ap- 
proximately as  indicated. 

1.  Wrought  iron,  85,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

2.  Crucible  Cast  Steel,  150,000-200,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

3.  Extra  Strong  Crucible  Cast  Steel,  180,000-220,000  Ibs.  per 
square  inch. 

4.  Plow  Steel,  200,000-260,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

5.  Monitor  Steel,  220,000-280,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  types  illustrated  are  those  specified  for  use  in  the  United 
States  Navy  but  they  are  standard  commercial  types  and  cover 
practically  all  the  demands  of  seafaring  practice  in  general  and 
all  but  a  few  highly  specialized  demands  of  industrial  practice 
on  shore. 

Naval  specifications  call  for  a  minimum  strength  in  all  types, 
of  220,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  the  wire  from  which  the  rope  is 
made.  The  grades  used  are  3  and  4  above. 

6  X  19  Type  (Fig.  i).  This  is  the  stiffest  and  strongest  type  manufac- 
tured for  use  on  ship-board.  It  is  especially  suitable  for  standing  rig- 
ging, guys,  boat  slings,  topping  lifts,  etc.  It  may  be  used  over  sheaves 
of  large  diameter  where  the  speed  is  moderate,  but  has  not  the  flexibility 
required  for  running  rigging  in  general. 

This  type  is  issued  to  the  Navy  both  galvanized  and  ungalvanized. 

6X37  Type  (Fig.  2).  This  type  combines  strength  with  flexibility  to 
a  degree  which  makes  it  especially  valuable  for  work  on  shipboard.  It 
is  much  more  flexible  than  the  6  X  I9  type  and  much  stronger  than  the 
6  X  12  or  the  6  X  24  type.  It  may  be  used  over  sheaves  smaller  than 
those  for  which  the  6  X  iQ  type  is  practicable,  and  is  especially  suitable 
for  cranes  and  other  machines  where  sheaves  are  necessarily  rather 
small  and  where  heavy  weights  are  to  be  handled. 

It  is  the  best  rope  for  heavy  towing,  whether  with  or  without  an  auto- 


Plate  No.    17. 


6  STRANDS  OF  19  WIRES   (6X19).  6  STRANDS  OF  37  WIRES   (6X37). 


6  STRANDS  OF  12  WIRES   (6X12).  6  STRANDS  OF  24  WIRES   (6X24). 


ARMORED    ROPE. 


FIBRE  CLAD  ROPE. 


WIRE  ROPE  UNLAID,  SHOWING  HEMP  CORE. 


TYPES  OF  WIRE  ROPE. 


43 

matic  towing  machine.  When  designed  for  towing  it  is  galvanized  and 
should  be  fitted  with  a  thimble  eye  at  each  end.  As  more  than  50  per 
cent,  of  the  wires  in  a  strand  are  on  the  inside,  it  follows  that  the  outer 
wires  may  be  considerably  worn  before  the  strength  of  the  rope  as  a  whole 
is  seriously  impaired. 

This  type  is  issued  to  the  Navy  both  galvanized  and  ungalvanized. 

6X12  Type  (Fig.  3).  This  is  the  most  flexible  rope  made  for  ordi- 
nary purposes,  but  has  only  two  thirds  the  strength  of  the  6  X  IQ  a»d 
6  X  37  types.  It  is  used  for  most  of  the  running  gear  which  is  made  of 
wire  (except  as  already  specified  for  the  6  X  37  type)  and  for  life-lines, 
guys,  ridge-ropes,  etc.  It  is  used  also  for  mooring  hawsers  in  cases 
where  no  great  strength  is  required.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  towing 
but  is  not  recommended  for  this  unless  with  an  automatic  towing  machine, 
and  not  then  for  heavy  work. 

6X24  Type  (Fig.  4).  This  type,  while  inferior  in  strength  to  the 
6  X37  type,  resembles  the  latter  in  that  it  represents  a  convenient  bal- 
ance of  strength  and  flexibility.  It  is  designed  primarily  for  mooring 
hawsers  to  be  used  where  greater  strength  is  needed  than  that  of  the 
6  X  12  type.  It  has  also  an  advantage  over  the  latter  in  that  it  is  better 
fitted  to  stand  the  abrasive  effect  of  snubbing  through  chocks  and  around 
bollards,  because  30  per  cent,  of  its  strength  is  in  the  inside  layers  of  its 
strands. 

Armored  Wire  Rope  (Fig.  5).  In  this  type  each  strand  is  wrapped  spirally 
with  flat  strips  of  steel  which  protect  the  wires  from  abrasive  wear.  The 
wrapping  contributes  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  rope  but  by  deferring 
the  time  when  the  strands  begin  to  wear,  prolongs  the  life  of  the  rope  in 
some  cases  by  as  much  as  50  to  75  per  cent.  The  increase  in  weight  and 
the  reduction  of  flexibility  are  unimportant. 

Fibre  Clad  Rope  (Fig.  6).  In  this  type  each  strand  is  served  with  tarred 
hemp  marline,  which  protects  the  wire  from  wear  and  from  corrosion.  It 
has  about  one-third  the  diameter  of  Manila  rope  of  the  same  strength  and 
is  only  slightly  less  flexible;  admitting  of  coiling,  belaying,  and  knotting, 
without  danger  of  kinking.  This  makes  it  suitable  for  running  rigging, 
especially  for  boat  and  crane  falls,  anchor  gear,  etc. 

The  Manufacture  of  Wire  Rope.  The  manufacture  of  wire 
rope  follows  closely  the  process  already  described  for  fibre  ropes, 
the  individual  wires  corresponding  with  the  yarns  of  hemp  and 
manila.  The  wires  are  twisted  into  strands  and  the  strands  into 
rope,  by  methods  which  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  illus- 
trated in  Plate  16. 

The  wire  used  for  rope  is  made  from  special  ores,  which  are 
reduced  by  the  open-hearth  process  to  eliminate  as  thoroughly 
as  possible  all  traces  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  both  of  which 
impurities  make  for  brittleness.  In  the  various  processes  which 
follow,  the  metal  is  subjected  to  carefully  controlled  heat-treat- 


44 

ments  and  is  finally  drawn  down,  cold,  to  the  desired  size,  after 
which  it  is  subjected  to  bending  and  torsional  tests,  and  tests  for 
elongation  and  tensile  and  elastic  strength.  It  is  also  carefully 
examined,  visually,  foot  by  foot,  to  make  sure  that  it  is  free  from 
surface  defects.  It  is  the  fact  that  these  tests  can  be  made,  and 
are  made,  upon  every  individual  wire  entering  into  the  finished 
rope,  which  gives  to  wire  rope  its  most  valuable  characteristic, 
reliability. 

Notes  on  Wire  Rope. 

Wire  rope  needs  in  some  ways  better  care  than  hemp  or  manila 
and  far  better  care  than  it  generally  receives  on  shipboard.  It 
should  be  kept  on  a  reel  when  not  in  use.  A  single  kink  in  the 
finest  wire  rope  practically  ruins  it  at  once. 

In  receiving  a  line  and  transferring  it  from  one  reel  to  another 
care  should  be  taken  to  unreel  it,  instead  of  slipping  off  the  suc- 
cessive bights  over  the  end  of  the  reel,  as  is  sometimes  done. 

Plate  18  illustrates  the  right  way  and  the  wrong  way  of  dealing  with 
wire  rope  under  various  conditions. 

A  wire  hawser  should  be  gone  over  thoroughly  every  month  or 
two  with  linseed  oil;  or,  better,  if  it  is  not  to  be  used  for  some 
time,  with  crude  petroleum  or  some  heavy  lubricating  oil  to  which 
a  small  quantity  of  lampblack  has  been  added.  If  the  lubricant 
used  is  inclined  to  be  stiff,  it  is  better  used  hot.  Neither  oils  nor 
tars  can  be  regarded  as  perfect  preservatives,  as  they  all  contain 
more  or  less  acid,  which  attacks  the  steel.  The  principal  reliance 
must  therefore  be  upon  the  galvanizing.  If  the  rope  is  to  remain 
under  water  for  some  time,  the  best  preservative  is  made  by 
adding  to  one  part  of  Stockholm  tar,  one  part  of  fresh  slaked 
lime.  Boil  well  and  use  while  hot  for  saturating  the  rope. 

It  is  important  that  the  lubricant,  whatever  its  composition, 
should  be  thin  enough  to  penetrate  into  the  interstices  of  the  rope 
and  yet  that  it  should  have  consistency  enough  to  adhere  to  the 
wire  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  after  which  it  should  be 
renewed.  Care  must  be  taken  to  insure  covering  the  rope  all 
around.  A  hawser  used  for  towing  should  be  relubricated  after 
use  while  being  reeled  up. 

Wherever  wire  rope  is  to  be  worked  over  a  sheave,  the  diameter 
of  the  sheave  and  the  speed  of  running  become  very  important 
factors.  The  larger  the  sheave  and  the  lower  the  speed,  the 


Plate  No.    18. 


45 


Right  Way.  Wrong  Way. 

To  TAKE  ROPE  FROM  REEL. 


Right  Way.  Wrong  Way. 

To  TAKE  ROPE  FROM  COIL. 


AN  OVERWORKED  ROPE. 


Right  Way.  Wrong  Way. 

To   MEASURE  DIAMETER. 


Right  Way    (U-bolt  on   Dead  End). 


Wrong  Way  (U-bolt  on  Tension  End). 
WIRE  ROPE   CLIPS, 


HANDLING  WIRE  ROPE. 


46  ROPE. 

better.  All  manufacturers  of  wire  rope  prescribe  a  minimum 
diameter  for  sheaves,  and  their  guaranteed  breaking  strains  and 
estimated  safe-working  loads  are  for  these  minimum  diameters, 
and  for  moderate  speed.  A  high  speed  increases  the  wear  upon 
the  rope,  not  only  by  the  friction  on  the  pulley  but  still  more  by 
the  friction  of  the  wires  upon  each  other — a  point  which  is  often 
overlooked. 

The  importance  of  this  interior  friction  will  be  realized  if  we 
consider  the  "  play  "  which  necessarily  goes  on  between  the  fibres 
of  a  rope  which  is  being  alternately  bent  and  straightened  in 
running  over  a  pulley.  This  play  of  course  increases  with  the 
speed  and  is  greater  with  a  small  sheave  than  with  a  large  one. 
The  same  consideration  enters  in  where  a  rope  is  alternately 
stretched  and  relaxed  under  a  straight  but  varying  pull ;  as,  for 
example,  in  towing.  This  emphasizes  the  importance  of  interior 
lubrication. 

The  diameter  of  the  sheave  over  which  the  rope  is  worked 
should  never  be  less  than  twenty  times  that  of  the  rope  itself; 
and  the  less  flexible  the  rope  the  larger  should  be  the  sheave. 
(See  §11,  Chapter  VII.) 

It  is  important  that  the  score  of  the  sheave  should  be  of  such 
size  as  to  carry  the  rope  without  excessive  play,  and,  above  all, 
without  friction  against  the  sides  of  the  score.  Metal  sheaves 
should  be  lined  with  wood  or  leather. 

The  turns  of  the  rope  should  never  be  allowed  to  overlap  on 
the  drum  of  the  winch. 

As  the  wear  of  a  rope  over  a  pulley  increases  more  rapidly  with 
the  speed  than  with  the  load,  it  is  better,  when  an  increased  output 
is  demanded,  to  increase  the  load  than  to  increase  the  speed. 

In  addition  to  the  question  of  friction  in  running  over  a  sheave, 
the  distortion  of  the  rope  wherever  it  passes  around  a  relatively 
sharp  bend,  whether  on  a  moving  sheave  or  on  a  stationary  chock 
or  bollard,  is  a  factor  of  great  importance.  Those  fibres  which  lie 
farthest  from  the  centre  of  the  curve  are  stretched,  while  those 
which  hug  the  round  of  the  bend  are  more  or  less  compressed. 
Thus  the  outer  fibres  may  give  way  before  the  inner  ones  begin 
to  feel  the  strain. 

By  far  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  to  which  wire  rope 
can  be  subjected  are  those  in  which  it  runs  over  pulleys  which 
give  it  a  reverse  bend,  like  the  letter  S,  such  that  it  passes  over 


ROPE. 


47 


one  pulley  with  a  bend  to  the  right  and  immediately  afterward 
swings  around  another  with  a  bend  to  the  left. 

While  the  strength,  lightness  and  durability  of  wire  rope  are 
important  factors  in  its  favor,  its  most  valuable  characteristic, 
as  compared  with  hemp,  manila,  and  chain,  is  its  reliability. 
Within  its  proper  working  limits,  it  almost  never  fails.  Hemp 
and  manila  may  be  rotten  at  the  core  and  show  no  sign,  or  they 
may  have  been  weakened  by  excessive  strains  and  give  no  indica- 
tion of  it  except,  perhaps,  that  they  are  a  little  "  long-jawed."  A 
chain  may  be  made  of  worthless  material,  or,  if  of  the  best 
material  and  made  with  every  care,  it  may  have  flaws  which  no 
inspection  can  reveal. 

Hemp  and  manila  ropes  are  made  up  of  a  great  number  of 
fibres  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  length.  Wire  rope  is 
made  of  small  numbers  of  wires  of  the  full  length  of  the  rope, 
each  of  which  is  manufactured,  inspected,  and  tested,  individually, 
throughout  its  full  length  before  it  goes  into  the  rope.  The  in- 
spection is  so  simple  that  a  flaw  can  hardly  be  overlooked  and  it  is 
most  improbable  thaf  any  number  of  wires  can  have  flaws  which 
in  the  end  appear  at  the  same  point  of  a  strand.  Thus  it  is 
almost  impossible  that  any  serious  flaw  should  exist  in  a  wire 
rope  as  manufactured. 

A  flaw  due  to  kinking  can  always  be  seen. 

An  accident  with  wire  rope  is  almost  necessarily  due  to  care- 
lessness. 

Assuming  the  rope  to  have  a  well-lubricated  hemp  core,  and 
to  be  used  over  properly  proportioned  sheaves,  the  outside  strands 
will  be  the  first  to  wear  out,  and  the  reduction  in  their  diameter 
becomes  the  measure  of  the  wear  of  the  rope  as  a  whole. 

Wire  rope  should  be  condemned  when  the  outside  wires  are 
worn  down  to  one-half  their  original  diameter,  or  when  it  is  ap- 
parent from  broken  wires  or  other  abnormal  indications  that  it 
has  been  subjected  to  danger  or  by  excessive  strains,  or  to  a  sharp 
bend  resulting  in  a  pronounced  kink. 

When  wire  rope  is  to  be  cut,  a  whipping  of  small  soft  (an- 
nealed) iron  wire  should  be  wrapped  on  each  side  of  the  point 
where  the  cut  is  to  be  made,  to  prevent  the  rope  from  unlaying. 
If  suitable  annealed  wire  is  not  available,  a  fairly  heavy  seizina 
stuff  may  be  used,  the  turns  being  passed  very  taut. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

The  art  of  working  in  rope  cannot  be  learned  from  a  book,  but 
the  illustrations  which  accompany  this  Chapter  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  most  common  knots,  splices,  etc.,  in  general  use  and  should 
be  helpful  up  to  a  certain  point  in  making  them. 

WORKING  IN  HEMP  AND  MANILA. 

Plate  19.  This  plate  shows  a  number  of  simple  knots  all  of 
which  are  made  with  the  end  of  a  single  rope. 

An  Overhand  Knot.  Fig.  i.  This  is  the  simplest  possible  knot 
and  is  the  beginning  of  many  of  the  more  complicated  knots, 
bends  and  hitches  which  follow. 

A  Bowline.  Fig.  2.  One  of  the  most  common  and  useful 
knots  known  to  seamanship.  It  forms  a  loop,  which  may  be  of 
any  length  and  which  cannot  slip,  as  the  heavier  the  pull  upon  it 
the  tighter  it  jams.  Moreover,  it  does  not  form  so  sharp  a  nip 
as  to  weaken  the  rope.  It  is  used  for  lowering  men  over  a  ship's 
side,  for  slinging  them  from  stays,  etc,  while  working  aloft,  and 
for  a  great  variety  of  similar  purposes.  A  common  use  of  it  is 
to  form  a  loop  in  the  end  of  a  hawser  to  be  thrown  over  a  bollard, 
in  working  a  ship  alongside  a  dock. 

A  Running  Bowline.  Fig.  3.  A  convenient  form  of  running 
loop.  The  loop  of  the  bowline  proper  is  usually  smaller  than  that 
shown  in  the  figure. 

A  Bowline  on  a  Bight.  Figs.  4  and  5.  Used  in  place  of  a 
single  bowline  where  greater  strength  is  needed,  or  an  increased 
number  of  parts. 

A  Cats-paw.  Fig.  6.  A  double  loop  for  hooking  a  tackle  into 
the  end  of  a  rope.  Convenient  and  secure. 

A  Sheep-Shank.  Fig.  7.  A  quick  and  convenient  way  of 
temporarily  shortening  a  rope. 

A  Figure  of  Eight  Knot.  Fig.  8.  Turned  in  the  end  of  a 
rope  to  prevent  it  from  unreeving. 

A  Blackwall  Hitch.  Figs.  8  and  9.  Used  like  the  cats-paw  for 
hooking  a  tackle  to  the  end  of  a  rope.  The  holding  power  of  the 
Blackwall  comes  from  the  jamming  of  one  part  upon  another. 
The  single  Blackwall  cannot  always  be  trusted. 

48 


Plate  3STo.    19. 


49 


Fig.  5. 
Bowline  on  a  Bight (2.) 


Figure-of-Eight  Knot, 


Fig.  9.  Rg.10. 

Single  BlacUwatt  Hitch.     DoobleBiackwall  Hitch. 


KNOTS  IN  THE  END  OF  A  ROPE  . 


KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 


Plate  20.  This  plate  shows  a  series  of  knots  for  joining  the 
ends  of  the  two  ropes  or  the  two  ends  of  the  same  rope.  This 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  group  of  knots  with  which  we  have 
to  deal. 

A  Square-Knot  or  Reef -Knot.  Fig.  i.  This  is  the  simplest 
knot  of  the  series  and  the  most  useful.  But  it  cannot  be  used 
where  the  ropes  to  be  joined  are  of  different  sizes  unless  the  ends 
are  stopped  down  to  their  own  parts,  as  otherwise  the  ends  will 
slip  and  draw  apart. 

A  Granny-Knot.  Fig.  2.  Frequently  confused  with  the 
Square-Knot,  but  is  less  neat  and  does  not  hold  so  well.  More- 
over it  jams  and  is  hard  to  untie.  Is  much  despised  by  seamen. 

A  Sheet  or  Becket  Bend.  Fig.  3.  Called  by  landsman  a 
Weaver's  Knot  because  used  for  knotting  yarns.  Is  especially 
suited  for  use  with  small  lines,  like  fish  lines,  but  works  well  with 
ropes  of  any  size.  It  can  be  used  where  the  lines  are  of  different 
sizes,  and  does  not  weaken  the  rope.  Divides  with  the  Square 
Knot  the  claim  to  be  the  most  generally  useful  knot  known. 

A  Sheet  Bend,  Double.  Fig.  4.  Here  the  end  of  the  bending 
line  is  passed  twice  around  the  standing  line  and  twice  through 
its  own  part,  giving  added  security. 

A  Single  Carrick  Bend.  Figs.  5  and  6.  Compare  with  Single 
Sheet  Bend. 

A  Double  Carrick  Bend.  Figs.  7,  8  and  9.  More  secure  than 
the  Single  Carrick,  but  with  both  it  is  well  to  stop  down  the  ends 
to  their  own  parts.  This  is  especially  necessary  where  the  ropes 
are  of  different  sizes. 

Two  Bowlines.  Fig.  10.  A  safe  and  convenient  way  of  bend- 
ing two  hawsers.  Will  not  slip.  Is  somewhat  bulky  for  use 
where  the  lines  are  to  be  veered  out  through  a  chock. 

A  Reeving  Line  Bend.  Fig.  11.  Neat  and  secure,  but  not  as 
quickly  made  as  the  junction  of  two  bowlines.  Convenient  for 
reeving  through  a  chock. 


Plate   No.    20. 


Square  or  Reef  Knot. 


Fig.  2. 
Granny  Knot. 


Sheet  or  BecVet 
Bend  Double. 


Sheet  or  Becket 
bend  Single. 


V. 

Single  CarrickBend  0-)     Single  Carried  Bend(Z, 


Double  Carnck  Bend 00        Double Carrick Bend  (2.)     Double  Carrick  Bend. 

JSSSSSE^ ^^gvs^vp^^^ _____ 

Q'itt  •  ^£*,- 


Reevmg-Line   Bend, 


BEND\NG  Two  ROPES  TOGETHER 


KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 


Plate  21.  This  plate  shows  various  ways  of  securing  lines  to 
spars,  posts,  rings,  etc. 

A  Studding-Sail  Tack  Bend.  Fig.  i.  A  useful  bend  for  a 
variety  of  purposes  where  it  is  important  to  have  no  danger  of 
coming  adrift  through  the  flapping  of  a  sail. 

A  Studding-Sail  Halliard  Bend.  Fig.  2.  The  greater  the 
pull  on  the  halliards,  the  more  tightly  the  parts  of  the  bend  are 
jammed  against  the  spar.  With  regard  to  this  and  the  preceding 
(Fig.  I ),  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  "  Stunsails  "  of  a  sailing- 
ship  are  peculiarly  difficult  to  handle  if  anything  goes  wrong  witH 
their  gear.  For  this  reason  it  is  especially  important  that  all  their 
gear  should  be  so  secured  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  danger 
of  coming  adrift. 

A  Fisherman's  Bend.  Fig.  3.  May  be  made  more  secure  by 
taking  another  turn  with  the  end  around  the  standing  part  before 
stopping  down. 

A  Timber  Hitch.  Fig.  4.  The  greater  the  pull,  the  more 
tightly  the  turns  are  jammed. 

A  Timber  Hitch  and  Half  Hitch.  Fig.  5.  For  towing  a  spar. 
The  half  hitch  is  taken  first  and  the  timber  hitch  afterward 
formed  with  the  end. 

A  Rolling  Hitch.  Fig.  6.  Very  useful  where  one  rope  is  tq 
be  bent  to  a  spar  or  to  the  standing  part  (not  the  end)  of  another 
rope,  or  to  a  chain  (as  in  Clearing  Hawse). 

A  Round  Turn  and  Two  Half  Hitches.  Fig.  7.  For  making  a 
hawser  fast  to  a  bollard.  For  greater  security,  the  end  should 
be  stopped  down  to  the  main  part.  If  the  part  A  is  taken  up 
under  B  as  well  as  under  c,  we  have  a  Fisherman's  bend,  which, 
with  a  half  hitch  outside  it  as  at  D,  is  often  used  for  this  purpose. 
A  more  convenient  way  is  to  turn  a  bowline  in  the  end  of  the 
hawser  and  throw  it  over  the  post. 

Two  Half  Hitches.  Fig.  9.  Another  way  of  bending  a  rope's 
end  to  a  spar,  a  bollard,  or  a  ring. 

A  Clove  Hitch.  One  of  the  most  common  of  hitches  for  at- 
taching a  rope  to  a  spar  or  to  the  standing  part  of  a  rope.  Used 
in  hitching  ratlines  to  shrouds. 


Plate  No.   21. 


53 


Fig.  I. 
Studding  Sail  Tack  Bend. 


Fig,  2. 

Studding- Sail 
Halliard  bend. 


Fig.3. 
Fisherman's  Bend. 


Fig.4-. 
Timber  Hitch, 


Fig-  5. 
Timber  and  Half  Hitch. 


Round  Turn  and  Two  Half  Hitches. 


Hitch. 


Fig.  9. 
Two  Half  Hitches. 


Fig.  10. 
C\ove  Hitch, 


BENDING  A  ROPE  TO  A  POST,  SPAR  OR  RING. 


54  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

Plate  22.  This  Plate  shows  a  series  of  knots  which  are 
worked  in  the  end  or  the  body  of  the  rope  by  unlaying  the  rope 
and  using  its  own  strands.  A  whipping  is  usually  put  on  below 
the  point  where  the  knot  is  to  be.  Knots  of  this  kind  are  some- 
times used  to  give  a  finish  to  the  end  of  the  rope,  sometimes  to 
prevent  it  from  unreeving,  and  sometimes  merely  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

A  Wall-knot.     Fig.  i. 

A  Wall  and  Crown.     Fig.  2. 

A  Double  Wall  and  Single  Crown.     Fig.  3. 

A  Double  Wall  and  Double  Crown  or  "  Man-rope  Knot."  Fig. 
4.  Used  on  the  ends  of  "man-ropes"  (trailing-lines  over  the 
sides)  to  give  a  good  hold  for  a  man  overboard. 

A  Matthew- Walker  Knot,  double  and  single.  Figs.  5  and  6, 
7  and  8. 

Whipping  the  end  of  a  Rope  (Figs.  10,  11,  12)  to  prevent  un- 
laying or  fraying  out.  Lay  the  end  of  a  length  of  stout-twine 
along  the  rope  and  pass  a  number  of  turns  around  the  rope  and 
over  the  end  of  the  whipping,  hauling  each  turn  taut.  Fig.  9. 
Then  lay  the  other  end  of  the  whipping  along  the  rope  in  the 
opposite  directions  from  the  first  end,  and  pass  a  number  of 
turns,  on  the  bight,  over  this  end.  Fig.  10.  Haul  the  end 
through  and  trim  off. 

SPLICING. 

There  are  various  forms  of  splices  for  joining  the  ends  of  two 
ropes  permanently,  or  for  bending  back  the  end  of  a  rope  upon 
itself  to  form  a  permanent  eye.  In  making  these,  when  the 
strands  of  a  rope  are  to  be  tucked,  the  lay  of  the  rope  where  they 
go  through  is  opened  out  by  means  of  a  marline-spike,  and  the 
strand  tucked  through  once  in  its  full  size,  then  reduced  in  size 
by  cutting  away  a  certain  number  of  threads,  tucked  a  second 
time,  reduced  once  more  in  size  and  tucked  again.  It  is  thus 
tucked  once  full  size,  once  two-thirds,  and  once  one-third.  This 
produces  a  tapered  and  much  neater  splice  than  if  it  were  tucked 
three  times  in  full  size. 


Plate  No.    22. 


55 


Wall  Knot. 


Wall  and  Crown .  DoubleWall and  Sinq\eCrown. 


Fig.  5. 


DoubleWall  and  Double  Crown      Double  Matthew  Walker(l) 
or  "Man  Rope  Knot." 


Single  Mcrtthew  Walker  (2.) 


Fig.6. 


Double  Mcrtthew  Walker  (2.) 


taniard  Knot  (I) 


Fig.lO  F;9 

Whipping   the  End   of  a  Rope 


Fig.12 


KNOTS  WORKED  IN  THE  END  OF  A  ROPE. 


56  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

Plate  23.  This  plate  shows  splices  in  Manila  or  Hemp,  and 
Tools  for  Splicing. 

An  Eye-Splice.  Figs.  2,  3  and  4.  The  rope  is  unlaid  for 
perhaps  a  foot  from  the  end,  and  the  strands  brought  back  upon 
the  body  of  the  rope  at  a  point  which  will  form  an  eye  of  the 
size  that  is  wanted.  Beginning  with  any  one  strand,  this  is  tucked 
from  left  to  right,  through  the  strands  of  the  rope  (which  are 
opened  by  a  spike),  being  passed  over  one  and  under  the  next. 
The  other  two  strands  are  similarly  tucked,  always  from  right  to 
left.  All  three  are  then  trimmed  down  to  two-thirds  their  ori- 
ginal size,  tucked  again,  trimmed  to  one-third  size  and  tucked  a 
third  and  last  time. 

An  Eye-Splice  in  four-stranded  rope.  Here  the  first  strand  is 
tucked  under  two ;  but  this  for  the  first  tucking  only. 

A  Short  Splice.  Figs.  5,  6  and  7.  Two  ropes  are  unlaid  for 
a  short  distance  and  married  together  with  strands  interlacing 
(Fig.  5).  The  strands  of  each  rope  are  then  tucked  through  the 
lay  of  the  other  rope  exactly  as  has  been  described  in  the  case 
of  an  eye-splice. 

A  Long  Splice.  Figs.  8  and  9.  Here  the  ropes  are  unlaid 
for  a  greater  distance  than  for  a  short  splice  and  the  ends  brought 
together  as  before,  with  strands  interlacing.  Instead  now  of 
tucking  at  once,  we  proceed  as  follows:  Unlay  a:  one  of  the 
strands  of  A,  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  in  place  of  it  lay 
up  &!  the  adjoining  strand  of  B,  thus  working  a  strand  of  B  into  A, 
for,  say,  a  foot  and  a  half  or  two  feet.  For  convenience  now 
twist  up  G!  and  b:  together  temporarily,  as  in  Fig.  9.  Turn  the 
rope  end  for  end,  unlay  b2  one  of  the  strands  of  B,  and  in  place 
of  it  lay  up  a2  the  adjoining  strand  of  A.  a3  and  fr3  are  left  lying 
beside  each  other  without  being  unlaid.  We  now  have  three  pairs 
of  strands  at  different  points  of  the  rope.  Beginning  with  a2  and 
b2  (for  example)  separate  each  of  these  strands  into  two  parts, 
and  taking  one-half  of  each  strand,  overhand  knot  these  together 
(K,  Fig.  9)  and  tuck  them  as  in  a  short  splice,  over  one  and 
under  one  of  the  full  remaining  strands  in  the  rope.  (M, 
Fig.  9-) 

The  other  pairs  of  strands  (cj  bt)  (a2  b2)  are  similarly  re- 
duced, knotted,  and  tucked.  The  spare  half  of  each  strand  is 
trimmed  off  smooth,,  as  are  the  ends  of  the  other  halves  after 
they  have  been  tucked. 


Plate  No.    23. 


57 


FIG.  1. 
TOOLS  FOR  SPLICING 


FIG.  2. 
EYE  SPLICE  (1) 


FIG.  3.  EYE  SPLICE  (2) 


FIG.  4. 
EYE  SPLICE  (3) 


'FIG.  5.  FIG.  6.  FIG.  7. 

SHORT  SPLICE  (1)  SHORT  SPLICE(2)  SHORT  SPLICE(3) 


'az 


FIG.  9.  LONG  SPLICE  (2) 


SPLICES,   HEMP  AND   MANILA. 


58  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

WORKING  IN  WIRE-ROPE. 

As  already  stated,  wire-rope  is  usually  six-stranded,  with  a 
hemp  heart.  In  splicing,  we  may  work  with  the  strands  sepa- 
rately or  in  pairs.  The  work  calls  for  special  appliances  and  for 
a  degree  of  skill  such  as  can  be  acquired  only  by  long  practice 
under  expert  instruction.  Something  may  be  learned  from  care- 
ful description,  and  much  more  from  an  occasional  visit  to  a 
rigging  loft;  but  the  facilities  which  are  available  on  ship-board 
do  not  admit  of  doing  such  work  as  is  possible  with  a  rigger's 
bench,  a  turning-in  machine,  etc.  Where  a  heavy  rope  is  to  be 
bent  around  a  thimble  or  the  parts  otherwise  brought  together  for 
splicing  or  seizing,  a  rigger's-screw  is  needed.  In  the  absence 
of  this,  a  vise  may  be  used,  but  less  conveniently. 

In  tucking  the  strands  of  a  splice,  the  lay  of  .the  rope  is  opened 
out  and  the  spike  left  in,  holding  the  strands  apart,  until  the  tuck 
has  been  made.  For  dragging  the  strands  through,  a  jigger  is 
used  on  each  one,  the  body  of  the  rope  being  held  by  another  jig- 
ger or  a  lashing.  After  a  tuck,  the  parts  of  the  ropes  are  ham- 
mered down  tightly  upon  each  other.  Wire-cutters  are  used  for 
cutting  off  ends. 

PLATE  24.  A  Long  Splice  in  Wire.  Figs,  i  and  2.  Put  on  a 
good  seizing  six  to  ten  feet — according  to  the  size  of  .the  rope — • 
from  the  end  of  one  of  the  ropes  to  be  spliced,  and  a  similar  seiz- 
ing one  to  two  feet  from  the  end  of  the  other  rope.  Unlay,  open 
out  the  strands,  cut  out  the  heart,  and  marry  the  ends  together 
with  strands  interlacing.  Cut  the  seizing  on  the  short  end. 
Unlay  one  of  the  short  strands,  following  it  up  in  the  same  lay 
with  the  opposite  long  strand,  leaving  end  enough  to  .tuck.  Con- 
tinue in  the  same  manner  with  the  remaining  strands,  except  as 
to  the  distance  to  which  they  are  laid  up,  this  distance  being 
varied  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  successive  pairs  an  equal 
distance  apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Commencing  with  any  two 
strands,  half  knot  them  together  (full  size),  then  divide  each 
into  three  parts,  and  tuck  these  parts  separately  as  shown ; — or, 
cut  out  a  few  inches  of  the  heart  and  insert  the  ends  of  the 
strands  in  its  place  in  the  centre  of  the  rope.  When  a  splice  is  to 
be  served,  the  latter  way  of  finishing  it  off  answers  very  well. 

Second  Method  (Figs.  3  and  4).    Will  be  clear  from  Plate. 


Plate  No.    24. 


59 


Fig.1. 

I**  Method, 
long  Splice  in  Wi re  Rope.0) 


Fig.  2. 

^Method. 
longSplicein  Wire  Rope.  (2) 


Rg.3. 

^^Aeth 
Long  Splice  in  Wire. 


FigA 

2^  Method, 
long  Splice  in  Wire. 


LONG  SPLICE  m  W\RE. 


60  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

PLATE  25.  A  Short  Splice  in  Wire.  Fig.  i.  Put  on  a  good 
seizing  two  or  three  feet — according  to  the  size  of  the  rope — 
from  the  end  of  one  of  the  ropes  to  be  spliced,  and  a  similar  seiz- 
ing one  or  two  feet  from  the  end  of  the  other  rope.  Unlay  the 
ends"  and  open  out  the  strands,  cutting  out  the  heart  close  to  the 
seizings.  Marry  them  together  and  clap  on  a  temporary  seizing 
around  the  short  ends  and  the  body  of  the  rope,  to  hold  the  parts 
close  together.  Commencing  with  any  one  of  the  long  strands, 
tuck  each  in  succession  over  one  and  under  two  strands,  opening 
out  the  lay  with  a  spike.  Tuck  the  remaining  strands  in  the 
same  manner; — twice  whole  strands,  once  one-half,  and  once 
one-quarter,  hauling  through  with  a  jigger  each  time.  Then 
turn  the  splice  around,  cutting  the  temporary  seizing  on  the  short 
ends,  and  tuck  the  short  strands  once  one-half  and  once  one- 
quarter,  heaving  them  through  with  a  jigger.  Hammer  down 
all  parts  and  trim  off  the  ends. 

An  Eye-splice  in  Wire.  Fig.  2.  Get  the  rope  on  a  stretch, 
allow  from  18  to  24  inches  from  the  end  for  splicing,  and  put 
on  a  mark  with  a  couple  of  turns  of  twine.  Measure  along  the 
rope  from  this  mark  the  length  of  the  eye  (once  and  one-half 
the  round  of  the  thimble)  and  put  on  another  similar  mark. 
Paint  with  red  lead,  worm,  parcel,  paint  again,  and  double-serve 
between  the  marks.  Now  come  up  the  stretch  and  seize  the 
thimble  in,  breaking  the  rope  around  by  the  rigger's-screw  and 
putting  on  a  good  racking  seizing  around  both  parts.  Come  up 
the  screw,  unlay  the  end  of  the  wire,  and  cut  out  the  heart  close 
to  the  service.  Now,  with  the  thimble  toward  you,  counting 
from  right  to  left  I,  2,  3,  etc.,  stick  No.  4  strand  from  right  to 
left  under  the  upper  strands  of  the  rope  just  clear  of  the  service, 
opening  the  strands  by  a  spike.  Haul  through  by  hand.  In  the 
same  manner— under  two  and  over  one  strand— tuck  the  remain- 
ing strands,  in  the  following  order:  3,  5,  2,  6,  I.  Now,  commenc- 
ing with  any  strand,  tuck  again  whole  and  haul  through  by  means 
of  a  jigger.  Hammer  the  strands  down  in  place,  cut  each  strand 
down  to  one-half  size  and  tuck  again,  hauling  through  with  a 
jigger  as,  before.  Cut  the  strands  down  to  one-quarter  and  tuck 
again.  Hammer  down  all  strands -and  cut  off  the  wire  with  a 
wire-cutter. 


Plate   No.    25. 


61 


ig. l 

A  Short  Splice  in.Wire 


5th 


Fiq.Z 
An  Eye -Splice  in  Wire 


Round  Seizing 


Fig.4 
Round  Sfeizincj 


Fig.5 

Round  Seizing  Crossed 
Clove  Hitch  Finish 


Fig.6  . 

Rackmg  Sei^ng        Racking  Seizing 


. 
Throat  Seizing 


Parcelling-'        ^  .^  Serving; 

Fig.10  Worming, Parcelling  and  Serving 


SPLICES— SEIZINGS. 


62  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

Figs.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  Seizings  for  binding  together  two  ropes 
or  two  parts  of  the  same  rope.  The  manner  of  passing  them  is 
made  clear  by  the  figures.  With  heavy  ropes,  the  parts  must  be 
hove  together  by  power  of  some  kind,  such  as  a  Spanish  Wind- 
lass, a  rigger's-screw,  or  a  turning-ill  machine. 

Worming,  Parcelling,  and  Serving.  Fig.  10.  Rope  which  is  to 
be  exposed  to  the  weather  or  to  exceptionally  hard  usage  is  pro- 
tected by  worming,  parcelling,  and  serving. 

Worming  consists  in  following  the  "  lay  "  of  the  rope,  between 
the  strands,  with  small-stuff,  tarred,  which  keeps  moisture  from 
penetrating  to  the  interior  of  the  rope,  and  at  the  same  time 
fills  out  the  round  of  the  rope,  giving  a  smooth  surface  for  the 
parcelling  and  serving. 

Parcelling  consists  in  wrapping  the  rope  spirally  with  long 
strips  of  canvas,  following  the  lay  of  the  rope,  and  overlapping 
like  the  shingles  on  a  roof  to  shed  moisture. 

Serving  consists  in  wrapping  small-stuff  snugly  over  the  par- 
celling", each  turn  being  hove  taut  as  possible  so  that  the  whole 
forms  a  stiff  protecting  cover  for  the  rope.  A  "  serving-mallet  " 
is  used  for  passing  the  turns,  each  turn  being  hove  taut  by  the 
leverage  of  the  handle  as  illustrated  in  Plate  25,  fig.  9. 

Fig.  9.  A  Spanish  Windlass,  for  drawing  two  taut  ropes 
together. 

PLATE  26.  Appliances  for  use  with  Wire  Rope.  Most  of  the, 
appliances  for  use  with  wire  rope  are  designed  to  provide  some 
sort  of  an  eye  on  the  end  of  the  rope,  by  which  it  can  be  connected 
with  another  rope  or  with  a  tackle,  or  otherwise  secured.  Plate 
26  illustrates  a  number  of  these.  It  will  be  seen  that  any  two 
of  the  ends  shown  can  be  joined  together,  either  directly  or  by 
the  aid  of  a  shackle.  Fig.  2  shows  a  handy  clip  and  the  manner 
of  applying  it.  These  clips,  when  made  of  drop-forged  steel  and 
properly  applied,  are  little  if  at  all  inferior  to  a  splice.  And 
they  can  be  applied  in  a  few  moments  where  a  splice  would  take 
as  many  hours.  In  the  emergencies  which  sometimes  arise  on 
shipboard,  as  in  handling  anchors,  taking  a  vessel  in  tow,  etc., 
when  an  eye  is  needed  in  a  hawser  and  there  is  not  time  to  make  a 
splice,  these  clips  would  be  invaluable.  They  can  be  removed  as 
quickly  as  they  are  applied,  breaking  down  the  eye  at  once. 

A  set  of  these  in  sizes  to  fit  any  hawser  on  board  might  well 


Plate  No.   26, 


FIG.  1 
THIMBLE  EYE,  SPLICED  AND  SERVED 


FIG.  2 
THIMBLE  EYE  WITH  WIRE  ROPE  CUPS 


FIG.  3 
OPEN  END  SOCKET 


FIG.  4 
CLOSED  END  SOCKET 


FIG.  5 
SHACKLE 


FIG.  6 
HOOK  AND  THIMBLE 


FIG.  7 
TURNBUCKLE 


FIG.  8 
JOINING  THE  ENDS  OF  ROPE 


APPLIANCES  FOR  USE  WITH  WIRE  ROPE. 


64  KNOTTING  AND  SPLICING. 

be  issued  to  all  ships.     Note  that  the  U-bolt  is  always  applied  to 
the  "  dead  "  end  of  the  rope. 

The  socket  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4  is  the  strongest  attachment 
known  for  use  on  the  end  of  a  wire  rope.  The  interior  of  the 
base  of  the  socket  is  coned  and  the  bare  end  of  the  rope  is  bedded 
in  and  sealed  with  molten  zinc,  which  forms  a  head  that  holds 
without  distortion  of  the  wires. 


(65) 


CHAPTER  V. 
MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES  ON  SHIP-BOARD. 

The  successful  use  of  mechanical  appliances  on  ship-board 
calls  for  a  familiarity  with  certain  elementary  principles  of  me- 
chanics which  may  thus  be  properly  regarded  as  a  part  of  Sea- 
manship. 

From  this  point  of  view  they  will  be  treated  here  as  pre- 
liminary to  the  handling  of  heavy  weights. 

The  popular  conception  of  forces  and  of  the  manner  of  meas- 
uring them  may  be  accepted  as  sufficiently  exact  for  our  present 
purpose. 

THE  COMPOSITION  AND  RESOLUTION  OF  FORCES. 

For  every  force  acting  upon  a  body  there  is  a  certain  "  line 
of  action  "  along  which  it  tends  to  move  this  body.  If  several 
forces  act  upon  the  same  body  at  the  same  time,  the  total  effect 
produced  will  be,  both  in  magnitude  and  in  direction,  a  combi- 
nation of  the  effects  of  the  individual  forces ;  and  it  is  found  that 
we  may  substitute  for  any  such  combination  of  forces,  a  single 
force  of  definite  magnitude  and  direction;  and  that  the  magni- 
tude and  direction  of  this  "  resultant  force  "  as  it  is  called,  may 
be  deduced  from  the  original  forces  by  a  very  simple  construc- 
tion. 

The  derivation  of  a  single  resultant  from  several  distinct 
forces  is  called  "  The  Composition  of  Forces." 

It  is  found  also  that  we  may  reverse  the  above  process,  and, 
from  a  single  given  force,  find  two  or  more  forces  acting  along 
given  lines  which  may  be  substituted  for  the  one  original  force 
without  any  change  in  the  effect  produced.  This  process  is 
called  "  The  Resolution  of  Forces " ;  and  the  forces  resulting 
from  it  are  "  components "  of  the  original  force  from  which 
they  are  derived.  In  discussing  these  principles  and  applying 
them  to  practical  problems,  we  may  conveniently  denote  a  force 
by  a  line  of  a  certain  length,  the  number  of  units  of  length  taken 


66  MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD. 

being  equal  to  the  number  of  units  of  force  to  be  represented. 
Thus  a  force  of  5  tons  may  be  denoted  by  a  line  five  units  in 
length;— the  units  being  feet,  inches,  tenths  of  inches,  or  any- 
thing else  that  we  like  to  use.  The  scale  is  merely  a  matter  of 
convenience,  but  the  same  scale  must  of  course  be  used  in  all 
parts  of  the  same  problem. 

We  proceed  to  illustrate  the  Resolution  and  Composition  of 
Forces. 

In  Fig.  i,  Plate  27,  suppose  OA  and  OB  to  represent  two 
forces  acting  along  the  lines  o  x  and  o  Y,  and  suppose  it  is  desired 
to  find  a  single  force  which  may  replace  these  without  change  in 
effect  upon  o.  We  construct  the  parallelogram  A  o  B  c  and  draw 
the  diagonal  o  c.  This  diagonal  represents,  in  direction  and  in 
length,  the  desired  resultant ;  its  length  being  measured,  of 
course,  in  the  same  units  that  have  been  used  in  laying  off  o  A 
•  and  o  B.  In  this  case,  if  o  A  =  6  tons  and  o  B  =  9  tons,  o  c,  the 
resultant  =  13  tons.  That  is  to  say,  a  force  of  13  tons  acting 
along  o  z,  will  produce  exactly  the  same  effect  as  six  tons  acting 
along  ox  and  nine  tons  acting  along  OY.  If  we  have  to  deal 
with  three  or  more  original  forces,  we  may  couple  two  of  them 
and  find  a  resultant,  then  couple  this  resultant  with  another  one 
of  the  original  forces  and  proceed  as  before  to  find  the  resultant 
of  these,  and  so  on. 

It  is  clear  that,  by  reversing  the  above  process,  we  may  re- 
solve a  single  given  force  into  two  or  more  others  acting  along 
certain  lines.  Having  given  13  tons  acting  along  oz,  suppose 
we  are  called  upon  to  find  two  forces  which,  acting  along  o  x  and 
OY,  shall  be  equivalent  to  this  original  force.  As  before,  we 
construct  the  parallelogram  A  o  B  c.  Then  the  sides  o  A  and 
o  B  represent  by  their  lengths  the  forces  which,  acting  in  these 
two  directions,  are  equivalent  to  o  c.  o  A  is  found  to  be  6  tons 
and  OB,  9  tons.  Similarly  in  Fig.  2,  suppose  we  have  a  force 
denoted  by  the  length  of  o  c  acting  along  o  z,  and  wish  to  re- 
solve this  along  the  lines  ox  and  OY,  making  angles  of  45° 
and  60°  with  o  z.  Constructing  the  parallelogram  o  B  c  A  as 
before,  we  have  the  lengths  o  A  =  4%  tons,  and  o  B  =  5^  tons, 
for  the  forces  required. 

Evidently,  if  a  point  is  at  rest,  the  forces  acting  upon  it  must 
balance  each  other.  Consider  the  case  illustrated  in  Fig.  I, 
Plate  28,  of  a  weight  suspended  from  a  boom,  the  heel  of  which 


Plate  No.   27. 


9  tons 


Fig.  2 


THE  COMPOSITION  AND  RESOLUTION  OF  FORCES. 


68  MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD. 

is  attached  to  the  mast  while  the  other  end  is  supported  by  a 
topping-lift  from  the  masthead.  The  forces  acting  here  are  the 
downward  pull  of  the  weight,  the  tension  on  the  lift,  and  the 
resistance  of  .the  boom  to  compression  (Fig.  2,  Plate  28).  As 
the  point  o  remains  at  rest,  these  forces  must  balance  each 
other; — that  is  to  say,  each  force  considered  by  itself  must  be 
balanced  in  magnitude  and  direction  by  the  resultant  of  the  other 
two  forces.  If  this  were  not  so,  motion  would  result.  Suppose 
we  wish  to  find  the  tension  on  the  topping-lift.  We  lay  off  o  c 
on  any  convenient  scale  to  represent  the  downward  pull  of  the 
weight,  and  on  oc  as  a  diagonal,  construct  the  parallelogram 

0  B  c  A  (Fig.  I,  a),    o  A  is  the  measure  of  the  tension  on  the  top- 
ping-lift, and  o  B  that  of  the  thrust  along  the  boom.    If  the  weight 
is  9  tons,  o  A  is  6^4  tons  and  o  B  is  4^2  tons. 

There  follows  from  the  above  a  simple  and  convenient  rule 
for  determining  the  relative  stresses  on  the  various  parts  of  the 
system  from  a  simple  comparison  of  their  relative  lengths.  The 
sides  of  the  triangle  o  A  c  are  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  triangle 
formed  by  the  mast,  the  boom,  and  the  topping-lift. 

These  two  are  therefore  "  similar  "  triangles  in  the  geometrical 
sense  of  the  term,  and  it  follows  that  the  same  relations  exist 
between  the  sides  of  one  of  them  as  between  the  corresponding 
sides  of  the  other ;  that  is  to  say,  the  side  o  A,  which  represents 
the  tension  on  the  topping-lift,  is  the  same  proportion  of  o  c,  the 
downward  pull  of  w,  that  the  length  of  the  topping-lift  is  of  the 
length  of  the  mast.  From  which  we  have  the  convenient  rule 
expressed  by  the  following  proportion. 

Tension  on  Topping-lift  _  Length  of  Topping-lift 
Weight  Length  of  Mast 

If  the  boom  is  stepped  at  a  distance  from  the  mast,  this  rule 
may  be  applied  by  prolonging  the  line  of  the  boom  until  it  inter- 
sects the  mast,  and  using  in  calculation,  the  lengths  given  by 
this  construction  (Fig.  5,  Plate  28). 

Similarly  we  may  deduce  the  rule: 

Thrust  on  boom  _  Length   of  boom 
Weight  "   Length  of  mast 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  lengths  given  above  for  mast 
and  boom  are  those  actually  included  in  the  triangles  of  Figs. 

1  and  5. 


Plate  No.   28. 


69 


Length  of  mast -30  feet 
Length  of  llft-22%  feet 

\ft     Length  of  lift-  22^ 
Weight       =  Length  of  mast  30 
Tension  on  lift  -6  %  tons 


THE  COMPOSITION  AND  RESOLUTION  OF  FORCES 
APPLIED  TO  A  DERRICK. 


7O  MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD. 

This  leads  to  a  further  important  deduction  with  regard  to 
the  most  favorable  relation  between  the  mast,  the  boom,  and  the 
topping-lift,  as  follows : 

For  a  fixed  length  of  mast  and  boom,  we  cannot  change  the 
thrust  on  the  boom  by  any  change  in  its  angle ;  but  we  may  vary 
the  tension  on  the  topping-lift  within  wide  limits.  Since  this 
tension  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  topping-lift,  it  grows 
less  and  less  as  the  boom  is  topped  up,  becoming  a  minimum 
when  the  boom  is  as  nearly  vertical  as  it  can  be  made.  It  is, 
at  this  point,  very  much  less  than  the  tension  on  o  w  due  to  the 
direct  downward  pull  of  the  weight;  but  if  we  lower  the  boom 
toward  the  horizontal  we  presently  reach  an  angle,  depending 
upon  the  length  of  the  boom,  at  which  the  length  of  the  lift  is 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  mast.  At  this  point,  then,  the  ten- 
sion on  the  lift  is  equal  to  that  along  o  w.  If  we  lower  still 
further,  the  tension  on  the  lift  increases  beyond  that  on  o  w  and 
may  become  very  much  in  excess  of  it.  For  a  given  length  of 
mast  and  boom,  then,  the  more  nearly  vertical  the  boom  can  be 
used  the  better.  If  we  are  at  liberty  to  vary  the  length  of  the 
mast  and  boom  to  attain  a  given  reach,  we  shall  find  that  a  short 
boom,  nearly  level,  gives  a  minimum  strain  on  the  boom  and  a 
maximum  strain  on  the  lift ;  while  a  long  boom,  well  topped-up, 
gives  a  maximum  strain  on  the  boom  and  a  minimum  strain  on 
the  lift. 

Suppose  the  boom  is  half  as  long  as  the  mast.  The  thrust 
on  it  will  be  one-half  the  weight,  no  matter  what  the  angle  of 
the  boom  may  be.  The  tension  on  the  topping-lift  will  be  about 
il/4  times  the  weight  when  the  boom  is  level,  and  rather  less 
than  24  of  the  weight  when  the  boom  is  topped  up  to  45°. 

The  practical  conclusion  from  this  is  that  if  we  are  called  upon 
to  rig  a  derrick  we  should  consider  carefully  the  relative  trust- 
worthiness of  the  materials  with  which  we  have  to  work.  If  we 
have  a  topping-lift  which  is  abundantly  strong,  to  be  used  with 
a  boom  about  which  we  are  not  so  sure,  it  is  w^ll  to  make  the 
boom  as  short  as  possible  and  keep  it  nearly  level.  If  on  the 
other  hand  the  boom  and  its  fastenings  are  known  to  be  safe  but 
the  topping-lift  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  we  should  use  the 
full  length  of  the  boom  (or  choose  a  longer  one  if  we  have  a 
choice)  and  top  it  up  as  far  as  possible,  to  give  the  required 
reach.  If  the  reach  is  such  that  a  long  boom  must  be  used  and 


MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD.  71 

kept  nearly  level,  we  have  the  maximum  of  unfavorable  con- 
ditions as  regards  both  boom  and  lift.  In  this  case  all  .that  we 
can  do  is  to  lead  the  lift  from  a  point  as  far  up  the  mast  as  is 
practicable.  This  increases  the  absolute  length  of  the  lift,  but 
decreases  its  relative  length  as  compared  with  the  mast;  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  is  the  relative  and  not  the  absolute  length 
that  determines  the  proportion  of  strain  to  be  borne  by  the  lift. 

This  case — of  a  long  boom  nearly  level — is  the  ordinary  one 
of  a  lower  yard  used  for  handling  weights. 

If  the  weight  is  suspended  from  the  boom  (or  yard)  outside 
or  inside  of  the  point  at  which  the  lift  or  burton  is  made  fast, 
the  situation  is  somewhat  modified,  as  will  be  explained  in  con- 
nection with  the  Lever. 

If  we  wish  to  find  .the  tension  on  the  guys  or  shrouds  sup- 
porting the  mast,  we  start  with  the  tension  on  the  lift,  and  re- 
solve this  along  the  lines  of  the  guy  and  the  mast,  exactly  as 
we  have  already  resolved  the  downward  pull  of  the  weight 
along  the  line  of  the  boom  and  the  lift.  In  Fig.  I,  b,  Plate  25, 
the  tension  on  the  guys  is  found  by  this  method.  In  the  par- 
ticular case  there  illustrated  it  proves  to  be  4^  tons.  If  we 
vary  the  lead  of  the  guy,  we  shall  find  that,  by  bringing  it  closer 
to  the  mast,  as  in  Fig.  3,  we  increase  the  tension  on  it,  exactly 
as  we  do  in  the  case  of  the  topping-lift  when  we  bring  this  down 
the  mast  and  make  it  fast  only  a  little  distance  above  the  heel 
of  the  boom. 

If  there  are  two  guys  (or  shrouds)  in  use,  we  have  only  to 
resolve  the  tension  above  found  for  a  single  guy  along  the  lines 
of  the  two  which  replace  it,  as  in  Fig.  4.  In  this  particular  case, 
assuming  the  angle  between  the  guys  to  be  40°,  we  find  the 
tension  on  each  to  be  21/^  tons. 

There  is  an  important  difference  between  the  case  in  which 
the  derrick  is  used  with  a  fixed  elevation  and  that  in  which  it  is 
to  be  topped  up  or  lowered  with  the  weight  hanging  from  it. 
In  the  first  case,  the  only  demand  upon  the  parts  of  the  topping- 
lift  is  that  arising  from  the  downward  pull  of  the  weight,  this 
pull  being  resolved  along  the  line  of  the  topping-lift  as  above 
described.  In  the  second  case,  there  is  added  to  this  an  im- 
portant percentage  due  to  the  resistance  of  friction,  as  is  ex- 
plained in  the  Chapter  on  Tackles. 

(See  Practical  Examples  at  the  end  of  Chapters  VI  and  VII.) 


72  MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES  ON  SHIP-BOARD. 

THE  SPAN. 

As  another  practical  example  of  the  resolution  and  composi- 
tion of  forces,  we  may  consider  the  Span  (Plate  29). 

Suppose  first  that  this  is  rigged  between  two  masts  for  plumb- 
ing a  hatch.  If  the  two  parts  of  the  span  make  equal  angles 
with  the  vertical,  they  will  bear  equal  strains ;  otherwise  the 
one  which  hangs  more  nearly  vertical  takes  the  greater  strain. 
In  Fig.  I,  if  .the  length  oc  represents  the  number  of  units  of 
force  in  the  downward  pull  of  w,  we  find  the  tension  on  the  two 
parts  of  the  span  by  constructing  the  parallelogram  of  forces  as 
in  the  cases  already  considered ;  o  A  giving  the  tension  on  one 
part  and  o  B  that  on  the  other.  It  will  be  noted  that  if  the  parts 
of  the  span  are  opened  out,  increasing  the  angle  A  o  B,  as  in  Fig. 
2,  the  parallelogram  is  flattened  out,  with  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
length  of  the  sides  which  represent  tensions  on  .the  parts  ;  whereas 
if  they  are  brought  together,  as  in  Fig.  3,  the  tensions  indicated 
on  the  parts  are  reduced.  When  the  angle  of  the  span  is  120°, 
the  tension  each  part  is  equal  to  .the  direct  downward  pull  of  the 
weight ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  span  is  just  equal  in  strength  to 
the  single  part  o  w.  If  the  angle  is  reduced  below  120°,  the 
tension  on  each  part  decreases,  until,  when  they  are  parallel,  they 
divide  between  them  the  total  tension  due  to  the  weight; — in 
other  words,  the  two  parts  are  now  twice  as  strong  as  .the  single 
part  ow.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  parts  open  out  beyond  120°, 
the  essential  weakness  of  the  span  becomes  more  and  more  ap- 
parent, the  tension  on  the  parts  increasing  enormously  as  the 
angle  between  them  approaches  180°. 

^  It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  the  use  of  a  span  is  objec- 
tionable unless  the  angle  between  the  parts  can  be  made  small ; 
and  that  in  any  case  where  it  is  to  be  used,  the  higher  up  the 
masts  the  parts  can  be  made  fast,  the  better. 

A  familiar  example  of  a  span  is  furnished  by  the  cables  of  a 
vessel  moored  and  riding  with  an  open  hawse.  If  in  Fig.  4, 
Plate  29,  the  parts  of  the  span  represent  the. cables  of  such  a 
vessel,  making  an  angle  of  I7o°  with  each  other,  it  can  be  shown 
that  for  a  force  of  10  tons  acting  along  the  keel  line,  we  have  a 
tension  of  57.3  tons  on  each  cable.  In  other  words,  two  cables 
1  in  this  way  are  only  about  one-sixth  part  as  strong  as  one 
cable  laid  out  ahead.  (See  Chapter  on  Ground  Tackle.) 


Plate  No.   29. 


73 


Fig-  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


THE  COMPOSITION  AND  RESOLUTION  OF  FORCES. 

Anni   \t-r\  ~rr\    A 


74 


MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD. 


THE  LEVER. 

Another  important  principle  of  Mechanics  which  is  involved 
in  work  on  ship-board  is  that  of  the  Lever. 

A  lever  is  a  rigid  bar  movable  about  a  fixed  point  called  the 
"  fulcrum." 

It  is  a  matter  of  every-day  experience  that  two  equal  forces 
applied  at  equal  distances  from  the  fulcrum  of  a  lever  will  bal- 
ance; and  that  a  small  force  applied  at  a  considerable  distance 
on  one  side  will  balance  a  greater  force  applied  at  a  shorter  dis- 
tance on  the  other  side.  We  have  here  illustrated,  the  principle 
of  the  lever;  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Principle  of  Mo- 
ments ;  a  "  moment,"  in  the  mechanical  sense,  being  the  product 
of  a  force  acting  on  a  lever  multiplied  by  .the  length  of  the  arm 
with  which  it  acts. 

The  Principle  of  Moments  is  expressed  in  the  following  state- 
ments. 

ist.  The  tendency  of  a  force  to  produce  motion  about  an 
axis  is  measured  not  by  the  magnitude  of  the  force  alone,  but 
by  the  product  of  the  force  into  the  distance  of  its  line  of  action 
from  the  axis. 

2d.  If  any  system  remains  at  rest,  the  sum  of  the  moments 
tending  to  turn  it  in  any  direction  about  any  axis  must  be  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  moments  tending  to.  turn  it  in  the  opposite 
direction  about  the  same  axis. 

In  Fig.  i,  Plate  30,  the  moments  of  the  forces  opposed  to  each 
other  are  respectively  4  X  100  foot-lbs.  and  2  X  200  foot-lbs. ; 
and  as  these  balance,  the  system  remains  at  rest. 

It  is  by  creating  a  difference  between  opposing  moments  that 
force  is  multiplied  by  means  of  a  lever ;  a  small  force  being  ap- 
plied with  a  long  arm  to  overcome  a  large  force  acting  with  a 
short  arm. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  forces  whose  moments  are  opposed 
to  each  other  may  act  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fulcrum,  as  in 
Fig.  i  or  on  the  same  side,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

Perhaps  the  most  familiar  example  of  a  lever  on  ship-board  is 
the  old-fashioned  capstan  (Fig.  3),  the  principle  of  which  is  pre- 
served in  the  winches  and  windlasses  of  modern  steamers.  An- 
other example  of  the  lever,  though  one  not  always  thought  of  as 
such,  is  the  sheave  of  a  block  turning  upon  a  pin  by  the  tension 


Plate   No.    30. 


75 


.Fulcrum 


2  feet 


4  feet 


200 

/6s.  ...  ">*• 

Fig.    1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Pouter 


THE  LEVER 


76  MECHANICAL   APPLIANCES   ON    SHIP-BOARD. 

of  a  rope  passing  over  its  periphery  (Fig.  4).  Here  the  friction 
between  the  sheave  and  the  pin  constitutes  a  force  opposing  the 
tension  of  the  rope,  and  we  have  two  moments  as  indicated  in  the 
figure.  This  is  (in  part)  the  reason  for  the  rule  that  sheaves 
should  be  as  large  as  is  conveniently  practicable. 

The  principle  of  the  lever  is  involved  in  all  cases  where  a 
force  is  applied  to  a  rigid  body  at  a  point  other  than  the  point 
of  support ;  as  for  example,  in  the  case  of  a  weight  suspended 
from  a  yard  or  a  derrick  at  a  point  inside  or  outside  the  lift  or 
burton.  In  Fig.  5  the  weight  is  hung  inside  the  lift  and  the 
downward  pull  is  divided  between  the  lift  and  the  truss.  To 
find  the  tension  borne  by  each,  we  must  apply  the  principle  of 
moments.  Considering  the  axis  of  the  system  as  at  c  (the  truss), 
we  have  for  our  equation  of  moments  ap  =  bit,  where  a  and  b 
are  the  two  arms,  p  the  downward  pull  of  the  weight,  and  T  the 
tension  on  the  lift. 

If  the  weight  is  suspended  outside  the  lift,  as  in  Fig.  6,  the 
equation  is,  as  before,  ap  =  br ;  and  since  in  this  case  a  is  greater 
than  before,  while  p  and  b  are  unchanged,  it  follows  that  T  must 
be  greater  than  before.  That  is  to  say,  the  farther  out  on  the 
yard  a  weight  is  hung,  the  greater  the  resulting  tension  on  the 
lift. 

THE  TACKLE. 

There  is  no  mechanical  appliance  of  greater  importance  than 
the  tackle,  but  as  this  is  fully  treated  in  the  next  Chapter,  it  will 
be  omitted  here. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  in  all  mechanical  appliances  by 
which  power  is  multiplied/  the  gain  in  power  is  purchased  by  a 
proportional  sacrifice  of  speed.  Thus  in  the  capstan  (Plate  30), 
the  power  applied  at  A  is  multiplied  five  times  at  B,  but  B  moves 
only  one  fifth  as  fast  as  A.  So  in  a  tackle,  as  will  be  explained 
hereafter.  And  so  in  all  cases  where  power  is  multiplied. 

In  all  cases  where  yards,  derricks,  tackles,  etc.,  are  used  for 
handling  weights,  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  weights  of 
the  spars,  blocks,  ropes,  etc.,  are  to  be  reckoned  with  in  our  calcu- 
lations ;  the  weight  of  each  of  these  constituting  a  downward 
force  acting  at  its  individual  centre  of  gravity. 


(77) 


CHAPTER  VI. 
BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 


(Plates  31  and  32.) 

§1.    BLOCKS. 

A  "  Block/'  in  the  nautical  sense,  consists  of  a  frame  of  wood 
or  metal  within  which  are  fitted  one  or  more  sheaves  or  pulleys 
over  which  a  rope  may  be  led  for  convenience  in  applying  power. 
If  the  block  is  properly  used,  it  multiplies  the  power  as  explained 
in  connection  with  Tackles.  (§  II.) 

As  a  rule,  blocks  are  built  up  of  several  pieces  of  wood  or 
metal  riveted  or  bolted  together. 

Sheaves  may  be  of  metal  or  lignum-vitse.  If  of  the  latter, 
their  bearings  are  boushed  with  metal. 

The  swallow  of  the  block  is  the  space  between  the  sheave  and 
the  frame,  through  which  the  rope  passes.  The  side  pieces  of 
the  frame  are  the  cheeks,  and  the  end  of  the  block  opposite  the 
swallow  is  the  breech. 

A  score  is  cut  around  the  outside  of  the  block  to  take  the  strap, 
which  may  be  of  wire  rope  or  of  wrought  iron  or  steel.  A  hook 
or  shackle  is  usually  attached  to  the  strap  at  one  end  of  the  block. 
The  friction  of  a  sheave  upon  the  pin  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  efficiency  of  the  block,  as  all  power  expended  in  overcoming 
this  friction  is  wasted.  For  this  reason  blocks  are  often  fitted 
with  rollers  or  balls  in  the  bearings  for  the  pins. 

The  subject  of  friction  will  be  treated  at  considerable  length  under  the 
head  of  tackles,  where  it  will  be  shown  that  a  large  sheave  is  essential  for 
efficiency,  and  that  the  swallow  should  be  large  enough  to  prevent  the  rope 
from  touching  any  part  of  the  block  except  the  sheave. 

Special  types  of  blocks  are  made  for  use  with  wire-rope. 

Blocks  take  their  names  from  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
used,  the  places  which  they  occupy,  or  from  some  peculiarity  in 
their  shape  or  construction.  They  are  further  designated  as 
single,  double,  treble,  and  four-fold,  according  to  the  number  of 
their  sheaves. 


7g  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

Various  types  of  blocks  are  illustrated  in  Plates  31,  32,  33 

[  Snatch-blocks  are  single  iron-bound  blocks,  hooking  to  bolts 
on  the  deck  to  give  a  fair  lead  for  boat-falls,  topsail  halliards,  etc. 
The  frame  and  strap  are  cut  and  hinged  in  such  a  way  as  to 
admit  of  "  snatching  "  the  fall,  on  the- bight. 

Gin-blocks,  or  gins,  are  iron  pulleys  (single)  of  large  diameter, 
mounted  in  skeleton  frames  also  of  iron.  Used  chiefly  for  hoist- 
ing cargo,  commonly  with  a  wire-rope  pendant. 

Strapping  Blocks.  Rope  is  very  little  used  on  modern  ships 
for  strapping  blocks,  but  wire-rope  may  sometimes  be  used  with 
advantage,  as  being  more  reliable  for  a  given  calculated  strength, 
than  the  iron  work  usually  fitted.  There  is  an  especial  advantage 
in  this  where  very  heavy  weights  are  to  be  dealt  with.  For  such 
work,  a  strap  fitted  with  long  lashing-eyes  is  recommended. 
Plate  35. 

As  to  the  strength  of  blocks,  see  §  IV  of  this  chapter. 

§11.    TACKLES. 

A  combination  of  ropes  and  blocks  for  the  purpose  of  multi- 
plying power  constitutes  a  tackle. 

If  we  reeve  a  rope  through  a  fixed  block  and  apply  power  at 
one  end  to  lift  a  weight  at  the  other,  we  have  a  "  Single  whip," 
which  is  usually  classed  as  a  tackle,  but  gives  no  gain  of  power. 
If  the  block  instead  of  being  fixed  is  attached  to  the  weight  t< 
be  lifted,  and  one  end  of  the  rope  made  fast  while  power  is 
applied  to  the  other  end,  we  have  a  tackle  proper  in  its  simplest 
form.  Here  (disregarding  friction)  the  power  applied  to  ttu 
hauling  part  is  doubled  at  the  movable  block  because  it  is  trans- 
mitted around  the  sheave  and  so  acts  along  both  parts  upon  the 
mass  to  be  moved.  In  the  same  way,  the  tension  may  be  trans- 
mitted around  any  number  of  sheaves  with  a  gain  of  power  at 
each  sheave  of  the  movable  block. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  tension  is  transmitted  around  the  sheave  of  a 
fixed  block  exactly  as  it  is  around  that  of  a  movable  one ;  but  with  no  other 
effect  in  the  case  of  the  fixed  block  than  to  increase  the  pull  upon  the  block 
and  its  supports.  This  point  is  often  overlooked,  but  it  is  very  important. 
If  a  weight  of  100  Ibs.  is  hanging  from  a  yard-arm  by  a  single  whip  with 
both  ends  made  fast  to  the  weight,  the  pull  on  the  yard-arm  is  100  Ibs.  If 
now  we  leave  the  weight  hanging  by  one  part  of  the  whip  and  man  the 
other  part,  or  hold  on  to  it,  or  make  it  fast  to  some  other  point  than  the 
weight,  the  pull  on  the  yard  is  200  Ibs.  The  same  point  comes  in  with  all 


Plate  No.   31 


79 


8o 


Plate   No.    32. 


I  sis  si 8  21 a  ?* 


Plate  No.    33. 


81 


•Standing  Part 
red  to 

\\  Orommet 
with  Sheet 
Bend. 


intoStnap. 


Fig.l. 
SingleWhip. 


ARunneror 
SingleWhip  Reversed.      fjg.3. 

Gun  Tackle 
Purchase. 


Bowline 


Fig.4. 
Luff  Tackle. 


Fig.  5. 

Cask  Slung  with  the  End 
of  a  Single  Whip. 


Cask  Slungwitfi  Can  Hooks. 


TACKLES  IN  USE. 


82 


Plate  No.   34. 


Plate  No.   35. 


Iron 
Plate 


Shears 
Supported 
byGuys. 


SHEARS  WITH  DOUBLE  THREE-FOLD  PURCHASE  FOR 

HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHT. 

NOTE.  The  rope  straps  shown  in  use  for  very  heavy  work  should  pref- 
erably be  of  wire.  Even  where  iron-strapped-blocks  are  available  they  are 
less  reliable  than  if  strapped  with  wire  rope,  though  they  are,  of  course, 
more  convenient. 


84 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 


purchases,  but  with  less  proportionate  effect.  If  we  have  to  find  the  tension 
on  a  yard  or  derrick  to  which  a  fixed  block  is  made  fast,  we  must  add  the 
tension  on  the  hauling  part  to  the  direct  downward  pull  of  the  weight. 

Evidently,  if  we  could  neglect  friction,  we  should  have  the 
simple  rule  that  the  power  at  the  movable  block  is  to  the  power 
on  the  hauling  part,  as  the  number  of  parts  at  .the  movable  block 
is  to  one ;  but  in  practice  this  rule  is  modified  by  the  work 
absorbed  each  time  the  rope  passes  over  a  sheave.  This  work  is 
accounted  for  principally  by  the  friction  of  the  sheave  upon  its 
pin ;  but  the  bending  of  .the  rope  around  the  sheave  with  the  ac- 
companying deformation  of  the  fibres  counts  for  something,  and 
in  wire-rope  may  be  an  important  part  of  the  total  loss. 

The  stiffer  the  rope,  the  greater  the  loss  from  this  source. 

It  results  from  .this  loss  of  power  in  passing  around  the  sheaves 
that  the  tension  on  the  successive  parts  of  the  fall  grows  less  and 
less  as  we  advance  from  the  hauling  toward  the  standing  part 
and  that  the  effective  power  of  the  tackle  must  be  found  by  sub- 
tracting from  the  theoretical  power,  the  proportion  wastefully 
absorbed  as  above  described.  This  proportion  varies  within  wide 
limits ;  but  it  is  always  larger  than  is  commonly  supposed,  in- 
creasing with  the  speed  of  working  and  with  a  decrease  in  the 
diameter  of  the  sheave.  It  is  reduced  by  low  speed,  and  by  the 
use  of  flexible  rope  and  well-made  patent  blocks,  having  sheaves 
of  large  diameter  as  compared  with  the  ropes  they  are  to  carry 
and  kept  in  good  order  by  frequent  overhauling.  If  the  rope 
touches  the  side  of  the  block  there  is  introduced  a  wholly  un- 
necessary amount  of  friction  with  corresponding  waste  of  power. 

A  small  sheave,  in  addition  to  wasting  power  and  increasing  the  wear 
upon  the  rope,  introduces  a  direct  and  often  fatal  source  of  weakness  by 
the  difference  in  tension  which  it  puts  upon  the  successive  layers  of  fibre 
from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  bend,  the  outer  layers  being  sub- 
jected to  extreme  tension  while  the  inner  ones  are  actually  compressed. 
The  result  is  that  the  outer  layers  give  way  and  are  followed  by  the  others 
in  succession  toward  the  inside.  This  is  the  explanation  also  of  the  weak- 
ness in  a  sharp  nip  of  any  kind,  whether  due  to  a  splice,  a  hitch,  a  bad  lead 
or  .a  bend  around  a  pin  or  post. 

Observe  that  whereas  in  hoisting,  the  maximum  tension  comes 
on  the  hauling  part,  in  lowering,  it  comes  on  the  standing  part. 

If  the  system  is  at  rest,  friction  will  tend  to  keep  it  at  rest  and 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES.  85 

will  reduce  the  power  needed  at  either  end  to  maintain  equilib- 
rium. Thus  if  we  have  a  mass  of  800  Ibs.  hanging  from  the 
lower  block  of  a  two-fold  purchase,  we  should  require  200  Ibs. 
on  the  hauling  part  to  maintain  equilibrium  if  there  were  no 
friction ;  but  since  in  practice  there  is  and  must  be  friction,  we 
shall  be  able  to  prevent  motion  by  much  less  than  200  Ibs.  As 
an  extreme  case,  we  may  imagine  the  friction  so  great  that 
nothing  is  needed  on  the  hauling  part  to  prevent  the  lower  block 
from  moving ; — the  weight  of  800  Ibs.  not  being  sufficient  to 
"  overhaul  "  the  tackle.  Similarly  a  mass  of  200  Ibs.  on  the  haul- 
ing part  may  be  held  at  rest  by  much  less  than  800  Ibs.  on  the 
lower  block,  the  friction  acting  as  before  to  prevent  motion. 

If  we  attempt,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  to  assign  an  ap- 
proximate numerical  value  to  the  loss  by  friction,  we  shall  find 
it  convenient  to  represent  this  loss  as  a  percentage  added  to  the 
load;  and  experience  shows  that  it  is  a  safe  general  rule  to  in- 
crease the  load  by  10  per  cent  for  each  sheave  over  which  .the 
fall  leads  and  then  to  consider  that  this  increased  load  is  being 
lifted  by  a  frictionless  purchase.  Accordingly,  to  find  the  power 
required  on  the  hauling  part,  or  (what  is  the  same  thing)  the 
maximum  tension  on  the  rope,  we  add  the  percentage  for  fric- 
tion as  above,  and  divide  by  the  number  of  parts  at  the  movable 
block.  (See  §  IV.) 

No  attempt  is  made,  in  the  above  "  Rule-of-Thumb,"  to  take  account  of 
variations  in  speed  due  to  variations  in  power  applied,  or  of  the  fact  that 
friction  increases  with  the  speed.  The  rule  is  for  average  working  condi- 
tions, and  includes  a  sufficient  margin  of  safety  to  cover  all  practical  cases. 

It  will  be  clear  from  the  preceding  that  much  power  is  wasted 
where  the  hauling  part  of  a  purchase  is  taken  through  an  extra 
(fixed)  sheave  merely  to  give  a  fair  lead.  A  familiar  case  of 
this  is  that  in  which  a  fall  leading  from  aloft  is  taken  through 
a  block  on  deck  to  be  manned  or  led  to  a  winch.  Such  leads  are 
often  unavoidable ;  and  even  where  net  so,  the  gain  in  conven- 
ience may  more  than  offset  the  loss  of  power ;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  this  loss  of  power  is  considerable.  The  same 
reasoning  applies  to  an  unnecessary  sheave  in  the  fixed  block  of  a 
purchase,  which  has  of  course  the  same  effect  as  an  unnecessary 
sheave  anywhere  else. 

If  one  tackle  is  attached  to  the  hauling  part  of  another,  the 
power  of  the  combination  is  the  product,  not  the  sum,  of  the 
powers  of  the  tackles  composing  it. 


g£  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

It  is  important  to  observe  .that  in  tackles  as  in  all  other  me- 
chanical appliances,  "  what  is  gained  in  power  is  lost  in  speed/' 
This  is  clearly  brought  out  by  a  comparison  of  Figs.  I  and  2  of 
Plate  32.  In  Fig.  I,  a  single  whip,  if  the  hauling  part  moves 
through  one  foot,  the  weight  at  the  other  end  moves  through  the 
same  distance.  Both  space  and  power  are  equal  at  the  two  ends 
of  the  rope.  In  Fig.  2,  a  runner,  the  power  is  doubled  at  the 
block,  but  the  block  moves  through  only  half  the  distance  mover! 
by  the  hauling  part.  And  so  at  every  sheave  of  a  movable  block. 
If  the  power  is  multiplied  six  times,  as  by  a  three-fold  block,  the 
hauling  part  must  move  through  six  feet  to  move  the  block  one 
foot.  This  may  be  a  very  important  point  where  space  is  limited. 
Tackles  are  of  value  not  only  as  multiplying  power  but  as 
applying  the  power  more  smoothly  and  uniformly.  So,  too,  in 
easing  away,  they  prevent  the  surging  which  is  almost  unavoid- 
able with  a  single  part,  and  at  the  same  time  make  it  possible  to 
lower  more  slowly  and  with  much  more  exactness ;  since,  as  has 
been  explained,  the  motion  at  the  block  of  a  purchase  is  only  a 
fractional  part  of  what  is  given  on  the  fall.  The  greater  the 
number  of  parts  to  the  tackle,  the  greater  the  gain  in  this  respect 
as  well  as  in  the  power. 

For  heavy  work  with  a  three-  or  four-fold  purchase,  it  is  well 
to  reeve  the  fall  with  the  hauling  part  leading  from  the  middle 
sheaves  of  the  blocks  instead  of  from  the  outer  ones.  This  in- 
volves a  turn  in  the  parts,,  but  reduces  the  tendency  of  the 
block  to  cant.  The  hauling  part  of  a  tackle  should  be  kept  as 
nearly  as  possible  parallel  to  the  other  parts.  A  divergence  from 
this  line  means  a  loss  of  power. 

As  the  power  of  a  tackle  depends  upon  the  number  of  parts 
at  the  movable  block,  we  have  the  rule  that  whenever  circum- 
stances permit,  the  block  having  the  greater  number  of  parts — 
or  in  other  words,  the  block  from  which  the  hauling  part  leads 
— should  be  attached  to  the  weight  to  be  moved.  This  rule  is 
often  disregarded  because  it  is  usually  impracticable  to  take  the 
hauling  part  from  the  lower  block  directly  to  the  winch ;  and  the 
most  natural  way  of  giving  it  a  lead  from  the  derrick-head  is  to 
place  there  the  block  of  the  tackle  from  which  this  part  leads. 
A  better  plan  is  to  let  the  hauling  part  come  from  the  lower 
block,  and  to  take  it  up  through  an  independent  leading  block 
at  the  derrick-head ;  thus  preserving  the  full  power  of  the  tackle. 


BLOCKS    AND   TACKLES.  87 

In  many  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  still  another  leader  at  the 
heel  of  the  derrick. 

§111. 

Tackles  as  used  on  shipboard  may  be  designated  either  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  sheaves  in  their  blocks ;  as,  single,  double, 
three-fold,  etc. ;  or  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
used ;  as,  Yard-tackles,  Stay-tackles,  Fore-and-aft-tackles,  etc. 
Still  other  designations,  not  so  easily  accounted  for,  are  luff- 
tackles,  gun-tackles,  Spanish-burtons,  etc. 

Tackles  are  almost  invariably  rove  of  manila  rope. 

Plate  32  shows  various  forms  of  tackles  with  the  theoretical 
gain  in  power  due  to  each  and  the  approximate  actual  gain  when 
friction  is  taken  into  account.  Plates  33  and  34  illustrate  certain 
common  applications  of  tackles  on  shipboard. 

A  Single-whip  (Fig.  i,  Plate  32).     A  single  block,  fixed. 

A  Runner  (Fig.  2,  Plate  32).     A  single  block,  movable. 

A  Whip  and  Runner  would  be  a  whip  hooking  to  the  hauling 
part  of  a  runner. 

A  Gun-Tackle  Purchase.     (Fig.  3,  Plate  32.) 

A  Luff -Tackle  (Fig.  4,  Plate  32).  A  single  and  a  double 
block. 

A  Luff  upon  Luff.  The  double  block  of  one  luff-tackle  hooked 
to  the  hauling  part  of  another,  thus  multiplying  the  power. 

A  Two-fold  Purchase.  (Fig.  5,  Plate  32.)  Two  double- 
blocks. 

A  Double-Luff.    A  double  and  a  treble  block. 

A  Three-fold  Purchase.  Two  treble-blocks.  (See  Plate  35, 
in  which  two  purchases  are  shown.) 

A  three-fold  purchase  is  the  heaviest  purchase  commonly  used 
on  shipboard. 

The  above  are  all  the  purchases  in  common  use.  The  designa- 
tions above  given  are  descriptive  of  the  character  of  the  pur- 
chases, not  of  their  use.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  all  cases  where 
the  two  blocks  of  a  purchase  are  alike,  the  hauling  part  leads 
from  the  block  to  which  the  standing  part  makes  fast,  while  in 
cases  where  one  block  has  an  extra  sheave,  the  hauling  part  leads 
from  this  block  and  the  standing  part  from  the  other.  To  get 
the  full  power  of  any  of  the  purchases,  the  block  from  which  the 
hauling  part  is  led  must  be  secured  to  the  object  to  be  moved. 


88  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  purchases  commonly  used, 
designated  by  terms  descriptive  of  their  use,  without  reference  to 
the  blocks  or  sheaves  involved. 

Relieving-Tackles  are  used  to  assist  or  replace  the  tiller  ropes 
in  steering.  One  block  hooks  to  the  tiller,  the  other  to  the  ship's 
side. 

Stock-  and  Bill-Tackles  are  used  in  getting  the  anchors  on  and 
off  the  bows  in  old-fashioned  ships.  They  hook  to  straps  on  the 
stock  and  bill  of  the  anchor  respectively,  and  lead  across  the  deck. 

Thwartship-Tackles  are  used  on  the  heads  of  boat-davits  for 
rigging  in.  In  a  more  general  sense  the  term  is  applied  to  any 
tackle  leading  across  the  deck.  Similarly,  a  tackle  for  hauling 
out  the  backbone  of  an  awning  or  for  any  other  purpose  where  it 
has  a  fore-and-aft  lead  is  a  fore-and-aft  tackle. 

Hatch-Tackles  are  used  at  hatches,  for  hoisting,  lowering  stores, 
etc. 

Jiggers  are  small  light  tackles  used  for  miscellaneous  work 
about  the  ship. 

A  Deck-Tackle  is  a  heavy  purchase,  usually  two-fold,  used  in 
handling  ground-tackle,  mooring  ship,  and,  generally,  for  heavy 
work  of  any  kind  about  the  decks. 

Plate  35  shows  a  special  purchase  which  ma^  be  used  for  very 
heavy  weights.  The  tension  on  the  various  parts  of  the  fall  is 
partially  equalized,  by  applying  the  power  to  both  ends. 

Yard  and  Stay  Tackles  take  their  names  from  their  application 
on  ships  with  masts  and  yards,  where  they  were  used  together 
for  transferring  stores  from  a  boat  alongside,  to  the  deck  or 
hatch  of  the  ship.  The  "  yard  tackle  "  was  hooked  at  the  yard 
arm,  where  it  could  plumb  the  boat,  and  the  "  stay  tackle  "  was 
hooked  to  a  strap  aloft  and  amidships,  usually  on  the  collar  of 
the  mainstay,  from  which  point  it  plumbed  the  main  hatch.  Plate 
34,  Fig.  3. 

The  general  principle  involved  in  the  "yard  and  stay"  is  of 
wide  application  not  only  on  shipboard  but  elsewhere,  in  cases 
where  a  weight  is  to  be  lifted  and  transferred  to  a  point  at  no 
great  distance.  Assuming  two  points  favorably  placed  for  carry- 
ing the  upper  blocks  of  the  purchases  (Fig.  3)  the  weight  is 
hoisted  by  the  "yard  tackle"  (so  called  for  convenience),  to  a 
suitable  height,  the  slack  of  the  "stay  tackle"  being  taken  in  (by 
one  man)  and  the  fall  belayed.  The  yard  tackle  is  then  slacked 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES.  89 

away  and  the  weight  swings  in  and  hangs  by  the  stay  tackle,  ready 
to  be  lowered  away. 

Modifications,  applications  and  extensions  of  this  principle 
will  readily  suggest  themselves. 

Mechanical  Purchases.     (Plate  36.) 

In  a  differential  purchase  (Fig.  6)  an  endless  rope  is  taken 
over  two  sheaves  of  slightly  different  diameters  which  are  keyed 
to  the  same  shaft  and  revolve  together.  A  movable  block  to 
which  a  weight  may  be  attached  is  hung  in  the  bight  of  the  end- 
less rope.  If  power  is  applied  to  one  of  the  parts  leading  from 
the  larger  sheave,  the  rope  is  unwound  from  the  sheave,  but 
is  at  the  same  time  wound  up  on  the  slightly  smaller  sheave 
alongside.  Thus  the  change  in  the  length  of  the  bight  which 
carries  the  movable  block  is  very  slight,  for  a  great  distance 
moved  by  the  hauling  part.  By  a  simple  mathematical  demon- 
stration, which  would  be  out  of  place  here,  it  can  be  shown  that 
the  ratio  of  the  power  applied,  to  the  power  on  the  movable 
block,  is  equal  to  the  difference  in  the  diameter  of  the  sheaves  of 
the  fixed  block  divided  by  the  larger  diameter. 

A  Duplex  Purchase  (Fig.  5)  consists  of  two  wheels  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  one  of  which  has  a  cogged  rim  engaging  a 
series  of  cams  on  the  face  of  the  other  wheel.  The  details  are 
made  clear  by  the  figure.  The  power  here  may  be  made  almost 
anything  that  is  desired,  by  proper  design  of  the  cams  and  gear- 
ing. In  any  given  case  it  may  be  determined  theoretically  (with- 
out friction)  from  the  ratio  of  the  distance  moved  by  the  power 
to  that  moved  by  the  weight. 

Still  another  type  of  patent  pulley  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1,2,3. 
This  type  is  much  used  in  the  Navy.  Its  working  is  as  follows : 

The  lift  wheel,  that  is  the  sprocket  wheel  which  carries  the  lift 
chain,  is  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  spur-wheel  that  drives  it. 
(Fig.  2.)  This  double  wheel  turns  freely  upon  a  hollow  shaft 
rigidly  supported  at  both  ends  in  the  frame.  The  spur-wheel  is 
encircled  by  a  yoke  having  internal  teeth  meshing  into  the  spur- 
wheel  teeth  and  driven  with  a  gyrating  movement  about  it  by 
two  eccentrics  placed  diametrically  opposite  (Fig.  3).  The  hand 
wheel  shaft  passes  through  the  hollow  main  shaft,  carrying  at 
the  further  end  a  pinion  which  drives  two  spur-wheels,  one  on 
each  of  the  two  eccentric  shafts  (Fig.  4). 


Plate  No.    36. 


FIG.1 


FIG.  2 


CYCLONE  CHAIN 
HOIST. 


FIG.  5 

DUPLEX 
PURCHASE. 


FIG.  4 


FIG.6 

DIFFERENTIAL 
PURCHASE. 


MECHANICAL    PURCHASES. 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES.  QI 

The  number  of  the  teeth  in  the  spur-wheel  divided  by  the  differ- 
ence between  the  number  of  the  spur-wheel  teeth  and  the  number 
of  the  internal  teeth  of  the  yoke  equals  the  number  of  revolutions 
of  the  eccentric  necessary  to  turn  the  lift  wheel  once.  (In  .the 
one-ton  size,  the  spur-wheel  has  twenty-one  teeth,  the  yoke 
twenty-four  internal  teeth,  and  the  eccentrics  .turn  seven  times 
to  each  revolution  of  the  lift  wheel.)  The  eccentric  shafts  have 
bearings  at  both  ends  and  roller  bushed  connection  with  the  yoke. 

The  friction  loss  of  this  movement  is  so  slight  (the  efficiency 
is  about  80  per  cent)  that  it  has  been  found  practicable  to  gear 
the  hoists  to  a  very  high  speed  without  increasing  the  hand  wheel 
pull  above  that  of  other  slower  hoists. 

The  automatic  brake  permits  the  spinning  of  the  hand  wheel 
in  either  direction  when  there  is  no  load,  locks  the  load  with  per- 
fect safety,  and  yet  permits  its  free  lowering  by  a  very  slight 
reverse  pull  on  the  hand  chain. 

§  IV.  STRENGTH  OF  ROPES,  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES,  ETC. 

When  definite  information  is  at  hand  with  regard  to  the 
strength  of  the  rope  in  question,  it  should  of  course  be  utilized. 
In  the  absence  of  such  definite  information,  the  following  rules 
are  convenient  and  safe : 

B  =  Breaking  stress,  Ibs.  or  tons  (of  2240  Ibs.). 
P=Safe    working    load;    viz.,    safe    tension    for 

single  part  of  rope. 
C  =  Circumference   (inches) . 
Rule  1.    Strength  of  manila  or  hemp. 

B  =  —-  tons  =  C2  X  900   Ibs. 
Rule  2.    Strength  of  wire. 

B  =  C-  X  2.5  tons  =  C2  X  5600  Ibs. 

The  breaking  stress  being  known  either  from  the  above  for- 
mulae or  from  other  sources  (see  appendix),  the  working  load 
adopted  as  safe  for  a  single  part  of  the  rope  (P,  Plate  32)  will 
depend  upon  the  factor  of  safety  which  we  adopt  after  con- 
sideration of  the  condition  of  the  rope  itself  and  the  use  to  be 
made  of  it. 

The  factor  of  safety  may  be  taken  as  follows : 
(a)     Under  average  conditions, 

Working  load,  P,  =  y6  breaking  stress,  B. 


Q2  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

(b)  Under  best  conditions— new  rope  to  be  used  occasion- 
ally, 

Working  load,  P,  =  M  breaking  stress,  B. 

(c)  Under  unfavorable  conditions,  where  rope  is  used  fre- 
quently and  for  an  indefinite  period,  as  in  the  case  of  running 
rigging  and  boats'  falls, 

Working  load,  P,  =  %  breaking  stress,  B. 

If,  without  knowing  the  breaking  stress  in  a  given  case,  we 
wish  to  derive  the  safe  working  load  directly  from  the  circum- 
ference of  the  rope,  we  have  the  following: 

Rule  3.    Safe  working  load  for  manila  or  hemp. 
Under  average  conditions: 

P  =  —-  tons  =  C2  X  150  Ibs. 

Rule  4.    Safe  working  load  for  wire. 
Under  average  conditions: 

P  =  — *  tons  =  C2  X  900  Ibs. 

Under  best  conditions,  add  30%  to  above  values  of  P. 

Under  very  unfavorable  conditions,  subtract  30%  from  above 
values  of  P. 

NOTE. — Observe  that  the  working  load  for  wire  is  the  same  as 
the  breaking  stress  for  manila. 

Rule  5.    Strength  of  blocks. 

It  may  generally  be  assumed  that  the  safe  load  for  a  well-made 
block  is  in  excess  of  that  of  any  hemp  or  manila  rope  that  it  will 
reeve.  This,  however,  is  not  always  true  of  the  hook,  which  is 
almost  invariably  the  weakest  part,  and  often  gives  way  under 
strains  for  which  the  block  is  otherwise  amply  strong.  The 
strength  of  the  hook  is  therefore  the  measure  of  the  strength  of 
the  block.  The  difficulty  here  comes  from  the  tendency  of  the 
hook  to  open  out ; — a  tendency  which  should  be  guarded  against, 
in  heavy  work,  by  careful  "  mousing  "  of  the  hook — preferably 
by  an  iron  link. 

For  heavy  work,  shackles  are  fitted  to  blocks  in  place  of  hooks 
and  are  very  much  to  be  preferred,  as  will  be  apparent  from  the 
rules  and  tables  which  follow. 

(a)  Hooks. 

D  =  Diameter  at  back  of  hook. 
P  =  y3  D2  tons. 

(b)  Shackles. 

D  =  Diameter  at  sides. 
P  =  3  D2  tons. 


BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 


93 


NOTE. — For  a  given   diameter  of  material,   a  shackle   is  approximately 
5  times  as  strong  as  a  hook. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  practical  tests  made  at 
the  Watertown  Arsenal.    The  hooks  and  shackles  tested  were  of 
the  ordinary  commercial  form.     The  diameter  given  is  that  of 
the  metal  at  the  back  of  the  hook  and  the  sides  of  the  shackle. 
TFST  OF  HOOKS. 


Diameter 
of  metal. 

Broke  at 

Remarks. 

y^  inch 

2,385  Ibs. 

- 

K 

4,130 
10,315 

• 

% 

14,510 
20,940 
27,420 

-Hook  partly   straightened,   then  fractured  across 
the   back. 

2 

38,100 
55,380 

TEST  OF  SHACKLES. 


Diameter 
of  metal. 

Broke  at 

Remarks. 

%  inch 

20,700  Ibs. 

Eye  of  shackle  parted. 

H 

38,100 

U                               U                       U 

i 

51,900 

U                               ((                      U 

\\£ 

75,200 

U                              {(                      U 

\yz 

119,980 

U                             U                     11 

1% 

146,400 

Sheared  shackle-pin. 

2 

196,600 

Eye  of  shackle  parted. 

2/^ 

210,400 

•  i                «            <  < 

Rule  6.    To  find  the  size  of  manila  rope  to  lift  a  given  load 
(in  tons). 

From  Rule  3,  above,  we  have 


C  (inches)  =  V  15  X  P,  (tons). 

Hence,  multiply  the  load  in  tons  by  15  and  take  the  square  root 
of  the  product  for  the  circumference  of  the  rope  in  inches. 

Rule  7.    To  find  the  size  of  wire  rope  to  lift  a  given  load. 

(6  X  12  type,  Plate  17.) 
From  Rule  4,  above,  we  have 


C  (inches)  =  V  2.5  X  P,   (tons). 

Hence,  multiply  the  load  in  tons  by  2.5  and  take  the  square  root 
of  the  product  for  the  circumference  of  the  rope  in  inches. 


94  BLOCKS  AND  TACKLES. 

Rule  8.  To  find  the  size  of  rope  when  rove  as  a  tackle  to  lift 
a  given  weight. 

Add  to  the  weight  one-tenth  of  its  value  for  every  sheave  to 
be  used  in  hoisting1.  This  gives  the  total  resistance,  including 
friction.  Divide  this  by  the  number  of  parts  at  the  movable 
block,  for  the  maximum  tension  on  .the  fall.  Reeve  the  fall  of  a 
size  to  stand  this  tension  as  a  safe  working  load. 

EXAMPLE  : 

To  lift  10  tons  with  a  three-fold  purchase,  the  fall  of  which, 
coming  from  the  upper  block,  is  takeri  through  an  extra  sheave 
on  deck  for  a  fair  lead.  Required  the  size  of  fall  needed. 

Total  resistance,  including  friction  =  IO  +  7X  —  —\J  tons. 

Maximum  tension  on  fall  =~  =  2.8  .tons. 

o 

Size  of  fall  (Rule  2)  =  V  15x2.8  —  6l/2  inches  (nearly). 

Rule  9.  To  find  the  weight  which  a  given  purchase  will  lift 
with  safety. 

Find  the  safe-working  load  for  the  rope  to  be  used  (Rule  i). 
Multiply  this  by  the  number  of  parts  at  the  movable  block. 
This  gives  the  total  resistance  including  friction. 

Multiply  the  total  resistance  by  10  and  divide  by  io+.the 
number  of  sheaves  used.  The  result  is  the  weight  that  may  be 
lifted. 

EXAMPLE  : 

To  find  the  weight  which  may  be  lifted  by  a  fall  of  6>^-inch 
manila  rove  as  a  three-fold  purchase,  the  fall  of  which  leads 
from  the  upper  block  through  an  extra  leader  on  deck. 

Safe-working  load,  -  —  =  2.8  tons  =  P. 

Total  resistance,  including  friction,  6X2.8=16.8  tons. 

Weight  to  be  lifted,  *'*X™=^*=  10  tons  approximately. 

Rule  10.  To  find  the  strength  of  a  spar  to  resist  compression 
(derrick  or  shears). 

T=  Safe  thrust  in  tons. 


BLOCKS   AND  TACKLES.  95 

R  —  Radius  of  spar  in  inches. 
L  —  Length  of  spar  in  feet. 

T—  4j^ 
'   L2  ' 

NOTE.  —  The  multiplier  4  in  this  formula  is  safe  for  all  ordinary  kinds  of 
wood.  For  very  strong  woods,  like  oak,  mahogany,  etc.,  it  could  be  in- 
creased 50  per  cent  without  danger. 

EXAMPLE  : 

To  find  safe  thrust  for  a  spar  10  inches  in  diameter,  of  fir,  17 
feet  long. 


T=-=8.6  tons. 

NOTES.  —  Rule  6,  above,  gives  an  unnecessarily  large  factor  of  safety  for 
the  stronger  types  of  wire,  but  it  is  convenient  and  safe. 

A  well-made  splice  weakens  either  manila  or  wire  by  from  5%  to  10%. 

A  sharp  nip  may  weaken  manila  or  wire  by  from  25%  to  50%. 

Manila  deteriorates  rapidly  if  stowed  away  wet,  or  if  exposed,  either  wet: 
or  dry,  to  continued  high  temperature. 

Wire-rope  should  be  discarded  when  its  outer  wires  are  worn  down  to 
one-half  their  original  diameter. 

The  strength  of  two  ropes  of  different  sizes  but  similar  construction 
is  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  circumferences.  Thus  a  2-inch  rope 
is  to  a  3-inch  as  4  to  9. 

As  a  working  rule,  wire-rope  is  6  times  as  strong  as  manila  of  the  same 
size. 

In  cases  where  a  load  is  applied  suddenly,  with  a  blow  or  a  jerk,  its  effect 
is  doubled,  and  this  should  be  allowed  for  in  calculating  the  size  of  rope 
required. 


Plate  No.    37. 


OLD-FASHIONED  MAST  AND  YARD  RIGGED  FOR  HANDLING 
VERY  HEAVY  WENGHT. 

Note. — The  material  here  shown  is  obsolete,  but  the  principles  involved 
are  clearly  indicated  and  of  universal  application. 


(97) 

CHAPTER   VII. 

HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS. 

§L 

Where  masts  and  yards  are  available,  as  in  sailing  ships  anxl 
steamers  with  auxiliary  sail  power,  the  problem  of  handling 
weights  presents  no  great  difficulty.  The  lower  yards  are  used 
as  derricks,  with  suitable  support  from  the  mast  by  lifts  and 
tackles.  The  principles  which  govern  the  rigging  of  these  are 
identical  with  those  discussed  theoretically  in  Chapter  V,  and 
practically  in  §2  of  the  present  Chapter.  Unfortunately  no  such 
facilities  as  are  here  assumed  exist  on  modern  ships.  Yards  are 
non-existent  and  masts  are  not  always  so  placed  as  to  be  avail- 
able. When  they  are  available,  they  are  in  some  ways  more 
useful  than  the  masts  .of  sailing  ships,  because  so  much  stiffer. 
A  span  can  often  be  used  between  the  masts  to  furnish  a  point  for 
hooking  a  tackle  just  where  it  is  wanted  (Plate  29)  ;  and  the 
place  of  the  old  fashioned  yard,  for  carrying  a  tackle  that  shall 
hang  clear  of  the  ship's  side,  may  in  many  cases  be  supplied  by  a 
cargo  boom  or  a  boat-crane. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  masts  and  yards  of  the  type  shown  on 
Plate  37  are  not  found  on  modern  ships,  the  plate  has  been  re- 
tained because  it  illustrates  principles  which  are  as  significant 
to-day  as  they  were  half  a  century  ago  and  shows  them  more 
clearly  than  they  could  be  shown  by  almost  any  other  sketch  that 
could  be  devised.  Every  tackle  and  every  spar  shown  in  the 
plate  represent  a  force  either  of  action  or  of  re-action.  The 
downward  pull  of  the  weight  W  is  met  by  the  upward  reaction  of 
the  tackles,  a,  from  the  mast  head,  assisted  by  the  spar,  S,  whose 
heel  rests  upon  the  deck,  supported  by  shores  from  the  decks 
below.  The  tendency  of  the  spar  to  buckle  is  met  by  a  brace  B 
from  its  midship  point  to  the  mast.  The  inward  thrust  of  the 
yard  resulting  from  the  horizontal  component  of  the  forces  rep- 
resented by  W  and  a  is  met  by  the  rolling  tackles  cc,  the  lower 
one  of  these  contributing  at  the  same  time,  through  the  leverage 
of  the  yard,  to  the  support  of  W.  The  inward  thrust  of  the 
yard  is  of  course  still  further  met  by  the  cross-lashing  which 
binds  the  yard  to  the  mast.  Of  especial  significance  is  the  hawser 


9g  HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS. 

on  the  off-side,  leading  from  the  topmast-head  to  the  side  of  the 
ship  and  in  through  a  port  to  the  mast  between  decks,  and  acting 
against  the  tendency  of  w  and  a  to  pull  the  mast  to  their  side. 
The  shores  which  brace  the  bulwarks  against  the  thrust  of  this 
hawser  are  also  to  be  noted. 

An  application  to  this  case  of  the  rules  and  examples  .given 
in  §  II  of  this  Chapter  will  be  found  extremely  instructive ;  and 
while  the  materials  here  shown  may  never  be  duplicated  in  prac- 
tical experience,  the  principles  (or  some  of  them)  will  be  dupli- 
cated in  every  problem  that  presents  itself  where  .heavy  weights 
are  to  be  handled. 

Parbuckling  (Plate  38).  Where  the  object  to  be  handled  is 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  admit  of  parbuckling,  this  is  a  simple  and 
convenient  method  to  use,  especially  on  a  ship  of  low  free-board. 
This  is  a  characteristically  naval  method,  and  comes  in  conveni- 
ently in  any  case  where  an  object  of  generally  cylindrical  shape  is 
to  be  hoisted  or  dragged.  A  typical  example  is  that  of  landing 
guns  on  a  shelving  beach,  the  guns  being  carried  into  shallow 
water  by  boats  and  rolled  overboard  onto  hawsers  which  have 
been  laid  off  at  right  angles  to  the  beach,  the  ends  of  the  hawsers 
being  then  brought  ashore,  over  the  gun,  leaving  the  gun  in  the 
bight.  The  operation  will  be  much  simplified  if  the  chase  of  the 
gun  is  built  up  by  some  convenient  method  to  the  diameter  of  the 
breech. 

Cargo  Booms  (Plate  39)  are  secured  to  a  mast  by  heavy  pivot- 
bolts  and  supported  by  topping  lifts  and  guys  which  admit  of 
plumbing  any  point  within  a  considerable  range  on  deck  and 
alongside.  There  is  no  difference  in  principle  between  such  a 
boom  and  a  yard  rigged  and  used  as  in  Plate  38,  except  that  the 
yard  has  the  characteristics  of  a  long  boom  used  nearly  level. 
The  cargo  booms  of  merchant  vessels  and  the  boat-booms  or 
cranes  of  men-of-war,  are  usually  heavy  enough  for  weights  up 
to  three  or  four  tons,  while  the  cranes  of  a  Dreadnought  are 
designed  to  handle  boats  weighing  as  much  as  25  tons. 

The  range  of  power  of  such  a  boom  may  be  considerably  ex- 
tended by  the  use  of  a  spar  as  in  Plate  39  to  take  the  direct 
downward  thrust,  the  deck  under  the  shoe  of  the  spar  being  well 
shored  up.  This  takes  a  large  part  of  the  tension  from  the 
topping-lift.  For  very  heavy  weights,  it  is  well  to  block  up 
under  the  pivot-bolt,  or  to  unkey  the  boom  and  step  the  heel  upon 


Plate  No.   38. 


99 


FIG.  1. 
PARBUCKLING  A  SPAR  ON  BOARD  SHIP 


FIG.  2. 
PARBUCKLING  A  GUM  UP  A  BEACH 


PARBUCKLING. 


IOO 


Plate  No.   39. 


(Dotted  Lines  Show  a  Spar 
Used  as  a  Shore  to 

Support  Head  of  Boom 

in  Extreme  Case. ) 


Hauflng  part  of 

Boom  Topping  Lift 


BOOM  FOR  HEAVY  WEIGHTS. 


Plate  No.   40. 


101 


RIGGING  A  DERRICK  FOR  A  HEAVY  WEIGHT. 


HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS. 

___cl  /The boom  itself  may  be  strengthened  by  "fishing"; 
that  is,  by  placing  lighter  spars  along  its  length  and  lashing  all 
securely  together.  If  the  boom  is  not  conveniently  situated  for 
the  work  to  be  done,  it  may  be  transported  to  the  point  where  it 
is  needed  and  supported  there  by  topping-lifts  and  guys,  the  heel 
being  placed  in  a  shoe  and  the  deck  below  shored  up  as  in  all 
similar  cases.  (Plate  40.) 

If  the  boom  is  to  be  topped  up  or  lowered  with  the  weight 
hanging  from  it,  the  strength  of  the  topping-lift  must  be  calcu- 
lated for  the  lowest  position  the  boom  will  occupy,  as  this  is  the 
one  in  which  the  demand  upon  it  will  be  a  maximum.  It  must 
be  remembered  also  that  in  actually  moving  the  boom  there  will 
be  a  much  greater  tension  on  the  fall  of  the  topping-lift  than  if 
the  boom  were  fixed.  This  is  due  to  the  resistance  of  friction 
which  must  be  added  to  the  theoretical  load  as  soon  as  the  system 
is  set  in  motion.  (See  Chapter  VI.) 

The  anchor-davit  may  sometimes  be  utilized,  assisted  by  a 
topping-lift  from  aloft  if  the  fore-topmast  is  so  situated  as  to 
make  this  feasible. 

Where  the  ordinary  resources  of  a  ship  are  insufficient  for  the 
work  in  hand,  a  derrick  or  shears  must  be  rigged,  the  materials 
being  obtained  where  they  can  be  found.  Plate  40  shows  the 
details  of  a  derrick  and  Plate  41,  those  of  shears. 

The  heels  of  such  derricks  and  shears  are  stepped  in  shoes, 
which  must  be  large  enough  to  distribute  the  weight  over  a 
number  of  beams,  and  the  decks  below  are  well  'shored  up.  The 
shoes  are  lashed  to  prevent  slipping,  and  in  the  case  of  shears 
are  held  from  spreading  by  a  thwartship  tackle.  The  shear-head 
lashing  is  sometimes  passed  with  figure-of-eight  turns,  but  the 
method  shown  in  Plate  41  is  better.  The  lashing,  being-  passed 
with  the  legs  laid  alongside  each  other,  tautens  as  they  are  opened 
out.  The  shear-head  is  supported  by  topping-lifts  and  inclined 
as  much  as  may  be  necessary.  The  more  nearly  upright  the  legs 
can  be  kept,  the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of  the  weight  sup- 
ported by  the  thrust  of  the  spars  and  the  smaller  the  demand 
upon  the  topping-lifts.  The  greater  the  distance  from  the  heel 
of  the  derrick  to  the  point  where  the  guys  set  up,  the  less  the 
strain  upon  the  guys. 

If  .the  weight  has  first  to  be  lifted  from  between-decks  and 
afterward  put  over  the  side,  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  land 


Plate   No.   41. 


103 


SHEARS  FOR  HANDLING  A  HEAVY  WEIGHT, 


104  HANDLING    HEAVY   WEIGHTS. 

it  between  the  two  operations.  It  is  true  that  derricks  (not 
shears)  are  constantly  used  to  lift  weights  and  swing  them 
around,  but  these  are  derricks  properly  fitted  and  supported  for 
it.  With  improvised  arrangements  and  a  heavy  weight,  it  is 
wiser  to  land  the  weight  and  move  the  derrick  or  shears. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  rig  the  shears  or  derrick  at  a. point 
where  no  mast  is  available  for  giving  a  lead  to  the  topping-lift 
or  guys,  a  mast  may  be  improvised;  the  topping-lift  being  se- 
cured to  this  or  led  over  it  (through  a  good  block)  and  set  up 
as  far  from  the  mast  as  possible.  Where  the  guys  are  to  lead 
athwartships,  an  outrigger  may  be  used  on  the  off  side  of  the 
ship,  secured  by  a  hawser  dipping  under  the  keel,  and  steadied 
by  good  lines  forward  and  abaft. 

//  not  entirely  sure  that  everything  is  going  to  hold,  it  is  well 

r  to  block  up  from  deck  to  deck  with  heavy  planks  crossing  the 

hatches  under  the  object  as  it  is  hoisted  from  below,  and  follow- 

•  ing  up  as  close  to  it  as  possible,  so  that  it  cannot  drop  more  than 

a  few  inches  if  anything  gives  way.     So  in  transporting  it  from 

the  hatch  .to  the  rail  it  should  be  lifted  only  just  high  enough  to 

clear  the  deck.     If  it  must  be  raised  for  the  purpose  of  clearing 

the  rail,  skids  may  be  used  from  the  hatch  and  the  weight  partly 

lifted  and  partly  skidded  across. 

If  the  blocks  and  falls  that  must  be  used  are  not  heavy  enough 
for  the  work  required,  with  the  fall  rove  in  the  usual  way,  re- 
sort may  be  had  to  the  form  of  a  tackle  shown  in  Plate  35. 
Here  we  have  two  tackles  so  far  as  power  is  concerned,  but  by 
making  the  fall  continuous  and  using  both  ends  of  it  for  hauling, 
'we  distribute  the  friction  more  uniformly,  since  there  is  no 
"  standing  part."  Another  advantage  is,  that  in  cases  where  two 
distinct  tackles  are  used  there  must  be  times  when  one  will  lag 
behind,  leaving  the  weight  entirely  on  the  other.  This  cannot 
happen  where  the  fall  is  continuous,  as  in  Plate  35.  It  is  thus 
possible  with  blocks  and  falls  of  a  given  size,  .to  handle  a  weight 
considerably  heavier  than  would  otherwise  be  safe. 

All  blocks  should  be  thoroughly  overhauled,  and  careful  cal- 
culations made  of  the  stresses  to  which  all  parts  of  the  system 
are  to  be  subjected.  Shackles  or  lashings  should  be  substituted 
for  hooks  whenever  it  can  be  done,  and  in  other  cases  the  hooks 
should  be  securely  moused.  Particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  running  of  winches  to  see  that  no  surging  is-  allowed  in 


HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS.  IO5 

either  hoisting  or  lowering.  A  heavy  surge  will  nearly  or  quite 
double  the  strain. 

Finally,  in  reeving  the  purchases,  leading  the  falls,  etc.,  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  principles  explained,  and  the  rules 
laid  down,  in  Chapters  V  and  VI. 

Plate  33  illustrates  a  variety  of  methods  of  slinging  weights, 
hooking  tackles,  etc. 

Plate  42  shows  a  number  of  Stoppers  and  Strops  for  use  in 
connection  with  ropes  and  tackles  where  heavy  stresses  are  to  be 
dealt  with,  whether  for  handling  weights  or  for  other  purposes. 

Fig.  i.  A  Manila  stopper  on  a  Manila  rope,  to  take  the  strain 
while  the  rope  is  being  belayed.  The  end  of  the  stopper  is  usually 
held  against  the  rope  by  the  hand  but  it  may  of  course  be  secured 
by  a  few  turns  of  small  stuff. 

Figs.  2  and  3.  A  Racking  stopper,  binding  the  parts  of  a 
tackle  together  and  jamming  them.  This  is  a  handy  method  for 
stoppering  a  boat's  fall  for  belaying. 

Fig.  4.  A  Manila  strop  on  a  manila  rope,  for  hooking  a 
tackle. 

Fig.  5.  A  Chain  Stopper  on  Wire  Rope.  One  of  the  most 
serious  problems  connected  with  the  use  of  wire  rope  is  that  of 
holding  a  large  rope  (a  hawser)  by  means  of  a  stopper.  Where 
the  diameter  of  the  rope  does  not  much  exceed  an  inch,  it  can 
be  held  against  a  moderate  pull  by  a  good  manila  stopper  as  in 
figure  i,  but  the  strength  of  manila  does  not  approximate  that  of 
wire  and  this  will  not  do  for  holding  against  a  really  heavy 
strain. 

A  stopper  of  chain,  like  that  of  Fig.  5,  is  stronger  than  manila 
but  does  not  grip  so  tightly. 

Fig.  6.  A  Ring  Stopper  is  sometimes  useful,  especially  when 
the  wire  is  to  be  checked  while  running  out,  but  it  has  a  tendency 
to  put  a  kink  in  the  wire. 

Another  problem  connected  with  the  use  of  wire  rope,  and 
especially  of  hawsers,  is  to  provide  a  strop  for  hooking  a  tackle 
to  the  body  of  the  rope.  Here  again  the  methods  used  with 
manila  will  answer  fairly  well  for  a  small  line  and  a  moderate 
pull.  With  these  conditions  a  manila  strop  may  be  used  with 
wire  in  the  same  way  as  with  manila.  (Fig.  4.)  But  no  manila 
strop  will  hold  a  large  wire  hawser  under  a  very  heavy  pull, 
whether  for  hooking  a  tackle  or  for  stoppering.  It  may  be  that 


io6 


Plate  No.  42. 


FIG.  1. 
A  STOPPER 
ON  A  ROPE 


FIG.  4. 

STRAP 

ON  A  ROPE 

(For  Hooking  a  Tackle) 


FIG.  3. 
A  RACKING  STOPPER 


FIG.  5. 
CHAIN  STOPPER  ON  WIRE  HAWSER 


FIG.  6. 

RING  STOPPER 
ON  WIRE  HAWSER 


STOPPERS   AND   STRAPS. 


HANDLING  HEAVY  WEIGHTS.  IO7 

the  fibre-clad  wire-rope  shown  in  Fig.  6  of  Plate  17  would  be 
found  effective. 

§11.    PRACTICAL   EXAMPLES   IN    HANDLING  WEIGHTS. 
(See  Rules  of  Chapters  V  and  VI.) 

As  the  Rules  above  referred  to  are  only  approximations,  it  is 
unnecessary  in  applying  them  to  work  with  mathematical  exact- 
ness. In  the  solutions  which  follows,  small  fractions  are  neg- 
lected, but  care  is  taken  to  keep,  upon  the  whole,  on  the  side  of 
safety. 

In  many  cases,  a  close  estimate  of  the  stresses  can  be  made  by 
the  eye,  without  calculation,  and  it  is  well  to  accustom  the  eye 
to  such  estimates  by  an  occasional  test.  Most  of  the  calculations 
which  are  required  can  be  made  mentally,  if  the  rules  are  well 
in  mind.  In  important  cases,  however,  it  is  worth  while  to  make 
a  careful  sketch,  to  scale,  and  this  will  be  found  to  involve  very 
little  trouble  in  comparison  with  the  importance  of  the  results 
depending  upon  it. 

It  is  very  important  to  remember  that  the  sudden  application 
of  a  load  causes  strains  which  may  be  double  those  produced  by 
the  same  load  applied  gradually,  or  supported  statistically.  A 
rope  that  is  capable  of  handling  a  steady  load  with  perfect  safety 
may  give  way  at  once,  if,  the  rope  being  slack,  the  load  is 
dropped,  bringing  up  with  a  jerk  on  the  suddenly  tautened  line. 
A  case  in  point  is  that  where  a  boat,  having  been  hooked  on  for 
hoisting,  is  lifted  by  a  wave,  slacking  the  fall,  and  then  drops  back, 
tautening  the  fall  with  a  jerk.  A  similar  effect  results  when  the 
slack  of  a  crane-pendant  is  suddenly  taken  up  by  throwing  the 
throttle  of  a  winch  wide  open,  or  where  a  rapidly  moving  load  is 
suddenly  arrested. 

The  shorter  the  rope  the  greater  the  danger  in  cases  like  those 
cited  above.  In  a  very  long  rope,  the  "give"  of  the  successive 
coil-like  turns  is  cumulative  and  affords  a  relief  which  is  lacking 
in  a  shorter  rope.  Similarly,  the  "give"  of  a  tackle  affords 
relief  which  is  lacking  in  a  single  pendant. 


io8 


Plate  No.   43. 


HANDLING  WEIGHTS  BY  A  YARD. 


HANDLING    HEAVY    WEIGHTS.  IO9 

I. 

A  weight  of  4000  Ibs.  is  to  be  lifted  by  a  yard,  as  in  Plate  43, 
the  yard-tackle  to  be  a  two-fold  purchase,  with  the  hauling-part 
leading  from  the  upper  block  to  the  deck.  Two  top-burtons  of 
3-inch  manila  are  available  for  supporting  the  yard.  It  is  re- 
quired to  calculate  the  size  of  rope  required  for  the  yard-tackle, 
and  to  determine  whether  the  top-burtons  are  heavy  enough  for 
the  work. 

(a)  Total   resistance   of  main   purchase   including   friction  = 

4000+^-4000—6000  Ibs. 
10 

Maximum  tension  on  fall  =  —  (^^r=  1500  lbs.  =  ^  ton  (nearly). 

4 
Size  of  rope  for  ^  ton  =  V  1  5  X  0.75  =  $l/2. 

(b)  The  load  on  the  yard  is  the  actual  dead  weight,  plus  the 
tension  on  the  hauling  part.1  =  4000+  1500—  5500  Ibs. 

To  find  the  tension  on  the  lift,  we  construct  the  parallelogram 
of  forces,  as  in  the  figure. 

Tension  of  the  topping-lift  =  6660  Ibs. 

Or  we  may  note  the  length  of  the  lift  and  of  the  mast  (from  A  to  C), 
and  determine  the  tension  by  a  proportion,  thus  : 

Length  of  mast,  AC  ==  19. 
Length  of  lift,  BC  =  23.   .. 
Downward  tension  at  B  =  5500  Ibs. 
Tension  on  lift  _  23  . 
5500  ~  19. 

Tension  on  lift  =  6660  Ibs. 

It  should  be  possible  to  estimate  this  tension  rather  closely  by  the  eye, 
without  calculation,  since  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  lift  is  not  far  from  i1/^ 
times  as  long  as  the  mast. 

The  tension  will  be  divided  between  two  top-burtons,  each  of 
which  has  three  parts.  As  the  yard  is  not  to  be  moved,  friction 
does  not  enter  the  problem.  Each  part  will  have  to  support 
one-sixth  of  the  total  tension,  or,  1110  Ibs.  (*/>  ton). 

To  find  the  safe  load  for  the  rope  of  which  the  burtons  are 


rove.    Safe  load  for  3"  rope=  =T«T  ton.     (§IV,  Chap.  VI,) 

As  this  is  more  than  the  tension  found  above  for  each  part, 
the  burtons  are  heavy  enough  for  the  work. 

1  Strictly  speaking,  only  the  vertical  component  of  the  tension  on  the 
hauling  part  should  be  included  here,  but  it  is  convenient  and  safe  to  count 
it  as  if  the  lead  of  the  hauling  part  were  vertical. 


IIO  HANDLING    HEAVY    WEIGHTS. 

(c)  To  determine  .the  thrust  on  the  yard. 
Referring  to  the  parallelogram  of  forces  in  Fig.  2,  we  have, 
Thrust  =  3800  Ibs. 

Or  we  may  calculate  it  by  proportion,  as  follows: 
Thrust  on  yard  _  AB  _  13 
5500  ~AC~I9 

Thrust  =  3800    (about). 

Here  again  it  should  be  possible  to  make  a  close  estimate  by  the  eye, 
without  calculation. 

This  thrust  is  supported  by  the  truss,  the  lift,  and  the  rolling 
tackle.  By  unkeying  the  truss  and  slacking  the  lift  we  may 
throw  it  entirely  on  the  rolling  tackle,  which  we  will  assume  to 
be  a  two-fold  purchase  with  the  double  block  hooked  to  the  yard. 
This  gives  5  parts  to  divide  the  thrust. 

Tension  on  each  part  =  760  Ibs.  =  0.33  ton. 

Size  of  fall  for  this  tension  =  V 1 5  X 0.33  =  2^  inches  (about). 

NOTE. — This  assumes  that  the  rolling  tackle  is  parallel  with  the  yard. 
If  the  strap  on  the  mast  is  below  the  yard,  we  find  the  tension  on  it  by  the 
parallelogram  of  forces. 

2. 

To  lift  12  tons  by  sheers,  as  in  Plate  44. 

Sheer-head  Purchase. — Three-fold,  with  the  hauling  part  lead- 
ing from  the  upper  block,  parallel  to  the  sheer  legs,  and  through 
a  leader  on  deck.  Two  (single)  guys  are  used,  making  an  angle 
of  30°  with  each  other. 

Total  resistance  =12+  •  ?-  12  =  20.  S  tons. 
10 

Maximum  tension  on  fall  =  —^=3. 5  tons. 

Size  of  fall  required  =  V 15 X 3.5  =  ?J4  inches  (nearly). 
To  find  the  tension  on  the  sheer-head,  we  neglect  the  tension 
on  the  hauling  part  of  the  sheer-head  purchase,  because  this  part 
leads  parallel  to  the  sheer-legs    (where  it  adds  to  the  thrust). 

Load  on  the  sheer-head  =  12  tons. 
By  the  parallelogram  of  forces  we  find, 

Total  tension  on  the  guys  =15  tons.     (Fig.  2.) 

The  tension  on  each  guy  =  8.5  tons.     (Fig.  3.) 
The  size  of  rope  to  support  this  tension, 

=  ViSX8.5=iii4  inches  for  manila  =  5  inches  for  wire, 
i 2-inch  hawsers  are  required  for  the  guys  by  the  above  rules  if 


Plate   No.    44. 


in 


Fig.  3 


t5to|?s 


''       Fig.  2 


Shear  head 
purchase 
Three-fold 


HANDLING  WEIGHTS  BY  SHEARS 


H2  HANDLING    HEAVY    WEIGHTS. 

of  manila.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  these  rules  are 
formulated  for  conditions  very  different  from  those  of  the  present 
case  and  that  they  involve  a  factor  of  safety  which  is  unneces- 
sarily large  for  a  standing  rope  to  be  used  for  a  short  .time.  For 
a  case  of  this  kind,  we  may  safely  reduce  our  multiplier  to  8. 
Thus: 

Size   of  rope=  V8x8.5  =  8  inches    (about),   for   manila  =  4 
inches  for  wire  (approximately). 

3- 

It  is  required  to  lift  a  loton  boiler  by  a  derrick  as  in  Plate  45, 

the  boom  to  be  topped  up  for  landing  the  weight  on  deck. 

Main  purchase.    Three-fold,  the  hauling  part  leading  from  the 
lower  block,  up  through  a  leader  at  the  boom  end,  then  through 
a  leader  at  the  masthead,  then  through  a  leader  on  deck. 
Total  number  of  sheaves  =  9. 
Number  of  parts  at  the  movable  block  =  7. 
Topping-lift.     Three-fold,  the  hauling  part  leading  from  the 
upper  block,  and  through  a  leader  at  the  foot  of  the  mast. 
Total  number  of  sheaves  =  7. 
Number  of  parts  at  the  movable  block  =  6. 
(a)  To  find  the  size  of  fall  for  the  main  purchase. 

Total  resistance  including  friction^  lo-f  -^- 10=19  tons. 
Maximum  tension  on  fall=^2  =  2.       tons. 


Size  of  fall  required  =  V 1 5  X  2.75  =  6l/2   inches    (nearly), 
(b)  To  find  the  size  of  fall  for  topping-lift. 
The  load  on  the  boom  is  the  dead  weight  of  the  boiler  alone, 
diminished  somewhat  as  a  result  of  the  fact  that  the  standing 
part  of  the  main  purchase  leads  up  to  the  masthead.     It  is  safe 
and  convenient,  however,  to  consider  the  whole  weight  as  hang- 
ing from  the  boom.     In  resolving  this  along  the  lines  of  the  lift 
and  the  boom  we  take  the  boom  at  its  lowest  point,  this  being 
the  point  at  which  the  load  on  the  lift  will  be  a  maximum. 
Resolving  the  forces  (Fig.  2). 

Load  on  topping-lift  due  to  weight  =  9  tons. 
.Or  thus, 

Load  on  lift Length  of  lift     25 

Weight       ~~  Length  of  mast       28 
Load  on  lift  =  9  tons. 

This  could  be  estimated  closely  by  the  eye. 


Plate   No.    45. 


Fig.  1 


HANDLING  WEIGHTS  BY  A  DERRICK. 


114  HANDLING    HEAVY    WEIGHTS. 

As  the  boom  is  to  be  topped  up,  we  must  add  the  resistance 
due  to  friction,  in  calculating  the  strength  of  fall  required. 
Total  resistance  on  topping-lift  including  friction, 

=  9+  .7.9=16.3  tons  (nearly). 
10 

Maximum  tension  on  fall  of  topping-lift^-^3  =2.75  tons. 

Size    of    fall    required    for    topping-lift  =  V  15  X  2.75  =  6^ 
(nearly). 

(c)  To  find  the  tension  on  the  gitys. 

The  pull  on  the  masthead  is  the  load  on  the  topping-lift  (9 
itons)  plus  the  tension  on  the  part,  BC,  of  the  main  purchase  fall 
leading  from  the  boom-end  to  the  masthead. 

We  have  found  the  tension  on  the  hauling  part  DE,  to  be  2.75 
itons.  The  tension  on  BC  is  considerably  less  than  this,  being 
Ireduced  by  the  friction  of  two  intervening  sheaves  ;  but  for  con- 
'venience  we  may  neglect  this  difference,  and  take  2.75  .tons  for 
the  tension  on  BC.  This  gives,  for  the  pull  to  be  resisted  by  the 
guys,  9  +  2.75  =  11.75  tons.  The  tension  on  the  guys  is  found 
from  this  as  in  other  examples  preceding. 

Tension  on  guys  =  8^2  tons. 

(d)  To  find  the  thrust  on  the  boom. 

This  is  the  resolved  component  along  the  line  of  the  boom  =  6 
tons. 

(e)  To   determine   what   thrust   the   boom   will    safely   stand. 
Diameter  of  spar  10  inches;  length  17  feet. 

By  Rule  9,  §IV,  Chap.  VI. 


=  8.6  tons. 

L,  17 

Hence  the  boom  is  strong  enough  to  stand  this  thrust  and  also 
the  increased  thrust  (about  20  per  cent)  which  will  result  from 
topping  up  the  boom  to  land  the  boiler  on  the  deck. 


HANDLING    HEAVY    WEIGHTS. 


Plate  No.  46. 


o 
o 

00 

o 

z 


^-J, 

8 


Plate  No.   47. 


\  \ 

' 


—  o 


tn 
" '      in 

£S 

*-J 


X> 


0  9A°  *>%,,; 

A   \ 

*o  >,, 

r\ 


-h 


-C         W5 

u  ^ 

?     =       CL, 

ill 


Wl 


-s     ffi 
5     CO 


T 


(n7) 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
THE  COMPASS,  LOG  AND  LEAD— SUBMARINE  SIGNALS. 

§1.     THE  MAGNETIC   COMPASS. 

The  essential  part  of  the  compass  is  a  magnetic  needle  which 
turns  freely  on  a  pivot,  and  which,  if  unaffected  by  local  disturb- 
ing influences,  would  point  due  north  and  south  (magnetic). 
The  local  influences  which  necessarily  exist  on  ship-board  and 
which  on  steel  ships  are  very  large,  are  more  or  less  fully  neu- 
tralized by  the  methods  used  to  "  compensate  "  the  compass ;  and 
the  needle  does,  in  general,  point  approximately  to  the  magnetic 
poles. 

A  recent  experience  in  which  a  ship  was  stranded  because  a  small  piece 
ol  iron  had  been  carelessly  left  near  the  compass  suggests  the  necessity 
for  a  warning  on  this  point.  Iron  or  steel,  even  in  masses  as  small  as  a 
pocketknife,  if  brought  near  the  compass,  may  affect  it.  Helmsmen  and 
quartermasters  should  understand  this. 

Stanchions,  railings  and  other  metal  fittings  near  a  compass  should 
preferably  be  of  bronze  or  other  non-magnetic  substance.  If  made  of 
iron,  they  should  never  be  absent,  while  the  compass  is  in  use,  from  the 
positions  occupied  when  observations  for  deviation  are  made. 

Attached  to  the  needle  and  moving  with  it,  is  a  circular  card 
marked  around  its  circumference  with  two  graduations ;  one  of 
points,  half-points  and  quarter-points,  the  other  of  degrees. 
(Plate  47  and  48.) 

The.  card  with  the  attached  needle  (or  needles)  is  floated  in  a 
liquid  composed  of  45  per  cent  pure  alcohol,  and  55  per  cent  dis- 
tilled water,  within  a  chamber,  where  it  is  pivoted  upon  a  jewel- 
led bearing  which  keeps  the  card  centered  and  supports  a  small 
fraction  of  its  weight.  On  the  inside  rim  of  the  card-chamber  is 
a  vertical  mark  known  as  the  "  lubber's  point,"  which,  in  install- 
ing the  compass,  is  carefully  adjusted  in  the  fore-and-aft  line  of 
the  ship  with  reference  to  the.  center  of  the  card.  In  steering, 
this  mark  is  held  in  coincidence  with  the  point  of  the  card  indi- 
cating the  course  to  be  steered.  The  lubber's  point  is  the  thing 
that  moves.  The  card  is  stationary. 


Il8       THE   COMPASS,    LOG   AND    LEAD SUBMARINE    SIGNALS. 


The  graduation  of  the  card  in  points  and  half-points  runs  as 
follows,  beginning"  at  North : 


North. 

N.  y2E. 
-  N.  by  E. 

N.  by  E.  y*E. 

NNE. 

NNE.  y2E. 

NE.  by  N. 

NE.  ^N. 

NE. 

NE.  V3L. 
-NE.  by  E. 

NE.  by  E.  y,E. 
—  ENE. 

ENE.  J4E. 
_  K.  by  N. 

E.  y2N. 
East. 

E.  y2s. 

•-E.  by  S. 

ESE  y2E. 

ESE. 

SE.  by  E.  y2E. 

SE.  by  E. 

SE.  y2E. 

SE. 

SE.  #S. 

SE.  by  S. 

SSE  y2E. 
•  SSE. 

S.  by  E.  y2E. 

S.  by  E. 

S.  /2E. 
South. 


South. 

s.  y2w. 

S.  by  W. 
S.  by  W. 
SSW. 

ssw. 

SW.  by  S. 
SW.  ^S. 
SW. 

sw.  y2w. 

SW.  by  W. 

SW.  by  W.  y>W. 
WSW. 

wsw.  y2w. 

W.  by  S. 

w.  y2s. 

West. 

W.  ^N. 
W.  by  N. 

WNW.  y2w. 

WNW. 

NW.  by  W.  y2W. 

NW.  by  W. 

NW.  y2w. 

NW. 
NW.  y2N. 

NW.  by  N. 

NNW.  y2w. 

NNW. 

N.  by  W.  y2\V. 
N.  by  W. 
N.  HW. 
North. 


NOTE. — For  convenience  the  J4  points  between  the  y2  points  are  omitted 
in  the  above.  They  appear  on  the  compass-card  and  are  always  given  in 
Boxing  the  Compass;  i.e.,  in  enumerating  the  points  and  fractional  parts 
of  points  from  North  around  by  way  of  East,  South  and  West,  back  to 
North. 

North,  South,  East  and  West  are  called  "Cardinal  Points"; 
Northeast,  Southeast,  Southwest  and  Northwest,  "  Intercardinal 
Points." 


Plate  No.   48, 


119 


I2O         THE   COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

The  delicacy  with  which  steamers  can  be  steered  by  means  oJ 
the  arrangements  now  employed  for  the  purpose  is  leading  to 
the  disuse  of  points  and  quarter-points  for  compass  work  and 
the  custom  is  becoming  general  of  shaping  courses  and  noting 
bearings,  in  degrees.  The  seemingly  trifling  error  that  may  be 
involved  in  attempting  to  steer  by  fractions  of  a  point,  while  of 
little  consequence  to  a  slow  vessel  in  a  short  run,  may  be  vital 
to  a  steamer  making  four  or  five  hundred  miles  a  day. 

As  there  are  32  points  in  the  circle,  each  point  evidently  repre- 
sents iij4°  (11°  15'). 

On  the  compass-card  which  has  been  in  use  until  very  recently, 
the  graduation  by  degrees  begins  at  North  and  at  South  and  runs 
90°  to  right  and  left  toward  East  and  West.  Thus  on  this  card 
we  have,  in  the  North-east  quadrant,  N.  i°  E.,  N.  2°  E.,  etc.,  up 
to  N.  90°  E.;  and  in  the  South-east  quadrant,  S.  i°  E.,  S.  2°  E., 
etc.,  up  to  S.  90°  E.  East  may  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  either 
N.  90°  E.,  or  S.  90°  E. 

Similarly  we  have  in  the  North-west  quadrant,  N.  i°  W.,  N.  2° 
W.,  etc.,  up  to  N.  90°  W.;  and  in  the  South-west  quadrant,  S.  i° 
W. ;  S.  2°  W.,  up  to  S.  90°  W.,  so  that  West  may  be  regarded  as 
either  N.  90°  W.  or  S.  90°  W. 

Thus  courses  may  be  designated  either  in  points  or  in  degrees. 
NE.  is  N.  45°  E. ;  ESE.  is  S.  67°  30'  E. ;  SW.  by  S.  is  S.  33°  45' 
W.;etc. 

COMPASS  CARD  U.  S.  NAVY. 

Plate  47  shows  a  new  form  of  compass-card  which  has  lately 
been  adopted  in  the  United  States  Navy.  On  this  card  the  degrees 
run  in  a  continuous  graduation  (to  the  right)  completely  around 
the  circle  from  North  to  North  again,  through  360°.  With  this 
card,  bearings  and  courses  may  be  designated  simply  by  the  num- 
ber of  degrees  from  North.  Thus  North-east  is  "45°";  East  is 
"90°";  South-west  is  "225°";  North-west  is  "315°";  etc. 

§11.    THE  GYROSCOPIC  COMPASS.* 

This  type  of  compass  has  been  developed  to  a  very  high  degree 
of  accuracy  and  reliability  during  the  last  few  years  and  is  now 
extensively  used  on  war  vessels  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe. 
It  is  also  in  use  on  a  few  of  the  large  Trans-Atlantic  Liners. 
This  compass  is  entirely  independent  of  magnetism  and  is  there- 
fore not  subject  to  the  disturbing  magnetic  influences  always 

1  By  Lieut-Commander  Charles  T.  Owens,  U.  S.  Navy. 


THE   COMPASS,    LOG   AND    LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.        121 

found  on  board  ship  which  often  render  the  magnetic  compass 
unreliable  and  for  which  careful  compensation  is  required.  It 
points  to  the  true  geographical  pole  instead  of  to  the  magnetic 
pole,  thus  eliminating  the  variation  of  the  compass.  As  its 
directive  force  is  very  much  stronger  than  that  of  the  magnetic 
compass,  errors  due  to  lag  and  sluggishness  of  the  compass  are 
also  eliminated. 

A  gyroscope,  if  so  mounted  as  to  have  freedom  of  motion  about 
three  rectangular  axes,  will  maintain  its  axis  of  rotation  fixed  in 
space,  unless  it  is  acted  upon  by  some  externally  impressed  angular 
force.  Since  it  maintains  its  axis  of  rotation  fixed  in  space,  this 
axis  will  have  an  apparent  motion  relatively  to  the  earth's  surface, 
which  is  evidenced  by  its  continually  changing  its  inclination  to 
the  horizontal  plane.  To  illustrate  this,  let  it  be  supposed  that  the 
gyroscope  is  spinning  with  its  axis  pointing  directly  at  a  star  in 
the  horizon  whose  bearing  is  due  East.  It  will  soon  be  observed 
that  the  axis  is  following  the  star  in  its  apparent  diurnal  move- 
ment. If  in  the  Northern  hemisphere  it  will  gradually  rise  and 
turn  toward  the  South,  reaching  its  highest  elevation  in  six  hours 
when  the  star  is  on  the  meridian,  and  returning  to  the  horizontal 
again  in  twelve  hours  when  the  star  is  bearing  due  West.  That 
extremity  of  the  axis  pointing  to  the  star  will  continue  to  follow 
the  latter  as  it  falls  below  the  horizon,  reaching  its  greatest  depres- 
sion in  1 8  hours  and  returning  to  the  horizontal  in  24  hours  as 
the  star  again  appears  in  the  horizon.  During  this  24  hours  the 
earth  has  completed  one  revolution  on  its  axis  while  the  star  and 
the  gyroscope  have  remained  fixed  in  space.  Had  the  axis  of 
the  gyroscope  initially  pointed  to  the  celestial  North  pole  (the 
North  Star,  approximately)  its  inclination  to  the  horizontal  would 
have  remained  unchanged  throughout  the  24  hours. 

In  the  gyro-compass  the  spinning  wheel  or  gyroscope  is  mounted 
in  a  casing  on  ball-bearings  and  is  made  to  rotate  at  the  highest 
practicable  speed  by  an  electrical  alternating  current  induction 
motor.  It  is  so  suspended  as  to  have  freedom  of  motion  about 
three  rectangular  axes,  and  would  if  not  acted  upon  by  any 
externally  impressed  angular  force,  have  motion  relatively  to 
the  earth's  surface  exactly  as  described  above.  By  means  of  a 
weight  applied  to  the  casing  carrying  the  gyroscope,  however, 
gravity  is  made  to  impress  an  external  angular  force  as  soon  as 
the  axis  of  the  gyroscope  begins  to  tilt  above  the  horizontal  and 
the  result  is  that  the  axis  of  the  gyroscope  is  drawn  toward  the 


122        THE  COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

meridian  and  is  held  pointing  steadily  to  the  North.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  following  law  discovered  by  Foucalt :  "  Any 
revolving  mass  such  as  a  spinning  wheel,  tends  to  swing  around 
so  as  to  bring  its  axis  of  rotation  parallel  to  the  axis  of  any 
externally  applied  angular  force  and  in  such  a  relation  that  the 
direction  of  rotation  is  the  same  as  the  direction  of  the  said  applied 
or  impressed  force." 

Combined  with  the  gyroscope  casing  is  a  compass  card  gradu- 
ated in  a  similar  manner  to  the  card  of  a  magnetic  compass,  hav- 
ing its  North-South  line  parallel  to  the  axis  of  rotation  of  the 
gyroscope,  and  the  entire  structure  is  suspended  from  gimbal 
rings  mounted  in  a  binnacle  or  stand. 

The  mechanical  devices  employed  to  render  the  compass  accu- 
rate and  reliable  not  only  on  shore  but  on  a  moving  ship  where  it 
is  subject  to  the  motions  of  rolling,  pitching  and  yawing,  are  much 
too  complicated  to  be  described  here.  It  may  be  stated,  however, 
that  the  readings  of  the  compass  card  must  be  corrected  for 
certain  errors  due  to  the  fact  that  on  a  moving  ship  the  gyroscope 
is  acted  upon  not  by  the  simple  Easterly  motion  of  the  earth  alone 
but  by  the  resultant  of  the  earth's  motion  combined  with  the 
ship's  and  the  axis  will  therefore  be  deflected  from  the  true  North 
by  an  amount  depending  upon  the  course  and  speed  of  the  ship 
and  the  latitude.  The  correction  may  be  made  by  mechanical 
correction  devices  attached  to  the  compass  which  move  the  lub- 
ber's line  by  the  proper  amount  to  make  the  course  as  read  off 
from  the  card,  the  true  course,  or  it  may  be  taken  from  tables  or 
charts  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

From  the  above  description  it  will  be  seen  that  whenever  the 
axis  of  rotation  of  the  gyroscope  in  the  gyro-compass  is  not  point- 
ing North  and  South,  the  rotation  of  the  earth  will  cause  an 
apparent  tilting  of  the  axis  with  relation  to  the  horizontal  plane, 
thus  bringing  gravity  into  play  to  swing  the  compass  in  to  the 
meridian.  In  reality  it  is  the  horizontal  plane  of  the  earth  which 
is  constantly  changing  its  inclination  in  space  and  it  is  this  which 
gives  the  compass  its  directive  force.  It  follows  therefore  that 
at  either  of  the  earth's  poles  where  the  horizontal  plane  remains 
fixed  in  space  the  compass  has  no  directive  force  and  at  the  equator 
where  the  inclination  of  the  horizontal  plane  is  changing  at  the 
most  rapid  rate,  the  directive  force  is  a  maximum.  This  may  be 
compared  to  the  magnetic  compass  which  has  a  maximum  directive 
force  at  the  magnetic  equator  and  none  at  the  magnetic  poles.  In 


Plate  No.   49. 


123 


Repeater  Compasses 
No.l  No?  No3  No.4  No  5 


A  /arm  Bell 


nO 

iP  ^i    O  ^ 


ShifHSvpply  - 


o  o 


Motor    •'  Storage 

Generators  Battery 


To  Fire  Con  fro/ 
Apparatus 


D  D 
D  D 
D  D 
D  D 
P.® 


*\  A  farm 
Baffery 

Fig. I 


Motsfer 
Compass 


'  Repeafer  Panel 


Lower  Conning-' 
Tower 


Telephone 
Exchange 


*•  Transmifffng 
5  fat  ion  A  ft 


GYRO   COMPASS-BATTLESHIP   EQUIPMENT. 


(124) 

Plate  No.    50. 


A — Master  Compass. 
B — Storage    Battery. 

C — Repeaters. 

D — Repeater   Connection    Boxes. 
E — Generators. 


F — Supply    Panel. 

G — Repeater  Panel. 

H — Repeater  with   Cover  for 

Steering  Station. 


MASTER  GYRO  COMPASS,  REPEATERS  AND  SWITCHBOARD 


THE   COMPASS,   LOG  AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.         125 

this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  directive  force  of 
the  gyro-compass  is  not  only  many  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
magnetic  compass  at  the  equator  but  that  on  going  into  higher 
latitudes  the  directive  force  of  the  magnetic  compass  tends  to 
decrease  much  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  gyro-compass. 

The  Gyro-Compass  equipment  of  a  Battleship  consists  of  a 
Master  Compass  which  is  usually  installed  in  a  protected  position 
below  decks,  with  controlling  switch-board,  motor-generators, 
storage  battery  and  repeater-panel  for  controlling  any  number 
of  "repeaters"  in  different  parts  of  the  ship: — Conning  tower, 
Bridge  (Steering  and  Pelorus  stands),  Steering  Engine  Room, 
Fire  Control  Station,  etc.,  all  of  these  repeaters  being  electrically 
connected  with  the  Master  Gyro  and  governed  by  it.  The  re- 
peaters resemble  in  external  appearance  the  ordinary  magnetic 
compass  and  are  so  designed  that  they  can  be  shipped  in  gimbal 
rings  in  place  of  peloruses  for  use  in  taking  bearings,  or  rigidly 
mounted  in  front  of  the  helmsman  for  steering  purposes.  Plates 
49  and  50. 

While  the  gyro-compass  has  practically  replaced  the  magnetic 
compass  wherever  it  is  installed,  it  is  considered  necessary  to 
retain  the  magnetic  compass  as  a  check  on  the  gyro  and  for  use  in 
case  of  casualty  to  the  latter.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  magnetic 
compass  will  ever  be  dispensed  with  on  any  ship. 

The  gyro  compass  is  a  highly  specialized  mechanism  which  requires  in- 
telligent care  for  successful  operation.  Instructions  for  the  care  and 
operation  should  be  rigorously  carried  out.  The  navigator  should  fre- 
quently inspect  the  switch  panels,  generating  sets,  and  master,  to  insure 
that  the  parts  are  kept  free  from  dust',  rust  and  verdigris.  It  is  a  matter 
for  emphasis  that  untrained  personnel  should  not  tamper  with  the  equip- 
ment or  attempt  alterations;  and  in  case  that  any  but  minor  repairs  are 
necessary,  the  services  of  a  gyro  compass  officer  from  the  fleet  or  Navy 
Yard  should  be  called  upon. 

The  compass  should  be  started  up  at  least  four  hours  before  sailing  as 
the  normal  settling  period  of  the  gyro  compass  is  three  hours.  Latitude 
dials  should  be  set  and  the  compass  checked  before  getting  under  way. 
While  under  way  changes  of  speed  and  latitude  should  be  communicated 
to  the  gyro  electrician  on  watch  in  order  to  keep  the  dial  settings  for  the 
speed  and  latitude  so  that  at  all  times  the  gyro  bearings  and  courses  may 
agree  with  true  bearings  and  courses. 

The  Pelorus  or  Dumb  Compass  is  a  circle  marked  with  the 
graduation  of  a  compass-card,  but  without  a  needle,  which  may 
be  mounted  at  any  part  of  the  ship  for  use  in  taking  bearings. 
A  zero-line  on  this  instrument  is  permanently  fixed  parallel  to 


126         THE   COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

the  fore-and-aft  line  of  the  ship,  and  a  movable  sighting  bai 
admits  of  measuring  at  any  instant  the  angle  between  the  head 
ing  of  the  ship  and  an  object  sighted  upon.  This  instrumen 
may  therefore  be  used  for  determining  the  compass-bearing  o 
any  object,  the  ship's-head  by  compass  and  the  bearing  of  th< 
object  by  the  pelorus  being  noted  simultaneously.  Bearings 
may  thus  be  taken  of  objects  which  cannot  be  seen  from  th< 
compass.  A  convenient  form  of  the  pelorus  is  one  in  which  th( 
graduated  circle  can  be  turned  inside  of  the  fixed  rim  which 
carries  the  zero-mark,  while  the  sighting-bar  turns  independently 
of  both.  In  this  form  of  the  instrument,  the  point  of  the  movable 
circle  corresponding  with  the  compass  course  of  the  ship  is  made 
to  coincide  with  the  zero-mark,  so  that  the  compass  bearings  o 
objects  sighted  upon  are  read  off  directly,  provided  that  the  ship 
is  exactly  on  her  course  at  the  instant  of  making  the  observation 
If  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  observation  while  she  is  not  on  the 
course  for  which  the  pelorus  is  set,  the  difference  must  be  notec 
and  applied  to  the  bearing  observed. 

Suppose  the  pelorus  is  set  for  a  course  West,  and  an  observation  taken 
when  the  ship  is  actually  heading  to  the  left  of  this  course: — say  WJ 
The  bearing  given  by  the  pelorus  must  be  corrected  by  ^  point  appliec 
to  the  left  (like  westerly  deviation).     If,  the  pelorus  being  set  as  before 
for  West,  the  ship  actually  heads  to  the  right  of  this  course — say  W}£N 
the  correction  must  be  applied  to  the  right,  like  easterly  deviation. 

The  accuracy  of  the  adjustment  of  the  zero-line  in  the  keel- 
line  of  the  ship  may  be  determined  by  setting  the  circle  to  the 
compass  course  and  taking  simultaneous  bearings  with  the  com- 
pass and  pelorus  of  a  distant  object.  If  an  error  is  found  to 
exist,  it  may  be  noted  and  applied  as  a  permanent  correction  to 
all  observations  taken  with  the  instrument ;  or  the  adjustment 
may  be  corrected. 

Evidently,  if  the  pelorus  is  set  for  the  magnetic  instead  of  the 
compass  course,  the  bearings  observed  with  it  will  be  magnetic. 

PLATE  51  shows  a  convenient  type  of  pelorus  which  is  used  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  both  the  Navy  and  the  Merchant  Service. 
One  of  its  distinctive  features  is  that  the  dial  and  the  sight-vanes 
can  be  clamped  together  at  a  known  bearing  of  an  object  so  that 
when  directed  at  the  object  it  immediately  gives  the  ship's 
heading. 

A  gyro-compass  repeater  may  be  shipped  in  the  pelorus  stand, 
where  it  becomes  itself  a  pelorus. 

Bearings.     The  bearing  (or  direction)  of  an  object  from  the 


Plate  No.    52. 


129 


''-—Antenna 


Insulator 


Compass — — 
Coils 


(Amplifier  S.EJOOO 


60V.  6V. 

"B"Bc*ffery      "A"  Battery 


RADIO  COMPASS. 


130 


Plate  No.    53. 


FIG.  1 

BEARING  BY 
RADIO  COMPASS 


{From  "Tht  Speriyscopt  1 
Apr,/ 19?0.  7 


FIG.  2 

PLOTTING  OF  LOCATION 
BY  RADIO  COMPASS 


\Ship  being  located 
(  sending  out  radio 
1  checking  signa/s. 


THE   COMPASS,   LOG  AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.         131 

bearing  having  been  received  is  plotted  like  any  other  line  of 
bearing.  If  bearings  are  received  from  two  or  more  stations, 
the  result  is  a  cut  which  fixes  the  ship's  position.  In  a  more 
complete  application  of  the  system,  two  stations  which  have  de- 
termined the  bearings  of  a  ship  report  these  to  a  Central  Station, 
which  plots  the  lines,  establishes  the  cut  and  gives  the  ship  its 
position  instead  of  its  bearings.  (Plate  53.) 

§IV.    THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  SPEED. 

The  speed  of  a  ship  may  be  measured  by  a  Patent  Log,  of 
which  there  are  many  types,  or  by  the  revolutions  of  the  pro- 
pellers. It  may  also,  of  course,  be  determined  by  running  over  a 
measured  course  or  between  bearings  of  charted  points  on  shore. 
Whatever  method  is  used,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for  cur- 
rents, and  the  distinction  recognized  between  speed  through  the 
water  and  speed  over  the  ground.  The  speed  indicated  by  a  log 
is  speed  through  the  water.  That  determined  by  any  one  of  the 
other  methods  mentioned  is  speed  over  the  ground. 

Patent  Logs.  With  few  exceptions,  these  consist  of  a  "  ro- 
tator," in  principle  like  the  propeller  of  a  ship,  which  is  towed 
through  the  water  and  thus  made  to  rotate  with  a  velocity  varying 
directly  with  the  speed,  and  a  series  of  gears  and  dials  to  which 
the  motion  of  the  rotator  is  transmitted  by  a  cord,  the  dials  regis- 
tering the  distance  corresponding  to  the  revolutions  of  the  rotator. 
In  a  "  tafFrail "  log,  the  registering  mechanism  is  on  the  taffrail 
and  a  long  line  is  used  between  it  and  the  rotator ;  in  a  "  harpoon  " 
log,  the  registering  mechanism  is  towed  astern  with  the  rotator 
and  must  be  hauled  in  for  reading.  As  the  record  of  a  patent  log 
is  one  of  distance  and  not  of  speed,  we  must,  to  find  the  speed, 
note  the  run  for  a  given  length  of  time. 

Plate  54  shows  several  types  of  patent  logs  in  common  use. 
By  a  simple  "  make-and-break "  attachment,  the  record  of  the 
rotator  can  be  transmitted  electrically  to  a  dial  in  the  chart-house 
or  elsewhere. 

A  patent  log  should  be  given  the  same  care  that  is  accorded 
to  other  mechanical  devices  from  which  accurate  working  is 
expected.  It  should  be  oiled  daily  when  in  use  and  kept  in  a 
dry  place  at  other  times.  Logs  of  the  harpoon  type  should  be 
washed  in  fresh  water  before  being  stowed  away. 

When  a  log  is  first  put  in  service,  care  should  be  taken  to  de- 
termine accurately  its  percentage  of  errors.  This  will  be  found 


132 


Plate  No.    54. 


Reproduced  oy  courtesy  of  Messrs  Negus  and  Sons,  and  John  Bliss  and  Co. 

PATENT  LOGS. 


THE   COMPASS,   LOG  AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.          133 

to  vary  considerably  with  the  speed,  a  log  which  runs  correctly 
at  ten  knots,  being,  perhaps,  materially  in  error  at  fifteen. 

The  only  way  to  determine  the  error  satisfactorily  is  by  runs 
of  some  length  between  known  points  where  the  effects  of  wind 
and  tide  are  small.  As  some  effect  must  always  be  expected 
from  such  causes,  a  number  of  runs  will  be  needed  to  get  a 
reliable  error;  and  for  every  run  that  is  made,  a  record  should 
be  kept  of  the  comparison  between  the  distance  made  good  by 
chart  and  that  recorded  by  the  log,  a  distinguishing  number  or 
letter  being  assigned  to  each  rotator  and  each  register  so  that 
their  identity  may  be  preserved  throughout  the  record. 

If  the  record  shows  also  the  draft  of  the  ship,  the  revolutions 
of  the  engines  and  the  details  of  wind  and  sea,  it  may  be  of  great 
value  in  checking  the  calibration  of  the  ship's  screws  as  herein- 
after described. 

The  length  of  log-line  used  has  much  to  do  with  the  working 
of  the  log.  The  proper  length  to  use  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances is  that  issued  with  the  log  by  its  makers ;  but  it  is  found 
that  a  greater  length  is  needed  for  a  high  than  for  a  low  speed. 
Logs  are  commonly  accompanied  by  instruments  for  changing 
the  pitch  of  the  rotator-blades  to  correct  an  error  in  running,  but 
unless  the  error  is  very  great  it  is  better  to  leave  it  and  apply  the 
correction  found  from  observation. 

A  disadvantage  of  logs  which  depend  upon  a  towed  rotator 
is  that  the  rotator  is  often  fouled  by  refuse  from  the  ship,  or  by 
sea-weed,  which  vitiates  the  record  transmitted  to  the  recorder, 
and  makes  it  necessary  to  haul  in  and  clear  the  rotator,  thus  losing 
the  record  for  an  appreciable  period.  It  is  principally  because  of 
this  inconvenience  that  rotator  logs  are  falling  into  disuse  in  spite 
of  their  many  advantages  when  used  at  moderate  (cruising) 
speeds. 

The  revolutions  of  the  screws  afford  a  very  convenient  indica- 
tion of  the  speed  of  the  ship  but  are  subject  to  certain  corrections, 
nearly  all  of  which  are  matters  of  estimate  rather  than  of  exact 
determination.  As  a  starting  point,  the  revolutions  are  calibrated 
with  reference  to  speed  under  standard  conditions, — draft  and 
trim  normal,  the  bottom  clean,  and  weather  moderate.  Under 
these  conditions  curves  are  constructed  for  several  speeds  by 
running  over  a  measured  course,  runs  being  made  in  both  direc- 
tions to  eliminate  the  effect  of  wind  and  current.  It  is  desir- 


!^4        THE  COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

able  that  these  runs  be  repeated  with  varying  conditions  of  draft 
but  this  is  not  always  practicable. 

For  ideal  results,  runs  should  also  be  made  with  varying  condi- 
tions of  trim  and  fouling  of  bottom;  but  data  of  this  character 
can  be  gradually  accumulated  as  experience  with  the  ship  pro- 
gresses. Advantage  should  be.  taken  of  opportunities,  such  as 
are  constantly  arising,  for  checking  the  calibration  on  runs 
between  light-houses  and  other  fixed  and  charted  points,  always 
keeping  in  mind  the  possible  existence  of  a  current,  and  noting 
always  the  estimated  conditions  of  draft,  trim,  and  bottom. 

If  the  length  of  time  out  of  dock  were  an  approximately  accu- 
rate measure  of  the  degree  of  fouling,  the  condition  of  the  bottom 
would  always  be  approximately  known,  but  this  is  very  far  from 
being  the  case  and  this  element  in  the  problem  must  be  estimated 
from  what  is  known  of  the  facts.  The  fouling  will  be  greater  in 
the  tropics  than  in  temperate  waters ;  much  greater  in  salt  water 
than  in  fresh;  much  greater  for  time  spent  at  anchor  than  for 
time  under  way.  A  foul  bottom  tends  to  clean  itself  in  steaming 
at  high  speed.  A  ship  badly  fouled  at  sea,  lying  for  a  long  time 
in  fresh  water,  rids  itself  of  barnacles  but  may  take  on  grass. 

The  result  of  what  precedes  is  that  the  navigator  who  relies 
upon  revolutions  for  his  dead-reckoning  must  apply  to  his 
standard  calibration  curve  a  correction  which  at  any  given  time  is 
an  estimate  of  the  percentage  of  speed  lost  or  gained  by  the 
conditions  which  he  knows  to  have  existed  since  the  last  docking 
of  the  ship;  taking  account  also  of  the  temporary  draft  and  trim, 
as  well  as  of  the  direction  and  condition  of  wind  and  sea.  It  is 
the  great  advantage  of  a  good  patent  log,  carefully  calibrated  for 
various  speeds,  that  it  gives  the  actual  distance  run  (through  the 
water)  with  no  other  correction  than  that  based  upon  its  own 
error. 

Vessels  like  the  Trans-Atlantic  liners,  which  make  long  trips  at 
high  speed  (and  almost  unvarying  speed)  depend,  for  their  dead- 
reckoning,  upon  revolutions  alone,  relying  largely  upon  soundings 
for  checking  their  positions  when  approaching  land  in  a  fog. 
So,  too,  vessels  like  the  Sound  and  River  steamers  of  the  United 
States,  when  running  in  a  fog,  depend  upon  revloutions  and  rarely 
come  to  grief. 

"Rut  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  masters  of  these  vessels 
spend  years  in  running  over  the  same  routes,  with  the  same  ships, 


THE  COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE  SIGNALS.         135 

under  conditions  which  vary  but  little  from  trip  to  trip ;  so  that 
they  are  able  to  estimate  the  factors  involved  in  their  navigation 
with  almost  perfect  confidence. 

It  must  be  understood  that  all  the  methods  which  have  been 
described  above  give  the  speed  through  the  water,  not  over  the 
ground.  To  get  the  speed  over  the  ground,  use  is  sometimes 
made  of  a  "ground-log"  consisting  of  a  moderately  heavy  lead 
on  the  end  of  a  log-line.  The  lead  is  thrown  over  and  allowed  to 
sink  to  the  bottom,  after  which  the  line  is  paid  out  and  the  time 
noted,  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  the  chip-log,  care  being  taken  not 
to  drag  the  lead.  This  method  not  only  gives  the  speed  over 
the  bottom  but  shows  the  direction  of  the  set.  Its  availability  is 
confined  to  rather  shallow  water  and  to  very  low  speeds,  but  it 
is  often  very  valuable,  especially  in  confined  waters,  in  a  fog, 
where  the  force  and  direction  of  the  current  may  be  of  vital  im- 
portance and  where  the  speed  is  necessarily  low. 

To  stop  the  ship  dead  in  the  water  and  put  over  a  ground-log 
may  give  information  of  the  greatest  possible  value  as  to  the 
direction  and  force  of  the  current. 

The  records  given  by  the  logs  which  have  been  described  above 
are  records  of  distance  and  not  of  speed.  From  the  distance  re- 
corded in  any  given  interval  of  time  we  can  find  the  average  speed 
during  that  interval,  but  not  the  actual  speed  at  any  instant. 

There  are  on  the  market  several  types  of  patent  logs  which 
depend  on  the  pressure  of  the  water  resulting  from  the  speed  of 
the  ship.  Such  a  log  is  the  Nicholson,  which  aims  to  give  both 
the  instantaneous  speed  and"  the  distance  run.  It  gives  also,  in 
connection  with  a  clock,  a  continuous  graphic  record  of  speed. 

In  principle,  this  log  consists  of  a  vertical  tube  passing  through 
the  bottom  of  the  ship  and  projecting  several  inches  below.  The 
lower  end  of  the  tube  is  closed,  but  an  opening  in  the  forward 
side  gives  free  entrance  to  the  water,  which  accordingly  rises, 
when  the  ship  is  at  rest,  to  a  level  corresponding  with  the  level  of 
the  water  outside ;  that  is  to  say,  with  the  momentary  water-line 
of  the  ship.  As  the  ship  moves  ahead,  the  pressure  due  to  her 
speed  is  communicated  to  the  column  of  water  in  the  pipe,  where 
it  is  added  to  the  pressure  due  to  the  "  head  "  of  water  outside ; 
with  the  result  that  the  column  rises  in  the  tube  to  a  height  which 
becomes  a  measure  of  the  speed.  Inside  the  tube  is  a  float,  con- 
nected through  suitable  gearing  with  a  pointer  which  indicates 


136        THE  COMPASS,  LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE  SIGNALS. 

the  fall  and  rise  of  the  float,  and  the  corresponding  speed.  A 
counter-weight  at  the  other  end  of  the  chain  balances  the  float. 

This  instrument  was  at  one  time  very  generally  used  in  ships  of 
the  United  States  Navy  but  it  has  not  proved  satisfactory  in 
practice  and  has  been  removed  from  most  of  the  ships.  It  is 
described  here  because  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  based  is 
unquestionably  sound  and  one  which  may  ultimately  find  a  more 
successful  application. 

The  Forbes  Log,  which  has  for  some  years  been  used  in  the 
British  Navy,  has  recently  been  supplied  to  several  battleships  of 
the  United  States  Navy.  It  resembles  the  Nicholson  log  in  that 
it  uses  a  tube  projecting  through  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  with 
mechanism  running  from  this  tube  to  the  chart  house  and  actuat- 
ing a  recorder  there.  It  differs  from  the  Nicholson  in  that  the 
record  of  the  speed  depends  not  upon  the  pressure  of  the  water 
but  upon  the  velocity  of  a  screw  rotator  carried  below  the  bottom 
of  the  ship  in  the  lower  end  of  the  projecting  tube.  The  end  of 
the  tube  is  open  on  both  the  forward  and  after  sides  so  that  the 
water  has  a  free  course  through  the  orifice  in  which  the  rotator 
is  carried. 

§V.    SOUNDING. 

THE  LEAD. 

The  ordinary  method  of  getting  the  depth  of  water  is  by 
means  of  a  "lead"  and  line.  A  hand-lead,  used  for  moderate 
depths,  may  weigh  anywhere  from  7  to  14  Ibs.  and  a  good  leads- 
man will  get  soundings  in  depths  up  to  5  fathoms  with  the  ship 
going  8  knots.  If  reliable  soundings  are  wanted  in  depths 
greater  than  this,  the  speed  must  be  reduced  or  the  sounding- 
machine  used. 

The  old  style  of  marking  the  lead-line  was  as  follows : 

At  2  fathoms,  with  2  strips  of  leather. 
"    o        "  "     ?       "       "       " 

"    a  white  rag. 
|    7  "a  red  rag. 

"  I0  a  piece  of  leather  with  a  hole  in  it. 

"  T3  the  same  as  at  3  fathoms. 

"  je  "  "                  «         -           <( 

"17  "  «                  «        j 

"  20  with  2  knots. 

"25  «  «  i  knot. 


THE   COMPASS,   LOG   AND   LEAD SUP.MARINE   SIGNALS.          137 

The  above  are  called  the  "  marks."  The  intervening  depths 
are  "  deeps." 

The  old  style  of  reporting  the  soundings  was : 

"By  the  mark,  three!" 
"By  the  deep,  four!" 
"  A  quarter  less,  three !  " 
"  And  a  quarter,  four !  " 
etc.,  etc. 

This  method  of  marking  the  lead-line  and  of  reporting  sound- 
ings is  antiquated  and  should  be  obsolete.  A  lead-line  should 
have  a  mark  for  every  fathom  and  half -fathom  up  to  10  fath- 
oms; and  for  a  considerable  range — covering  the  depths  that 
are  critical  for  the  ship  using  it — it  should  be  marked  in  feet. 
Thus,  if  a  ship  draws  20  feet  of  water,  there  should  be  a  mark 
at  every  foot  between  20  and  30.  The  soundings  should  be 
reported  by  the  leadsman,  sharply  and  clearly,  in  fathoms  and 
fractions  for  depths  exceeding,  say  6  fathoms,  and  in  feet  for 
depths  below  this. 

The  lead-line  should  be  of  some  material  that  will  neither 
stretch  nor  shrink  excessively  as  it  is  alternately  wet  and  dried. 
An  ideal  material  for  this  purpose  has  yet  to  be  proposed.  It 
may  be  that  wire-rope  of  sufficient  flexibility  will  some  time  be 
put  on  the  market. 

The  lead-lines  (wet)  should  be  carefully  measured  and  re- 
marked, each  time  they  are  to  be  used. 

As  the  mark  at  the  water's  edge  cannot  be  seen  at  night,  some  navi- 
gators like  to  mark  their  lines  in  such  a  way  that  the  depth  is  indicated 
by  the  mark  in  the  leadsman's  hand  when  the  line  is  up  and  down.  This 
calls  for  a  length  of  stray  line  equal  to  the  drift  from  the  water's  edge  to 
the  leadsman's  waist;  this  distance  being  laid  off  on  the  line  before  begin- 
ning to  measure  for  the  marks. 

Sounding  Machines.  There  are  several  types  of  sounding  ma- 
chines on  the  market,  all  depending  upon  the  same  principle  and 
differing  but  little  in  details.  The  original  machine  of  this  type 
was  invented  many  years  ago  by  the  great  Scotch  scientist,  Lord 
Kelvin  (then  Sir  William  Thomson),  and  all  later  machines  are 
based  upon  the  principle  which  he  first  applied, — the  principle  of 
determining  the  depth  of  water  by  the  pressure  of  the  water  at 
the  depth  in  question,  this  pressure  being  regisered  on  the  inside 
of  a  glass  tube  open  at  one  end  and  closed  at  the  other.  If  such 


138        THE  COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

a  tube,  with  the  closed  end  up,  is  lowered  in  the  water,  the 
pressure  of  the  water,  acting  upon  the  air  with  which  the  tube  is 
filled,  compresses  the  air  and  forces  the  water  up  into  the  tube  to 
a  height  which  depends  upon  the  pressure  and  therefore  upon  the 
depth.  This  is  the  first  part  of  the  problem  involved.  The 
second  part  is  to  find  a  method  of  automatically  registering  the 
maximum  height  to  which  the  water  has  risen  in  the  tube. 

The  tubes  issued  by  the  maunfacturers  for  use  with  the  Kelvin 
Machine  are  coated  on  the  inside  with  chloride  of  silver,  a  sub- 
stance which  changes  color  on  contact  with  salt-water.  Thu* 
in  taking  a  sounding  the  lower  part  of  the  tube,  up  to  a  point 
depending  upon  the  depth  reached,  changes  color,  leaving  a  line 
of  sharp  demarkation  at  the  point  to  which  the  water  has  risen 
inside  the  tube.  The  height  of  this  mark,  measured  by  a  special 
scale  provided  with  the  machine,  becomes  the  measure  of  the 
maximum  depth  to  which  the  tube  has  sunk. 

For  the  Tanner-Blish  machine,  which  is  very  generally  used  by 
American  ships  and  especially  by  the  United  States  Navy,  the 
glass  sounding  tubes  are  ground  on  the  inside  so  that  they  show 
clear  glass  when  wet,  this  being  a  peculiarity  of  ground  glass.  If 
such  a  tube  is  perfectly  dry  in  the  beginning,  it  will,  after  sound- 
ing, show  clear  glass  up  to  the  point  to  which  the  water  has 
risen,  with  a  sharp  line  of  demarkation  between  this  part  and  the 
dry  (and  clouded)  part  above.  The  upper  end  of  the  tube  is 
closed  by  a  water-tight  cap  which  can  be  removed  after  each 
sounding  to  admit  of  drying  the  tube  quickly,  after  which  the 
tube  is  again  ready  for  use.  This  results  in  a  considerable  econ- 
omy in  the  expenditure  of  tubes. 

The  Kelvin  and  Tanner-Blish  tubes  may  be  used  inter- 
changeably. 

Whatever  type  of  tube  is  used,  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  closed  end  upward  after  sounding.  If  it  is  capsized,  a 
little  water  may  run  into  the  upper  end  of  the  tube  and  spoil 
the  record. 

Plate  55  shows  the  Kelvin  and  Tanner-Blish  Machines.  Fig. 
2  shows  mechanical  details  of  the  Kelvin.  The  corresponding 
details  of  the  Tanner-Blish,  while  differing  somewhat  from  those 
here  shown,  are  similar  in  principle.  In  each  machine  we  have 
a  drum  carrying  a  coil  of  light  but  very  strong  wire  rope  about 
200  fathoms  in  length.  The  drum  is  controlled  by  a  brake  by 
which  the  rate  at  which  the  wire  runs  out  can  be  regulated.  Fig. 


Plate  No.    55. 


139 


SSD&  pdpno/0 * 


CD, 


I4O        THE  COMPASS.   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

5  shows  the  machine  in  use.  The  tube  is  carried  in  a  metal 
cylinder  for  protection  and  a  heavy  sinker  of  lead  or  iron  insures 
its  rapid  sinking. 

All  being  in  readiness  as  shown  in  the  figure,  the  brake  is 
released  and  the  wire  runs  out,  trailing  far  astern  if  the  ship  is 
moving  at  high  speed. 

A  dial  shows  the  length  of  wire  out  at  any  given  instant  and  the 
speed  of  running  out  is  regulated  as  desired  by  manipulation  of 
the  brake.  If  the  sinker  finds  bottom,  the  wire  slacks  suddenly 
and  the  brake  must  be  applied  immediately  to  prevent  kinking  of 
the  wire.  As  a  further  insurance  against  kinking,  it  is  well  to 
use  the  brass  finger-pin  supplied  with  the  machine,  keeping  a  light 
pressure  on  the  wire  as  it  runs  out,  and  standing  by  to  press  down 
quickly  upon  the  bight  of  the  wire  as  it  slacks. 

The  wire  should  always  be  stopped  while  an  ample  length 
remains  on  the  drum. 

The  length  of  wire  that  has  run  out  would  be  a  measure  of 
the  depth  if  the  speed  of  the  ship  and  the  friction  of  the  machine 
were  constant.  In  practice,  a  quartermaster  who  is  accustomed 
to  his  machine  and  uses  his  brake  uniformly  can  make  a  fair 
estimate  of  the  depth  without  waiting  to  reel  in  and  read  the  tube. 
Such  an  estimate  may  often  give  an  instant  warning  of  danger. 
In  some  types  of  the  Kelvin  Machine  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  provide  for  constant  friction  on  the  brake,  and  a  table  is  issued 
with  the  machine  giving  the  depth  for  different  speeds  cor- 
responding to  the  length  of  wire  out  as  indicated  by  the  dial. 
This  is  valuable,  but  not  sufficiently  reliable  to  replace  a  careful 
reading  of  the  tube  as  soon  as  this  is  available. 

For  large  ships  motors  are  fitted  for  reeling  in  the  wire. 

It  is  convenient  to  mount  the  sounding  machine  on  the  bridge, 
with  an  outrigger  and  a  fair-lead  block  to  carry  the  wire  clear  of 
the  ship's  side.  (Plate  55,  Fig.  5.)  With  such  an  arrangement 
everything  is  under  the  eye  of  the  officer  of  the  watch. 

§VI.    SUBMARINE  SIGNALS. 

This  is  a  system  for  transmitting  sound  signals  through  the 
water,  and  receiving  them  by  special  instruments  on  shipboard, 
the  receiving  arrangement  being  of  such  a  nature  as  to  admit  of 
determining,  at  least  approximately,  the  direction  from  which  the 
sound  is  received.  It  is  in  fact  a  system  of  "  Direction  Finding  " 


THE   COMPASS,   LOG   AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.          141 

applied  to  sound  closely  resembling,  in  principle  and  in  operation, 
the  Radio  Compass  as  applied  to  radio  waves. 

In  its  original  and  simplest  form, — the  form  which  admits  of 
both  sending  and  receiving  from  a  fixed  station  but  of  receiving 
alone  from  a  moving  station, — the  system  is  as  follows : 

A  bell,  immersed  as  far  as  is  convenient  below  water,  is  so 
placed  as  to  mark  a  danger  or  a  point  of  importance  in  piloting, 
and  is  automatically  sounded  at  certain  intervals  with  a  character- 
istic signal  which  fixes  its  identity.  The  sound  of  the  bell  is  trans- 
mitted through  the  water,  and  experiments  show  that  it  can  be 
heard  without  instruments  at  a  distance  of  several  miles,  by  a  lis- 
tener whose  ear  is  held  against  the  inner  skin  of  a  ship  below  the 
water-line.  It  seems  to  be  established  that  even  with  this  crude 
arrangement  for  receiving,  sound-signals  transmitted  through  the 
water  are  superior  in  range  and  reliability  to  those  transmitted 
through  the  air.  With  the  special  apparatus  shown  in  Plate  56 
for  receiving  the  sound  and  transmitting  it,  magnified,  to  the  ear, 
the  range  of  audibility  is  from  10  to  30  miles,  depending  upon 
conditions ; — that  is  to  say,  upon  the  speed  of  the  ship  and  the 
bearing  of  the  bell.  High  speed  is  to  some  extent  unfavorable, 
doubtless  because  the  wash  of  the  water  along  the  side  inter- 
feres with  the  sound.  The  bearing  of  the  bell  with  reference  to 
the  ship's  head  determines  the  angle  at  which  the  sound-waves 
strike  the  receiver,  the  result  being  that  a  signal  on  the  beam  can 
be  heard  much  farther  than  one  which  is  forward  of  or  abaft  the 
beam. 

It  the  submarine  did  nothing  more  than  to  announce  with 
certainty  the  proximity  of  the  danger  which  it  marks,  it  would  be 
a  very  valuable  aid  to  navigation.  But  it  does  much  more  than 
this.  It  fixes  the  direction  of  the  danger  within  narrow  limits; 
and  in  those  waters — common  enough  on  irregular  coasts — where 
the  zones  of  two  or  more  signals  intersect  (or  will  intersect  when 
the  use  of  the  system  becomes  more  general),  the  position  of 
the  ship  may  be  plotted  with  considerable  accuracy  by  the  cross- 
ing of  the  lines  of  bearing,  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  visible  bear- 
ings, though  not  with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  receiving  apparatus  (Plate  56)  consists  of  a  small  iron 
tank  attached  to  the  side  of  the  ship,  wholly  on  the  inside,  and 
filled  with  salt  water.  In  this  tank  is  a  delicate  receiver  which 
takes  up  the  sounds  as  they  come  to  it  through  the  water  and 


142 


Plate   No.    56. 


Transmitter  Case  in   Hold  of  Ship. 
(Connected  Electrically  with  Receiving  Telephones  in  Pilot-House.) 


Direction  Indicator  and   Receiving  Telephone. 


SUBMARINE  SOUND  SIGNALLING  APPARATUS. 

Old  Type. 


THE   COMPASS,    LOG  AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS.          143 

transmits  them  through  an  electric  circuit  to  a  telephone  in  the 
pilot  house  or  on  the  bridge. 

A  switch  admits  of  throwing  in  either  the  starboard  or  the 
3ort  receiver.  If  it  is  desired  to  listen  to  both  sides,  the  receivers 
ire  thrown  in  alternately,  by  a  movement  of  the  switch.  If  the 
sound  is  heard  more  clearly  in  the  starboard  than  in  the  port 
receiver  it  is  known  that  the  signal  lies  to  starboard.  If  it  is 
squally  clear  in  both  receivers,  the  signal  is  directly  ahead  (or 
astern).  If,  as  the  ship  swings,  the  sound  grows  fainter  in  one 
transmitter  and  clearer  in  the  other,  the  signal  is  drawing  toward 
that  beam  from  which  it  is  heard  more  clearly.  When  it  is  at  a 
maximum  it  is  approximately  abeam. 

A  signal  which  is  decidedly  on  one  side  of  the  ship  will  hardly 
ever  be  heard  through  the  opposite  receiver;  but  when  only  a 
little  on  one  bow,  it  can  usually  be  heard  in  the  receiver  on  the 
opposite  bow.  Thus,  as  has  been  explained,  a  signal  which  is 
nearly  ahead  and  not  very  far  distant  may  be  heard  through  both 
receivers. 

If  the  signal  is  more  distant,  the  sound  will  be  lost,  even  in  the 
near  receiver,  as  the  ship's  head  swings  up  to  it,  and  will  not  be 
picked  up  on  the  other  side  until  perhaps  a  point  or  more  on  the 
bow.  In  this  case,  its  bearing  may  be  taken  as  approximately 
midway  between  the  heading  en  which  it  is  lost  and  that  on  which 
it  is  again  picked  up. 

A  ship  picking  up  a  signal  through  the  starboard  receiver 
knows  that  the  bell  lies  to  starboard  and  in  all  probability  for- 
ward of  the  beam.  The  sound  may  be  expected  to  grow  clearer 
until  the  bell  is  abeam,  and  then  to  grow  fainter  as  it  draws  abaft. 

If  its  approximate  bearing  is  wanted  before  it  comes  abeam, 
the  course  may  be  changed  toward  it  and  the  speed  reduced  if 
necessary.  The  bearing  is  then  determined  as  has  been  explained 
above. 

While  it  is  net  claimed  in  the  present  development  of  the 
system  that  the  signals  can  be  heard  beyond  about  15  miles, 
there  are  many  cases  recorded  in  which  they  have  been  heard 
at  more  than  twice  this  distance.  Vessels  carrying  their  receivers 
well  below  the  water-line  can  hear  to  a  greater  distance  than 
others.  A  vessel  at  rest  hears  farther  than  one  that  is  moving. 
And  certain  configurations  of  the  bottom  seem  to  have  the  effect 
of  gathering  up  and  concentrating  the  waves  of  sound  and  trans- 
mitting them  to  a  distance,  like  a  megaphone. 


144        THE  COMPASS,   LOG  AND  LEAD — SUBMARINE  SIGNALS. 

It  is  evident  that  the  receivers  of  a  ship  can  pick  up  other 
sounds  than  those  from. a  bell  and  that  they  may  thus  be  useful 
for  example,  in  giving  notice  of  the  proximity  of  another  ship 
whose  propellers  are  turning  over.  The  noise  of  the  propellers 
might  in  many  cases  be  heard  much  farther  than  a  fog-whistle 
When  the  arrangements  described  below  for  transmitting  fron 
vessels  underway  have  been  fully  perfected,  vessels  in  a  fog  wil 
be  able  to  communicate  at  much  greater  distances  than  at  pres- 
ent, and  there  seems  no  reason  why  there  should  not  be  devisee 
some  plan — perhaps  by  revolving  the  receiving  instrument — for 
determining  the  direction  from  which  the  signals  come,  withou 
the  inconvenience  and  delay  incident  to  such  changes  of  course 
as  have  been  described  in  connection  with  piloting. 

The  following  is  an  interesting  example  of  a  practical  applica- 
tion of  the  system : 

Approaching  Nantucket  light  vessel  on  a  west  course  in  a  dense  fog  with 
a  light  S.  S.  E.  breeze  and  smooth  sea  on  May  5,  1906,  we  heard  the  sub- 
marine signal  very  slightly  on  our  port  side   in   a   distance  say  about  4 
to  6  miles.     When  the  sound  ceased  at  o.io  p.  m.,  I  put  the  vessel  on 
South  course  and  heard  the  signal  then  again  till  0.45  p.  m.     I  was  then 
sure  that  I  had  the  light  vessel  to  the  eastward  and  put  my  course  direc 
for  Fire  Island  light  vessel.     During  all  the  time  we  never  heard  a  single 
sound  of  the  Nantucket  light  vessel's  steam  whistle. 
Yours  very  truly, 

(Signed)  CAPT.  R.  SAURMANN, 

5.  5.  Amerika. 

o.io  P.M.          West  Course 

X— 


11.50  A.  M. 

* 

Course  t,  FTC  M-»d    &  Nintuckct  Light  Vtssel 


0.45    P.  M. 


With  the  above  apparatus,  as  has  been  explained,  a  ship  can  re- 
ceive signals  but  cannot  send  them.  The  Submarine  S'.gnal 
Company  has  long  been  engaged  in  an  effort  to  develop  a  system 
which  should  make  sending  possible  from  a  moving  ship.  The 
Fessenden  Oscillator,  recently  perfected,  promises  a.  solution  of 
the  problem.  This  is  both  a  sending  and  a  receiving  instrument. 
For  sending  it  greatly  surpasses  the  submarine  bell  both  in  power 
and  in  speed  of  operation.  It  can  be  readily  mounted  on  ship- 
board and  produces  signals  equally  effective  whether  the  vessel 
is  in  movement  or  at  rest,  gives  a  signal  of  full  power  for  any 
desired  time  (as  contrasted  with  the  bell,  the  vibrations  of  which 


Plate  No.    57. 


145 


LIU  UU  U  U  LHUULJ  UUU  U 

A  B  C  D  E   F  G   H    I  J    K   L  M    N 

ODD 

°0 


e 


© 


PsC.riD.  05C.FLD.  Motor  Motor 
40.2  No.l  Line  Start 
O  O  O  O 


nnnnnn  nil 


PORTOSC.  STAR.OSC. 


SWITCHBOARD   SUBMARINE    SIGNAL   SYSTEM. 


146         THE   COMPASS,   LOG   AND   LEAD SUBMARINE   SIGNALS. 

lose  their  power  rapidly),  and  can  start  or  stop  almost  instan- 
taneously. 

As  a  receiving  instrument  it  is  quite  as  effective  as  the  micro- 
phone used  in  the  earlier  submarine  signalling  apparatus. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  advantages  connected  with 
a  system  like  this  which  makes  it  possible  for  a  ship  to  -inter- 
change signals  with  another  ship  or  with  a  shore  station,  and  this 
without  regard  to  weather  conditions,  "zones  of  silence"  or 
"interference." 

Like  the  microphone  tanks  of  the  earlier  signalling  apparatus, 
the  box  containing  the  oscillator  is  bolted  to  the  inner  skin  of  the 
ship  well  below  the  water-line,  but  whereas  the  tanks  containing 
the  microphones  of  the  earlier  system  were  filled  with  water,  the 
box  containing  the  oscillator  is  filled  with  air,  and,  as  it  is  of  the 
first  importance  that  this  air  should  be  dry,  it  is  given  a  pressure 
of  twenty-five  pounds  to  the  square  inch  before  the  box  is  sealed 
up. 

The  oscillator  is  attached  to  the  skin  of  the  ship  in  such  a  way 
that  its  diaphragm  actually  constitutes  a  part  of  the  ship's  plating, 
a  circular  hole  being  cut  in  the  side  to  admit  of  this. 

The  action  of  the  oscillator  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  that 
of  a  telephone  receiver.  The  diaphragm  is  vibrated,  as  in  the  tele- 
phone, by  rapid  variations  in  the  polarity  of  an  electro-magnet. 
But  as  the  diaphragm  is  enormously  larger  and  thicker  than  that 
of  the  telephone,  its  operation  calls  for  the  use  of  powerful  elec- 
tric currents.  The  standard  type  takes  a  direct  current  of  seven 
amperes  through  the  main  magnetic  coil  and  an  alternating  cur- 
rent of  eleven  amperes  through  the  core.  The  instrument  is 
operated  from  a  switchboard  shown  on  Plate  57.  Sending  is  done 
by  an  ordinary  telegraph  key ;  receiving,  by  telephone  receivers. 

The  method  of  locating  the  direction  of  a  signal  received  is 
exactly  the  same  as  with  the  earlier  microphone  system  which  has 
been  fully  described. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  oscillator  system  will 
before  many  years  be  required  as  a  part  of  the  safety  outfit  of 
every  seagoing  vessel. 


(H7) 


CHAPTER   IX. 

BOATS. 
II. 

Boats  designed  to  be  carried  on  shipboard  are  subject  to  many 
conditions  which  define  their  characteristics  within  narrow  limits, 
especially  as  regards  their  size  and  weight.  These  limits  are  de- 
termined, first  of  all,  by  the  specific  purposes  for  which  the  boats 
are  to  be  used ;  and  next  by  the  facilities  available  for  stowing 
and  handling  them. 

The  boats  of  a  merchant  vessel  are  intended  almost  exclusively 
for  saving  life  in  circumstances  of  emergency,  when  they  must 
be  handled  by  a  small  number  of  men  and  usually  under  condi- 
tions of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty.  It  is  therefore  as  im- 
portant for  them  to  be  light  and  handy  as  to  be  roomy  and  sea- 
worthy. The  boats  of  men-of-war  are  used  for  a  great  variety 
of  purposes,  of  which  life  saving  is  by  no  means  the  first,  and 
in  design  are  necessarily  a  compromise  between  conflicting 
demands. 

Merchant  Steamers,  and  especially  passenger  steamers  (in- 
cluding transports),  are  required  by  law  to  carry  a  number  of 
boats  proportioned  to  the  maximum  total  personnel  which  they 
are  authorized  to  carry.  Moreover,  the  law  prescribes  with  much 
detail  the  character  of  the  boats  and  the  facilities  which  shall  be 
provided  for  their  stowage  and  handling.  These  facilities  are 
directed  almost  exclusively  toward  getting  the  passengers  safely 
away  from  the  ship  in  case  of  necessity  and  ensuring  their  safety 
so  long  as  they  may  be  obliged  to  remain  in  the  boats.  Thus  the 
question  of  lowering  the  boats  and  getting  them  clear  of  the  ship 
receives  vastly  more  attention  than  that  of  hoisting  them.  In 
the  matter  of  stowage,  also,  questions  of  convenience  must  be 
sacrificed  wherever  necessary  for  quick  and  safe  handling  in  an 
emergency. 

Conditions  are  entirely  different  on  men-of-war,  where  every- 
thing else  gives  way  to  military  efficiency.  Here  the  boats  are 
stowed  and  handled  as  best  they  may  be  after  every  possible 


148 


BOATS. 


facility  has  been  provided  for  pointing  and  firing  the  guns. 
Moreover,  since  the  boats  of  a  man-of-war,  instead  of  being 
reserved  for  some  special  emergency,  are  designed  and  used  for 
scores  of  purposes  connected  with  the  everyday  life  of  the  ship, 
the  question  of  hoisting  is  quite  as  important  as  that  of  lowering. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOATS.  (Plates  58  and  59.) 

Boats  are  made  of  both  wood  and  metal  and  by  a  great  variety 
of  systems.  In  wood,  three  general  types  of  construction  are 
common:  Carvel,  Clinker  and  Diagonal.  (Plate  58.) 

In  Carvel  building  (Fig.  i),  the  planks  lie  alongside  each  other 
without  overlapping,  the  seams  being  calked.  Where  the  build  is 
too  light  to  admit  of  calking,  a  narrow  batten  or  riband  is  run 
along  the  seams  inside,  the  calking  being  in  this  case  limited  to  the 
garboard  seams  and  the  butting  ends  of  the  planks. 

Where  heavy  boats  are  built  on  this  system,  a  second  layer  of 
planking  is  sometimes  used  inside  the  frames. 

In  Clinker  building  (Fig.  2),  the  planks  overlap  at  their  edges 
like  the  clapboarding  on  a  house,  and  are  fastened  to  each  other 
as  well  as  to  the  frames.  As  the  planks  thus  support  each  other, 
this  system  has  greater  strength  for  a  given  weight  than  Carvel 
building  and  the  frames  can  be  placed  farther  apart.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  planks  are  liable  to  split  along  the  line  of  fasten- 
ings, and  repairs  called  for  by  this  or  other  injuries  to  the  boat 
are  made  with  some  difficulty  because  of  the  necessity  of  remov- 
ing several  planks  to  repair  one.  The  seams  are  not  calked,  the 
swelling  of  the  planks  causing  them  to  bind  tightly  upon  each 
other.  To  keep  them  tight,  the  boat  should  be  put  in  the  water 
frequently,  or,  if  that  is  impracticable,  well  wetted  with  a  hose 
from  time  to  time. 

In  Diagonal  building  (Fig.  3),  the  planks  run  diagonally  at  an 
angle  of  45°  from  the  keel  to  the  gunwale  and  two  thicknesses  of 
planking  are  used,  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  No  frames  are 
needed.  This  is  a  strong  system  of  building,  but  necessarily  a 
heavy  one.  As  a  rule  it  is  used  only  for  large  boats  carrying 
heavy  weights. 

The  Carvel  and  Diagonal  Systems  are  sometimes  combined,  two 
layers  of  planking  being  used,  one  Carvel  laid,  the  other  Diagonal. 

The  parts  of  a  boat  are  shown  on  Plate  59. 

Metallic  Boats.  Metallic  boats  are  preferable  to  wooden  ones 
when  they  are  to  be  carried  in  such  positions  that  they  are  of 


Plate  No.    58. 


149 


150 


Plate  No.    59. 


BOATS.  151 

necessity  exposed  to  excessive  heat  and  moisture  and  when  they 
are  not  to  be  often  used.  They  are  especially  desirable  for  ships 
which  are  to  spend  much  time  in  the  tropics.  If  subject  to  the 
sort  of  treatment  that  the  boats  of  a  man-of-war  necessarily  re- 
ceive they  would  quickly  be  battered  out  of  shape,  and  sooner  or 
later  punctured,  when  the  problem  of  repair  on  shipboard  would 
become  a  difficult  one. 

The  plating  of  metallic  boats  is  of  sheet  steel,  galvanized.  The 
keel,  stem  and  stern-post  are  sometimes  also  of  steel  but  more 
commonly  of  wood.  Especial  precautions  should  be  taken  in 
the  design  to  make  all  parts  accessible  for  inspection,  drying, 
cleaning  and  painting,  to  prevent  damage  from  rusting  and  gal- 
vanic action,  the  danger  of  such  damage  being  the  principal  ob- 
jection urged  against-  this  kind  of  boat.  Another  objection  is, 
of  course,  that  unless  buoyancy  is  provided  by  air  tanks  or  other 
artificial  means,  the  boat  will  sink  immediately  if  it  fills  or  cap- 
sizes, whereas  a  wooden  ,boat  under  these  conditions  will  not 
only  float  itself  but  provide  a  limited  degree  of  support  for  the 
crew. 

Buoyancy  of  Boats.  As  a  rule,  boats  carried  on  shipboard, 
whether  of  wood  or  metal,  are  fitted  with  air-tanks  for  reserve 
buoyancy.  Such  tanks  are  of  wood,  copper,  or  galvanized  sheet 
steel.  In  the  United  States  Coast  Guard  Service,  which  probably 
has  as  much  experience  with  boats  as  any  other  organization  in 
the  world,  metal  has  been  entirely  discarded  for  wood,  the  tanks 
being  built-in  and  made  of  two  layers  of  planking,  tongued  and 
grooved,  with  canvas  and  white  lead  between  the  layers. 

The  position  of  the  air-tanks,  especially  as  regards  height,  is 
an  important  consideration.  If  carried  high,  they  tend  to  keep 
the  boat  from  capsizing  and  help  to  right  it  if  it  is  capsized ;  but 
if  above  the  thwarts,  they  reduce  the  space  available  for  pas- 
sengers and  interfere  with  the  handling  of  the  oars.  If  carried 
low,  they  keep  down  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  boat,  not  only  by 
their  own  weight  but  by  lowering  the  seating  space  for  passen- 
gers, but  this  advantage  is  offset  by  the  fact  that  they  actually 
increase  the  difficulty  of  righting  the  boat  if  it  is  capsized.  The 
general  practice  is,  nevertheless,  to  place  them  below  the  thwarts 
(Plate  60),  but  it  will  be  explained  later  how  and  to  what  ex- 
tent the  arrangement  is  modified  in  what  are  specifically  de- 
signed as  Self-righting  boats. 


152 


BOATS. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  BOATS. 

. — Regulations  as  to  ship's  boats  are  established  for  United  States 
merchant  vessels  by  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  for  British  vessels  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Ship's  boats  are  classified  as  follows: 
Class       I.     Rigid-Sided  Life  boats.     Plate  60. 

II.     Collapsible-Sided  Life  boats.     Plate  64. 
"     III.     Open  Boats  without  Air-tank  Buoyancy. 

Classes  I  and  II  are  sub-divided  according  to  variations  of 
construction  into  I  A,  I  B,  I  C  and  II  A,  II  B  and  II  C,  and  are 
required  to  have  air-tank  buoyancy  proportioned  to  the  number 
of  passengers  they  are  designed  to  carry. 

Class  I  A,  Plate  60,  may  be  regarded  as  the  standard  life  boat 
of  the  merchant  service.  It  may  be  eitheit  metal  or  wood ;  and  if 
of  wood,  of  either  Carvel  or  Clinker  construction. 

The  required  buoyancy  may  be  given  either  by  tanks  running 
along  the  side  or  by  compartments  at  bow  and  stern,  or  by  a 
combination  of  these  systems. 

The  law  requires  that  a  wooden  boat  of  Class  I  A  must  have 
an  internal  buoyancy  by  air  tanks  of  at  least  10  per  cent,  of  the 
cubic  capacity  of  the  boat,  and  that  a  metal  boat  shall  have  suffi- 
cient air-tank  buoyancy  to  make  its  total  equal  to  that  of  a  cor- 
responding wooden  boat. 

The  number  of  persons  that  may  be  carried  in  a  I  A  boat  is 
found  theoretically  by  allowing  10  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each 
person.  The  practical  way  of  determining  this  is  to  decide  upon 
a  safe  minimum  of  freeboard  for  the  service  required,  and  then, 
the  boat  being  in  the  water,  to  load  to  this  line  with  men  dis- 
tributed as  they  would  be  distributed  in  actual  service.  Nine 
inches  is  a  fair  allowance  of  freeboard  for  boats  up  to  30  feet  in 
length  and  twelve  inches  for  larger  boats. 

Self-Baling  Boats.  (Plate  61,  Figs.  3,  4,  5.)  In  a  self-baling 
boat,  a  water-tight  deck  runs  throughout  the  length  of  the  boat 
slightly  above  the  load  water-line.  The  space  below  this  is  thus 
converted  into  a  water-tight  compartment  or  a  series  of  such 
compartments.  Extending  from  the  deck  down  through  the 
bottom  of  the  boat  are  several  water-tight  trunks,  open  at  top 
and  bottom,  through  which  any  water  which  accumulates  on  the 
deck  is  carried  off.  The  trunks  are  in  effect  neither  more  nor 
less  than  scuppers,  or  freeing  ports.  Evidently  they  cannot  take 


Plate  No.   60. 


153 


FI6.1 

Boats.Chocks,  Davits,  Lashings 


Buoyancy 
Tank> 


Buoyancy 
Tank 


w 

FI6.2 

Box  Buoyancy  Air-Tank 


Y 

FI6.3 

Cylindrical  Buoyancy  Air-Tank 


Stern  Buoyancy  Compartment 


Bow  Buoyancy  Compartment 


FIG.4 

Buoyancy  Air  Tank  Bow  and  Stern 


STANDARD   SHIP'S  LIFE   BOAT    (CLASS   I— A). 


154 


Plate  No.    61. 


BOATS.  155 

care  of  any  water  which  may  enter  the  compartments  below  the 
deck  from  leaks  in  the  side  or  bottom  of  the  boat.  Such  water 
is  pumped  out  by  hand-pumps  and  if  discharged  on  to  the  deck, 
flows  off  through  the  trunks  like  water  from  a  breaking  sea. 

Self -Righting  Boats.  (Plate  62.)  It  is  evident,  as  already 
explained,  that  if  the  buoyancy  of  a  boat  can  be  carried  very 
high  there  will  result  a  tendency  for  the  boat  to  right  itself  if  it 
is  capsized,  and  that  this  tendency  will  be  increased  if  the  keel  is 
made  as  heavy  as  practicable.  Self-righting  boats  are  accord- 
ingly built  of  such  a  shape  as  to  admit  of  carrying  the  bow  and 
stern  air-tanks  very  high,  and  are  fitted  with  a  heavy  keel  of  iron 
or  lead. 

The  self-baling  and  self-righting  features  are  sometimes  com- 
bined, but  only  in  large  boats.  (Plate  62,  Figs.  4,  5,  6,  7.) 

United  States  Coast  Guard  Boats. 

Plates  61  and  62  show  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  group 
of  boats,  representing  the  standard  types  which  have  been  de- 
veloped, after  many  years  of  experiment,  by  the  United  States 
Coast  Guard  Service  As  has  been  already  stated,  all  air-tanks  in 
these  boats  are  of  wood ;  two  layers  of  planking  being  used,  with 
canvas  and  white  lead  between  the  layers.  The  boats  themselves 
are  also  of  wood. 

Surf  Boat.     (Plate  61,  Fig.  i.)     Coast  and  Ship  Type. 

Length  26  ft.     Weight  2,100  Ibs.     For  oars  and  sails. 

Neither  self-righting  nor  self -baling.     Air  tanks  bow  and  stern. 

This  is  the  so-called  "  Monomoy  "  whale  boat  which  has  long 
been  used  as  a  surf-boat  in  the  Cape  Cod  region,  one  of  the 
wildest  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Coast.  It  is  light  and  handy  enough 
to  be  transported  along  the  beach  on  a  carriage  and  launched 
through  the  surf.  Fig.  2  Plate  67  shows  this  boat  fitted  for 
running  in  through  a  surf,  with  a  drogue  (drag)  to  prevent 
broaching  to. 

In  addition  to  its  use  as  a  surf  boat,  this  type  is  carried  by 
vessels  of  the  Coast  Guard  for  use  as  a  life  boat  (hanging  from 
davfts)  and  for  general  service  such  as  running  lines,  com- 
municating with  other  ships,  etc. 

Self-Baling  Surf  Boat.     (Plate  61,  Figs  3,  4,  5.) 

Coast  and  Ship  Type. 

Length  25  ft.  6  in.     Weight  2,200  Ibs.     For  oars  and  sails. 

Self-baling  features :  Water-tight  deck  above  load  water-line. 


156 


Plate  No.   62. 


BOATS.  157 

Water-tight  compartments  below  deck.     Freeing  trunks. 

Other  features :  Water-tight  compartments  at  bow  and  stern, 
above  deck.  Tank  near  midship  section  which  may  be  filled  with 
water-ballast  by  a  hand-pump. 

This  type  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  that  of  Fig.  I  and 
like  the  type  of  Fig.  i  can  be  transported  on  a  carriage  and 
launched  through  the  surf.  It  is  sometimes  issued  to  vessels 
for  use  as  a  life  boat  and  is  not  too  heavy  to  be  carried  at  davits. 

Motor  Surf  Boat.  Self-baling.  (Plate  62,  Figs,  i,  2,  3.) 
Coast  Type. 

Length  26  feet.  Weight  3,300  Ibs.  Gasoline  engine,  oars  and 
sails. 

Self -baling  and  other  features  as  in  preceding  type.  Engine 
compartment  water-tight. 

NOTE. — Several  boats  of  this  type  have  been  issued  to  ships  of  the 
Navy  for  test  as  to  their  suitability  for  use  as  life-boats,  replacing  the 
whale  boat  which  has  long  been  the  standard  Navy  Life  Boat. 

The  motor  surf  boat,  if  adopted,  will  probably  be  carried  on  the 
upper  deck  to  be  handled  by  a  crane,  special  arrangements  being  made  for 
getting  it  into  the  water  quickly. 

Motor  Life  Boat.  (Plate  62,  Figs.  4,  5,  6.)  Self-Baling  and 
Self-Righting.  Coast  Type. 

Length  36  feet.     Weight  14,300  Ibs. 

Self-baling  features  same  as* the  other  types. 

Self-righting  features:  High  bow  and  stern  air-tanks.  High 
engine  compartment,  water-tight.  Cast-iron  keel,  1,800  Ibs. 

This  type  is  too  heavy  to  be  launched  from  an  exposed  or 
shallow  beach.  It  is  designed  for  use  in  localities  where  sheltered 
inlets  are  available  as  bases  from  which  to  operate  alone:  a  con- 
siderable stretch  of  coast.  This  is  an  extremely  capable  boat  and 
when  once  launched  will  go  through  practically  any  surf  and  live 
in  any  sea. 

Shipping  Board  Boats.  The  standard  boat  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  and  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  is  a  26- 
foot  metallic  boat,  with  sharp  bow  and  stern,  with  cylindrical  air- 
tanks  of  galvanized  steel  running  fore  and  aft  under  the  thwarts. 
The  keel  and  stem  and  stern  posts  are  also  of  steel. 

Steward  "Deadrise"  Boat.  (Plate  63.)  This  is  a  metallic 
boat  manufactured  by  the  Steward  Davit  and  Equipment  Cor- 
poration. The  flat  floor  of  this  design  makes  it  possible  to  carry 
the  air-tanks  lower  th'an  in  a  boat  with  a  round  bilge  and  admits 


158 


Plate  No.    63. 


STEWARD  LIFE  BOATS,  DAVITS  AND  LOWERING  DRUM. 


BOATS.  159 

of  lowering  the  thwarts  and  thus  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
loaded  boat.  The  elimination  of  many  of  the  curves  which  are 
involved  in  the  conventional  full-bilge  design  reduces  the  number 
of  plates  and  therefore  the  number  of  seams  and  rivets ;  and  with 
these,  the  danger  of  leakage.  Experience  appears  to  justify  the 
further  and  more  important  claim  that  the  design  has  advantages 
in  the  matter  of  seaworthiness. 

The  author  is  in  receipt  of  the  following  statement  from  the  Third 
Mate  of  the  Steamer  "Liberty  Glo  "  which  was  cut  in  two  by  a  floating 
mine  off  the  coast  of  Holland,  in  December,  1919.  The  boat  mentioned 
was  the  Steward  boat  of  Plate  63. 

"  The  boat  in  which  I  left  the  ship  proved  to  be  a  remarkable  sea- 
boat.  We  went  through  breakers  that  looked  miles  high,  rushing 
along  at  express  speed,  combers  covering  our  boat  with  a  smother  of 
white  water,  yet  at  no  time  did  we  ever  broach.  When  we  had  landed, 
the  people  of  Schiermonnikoog  would  hardly  believe  that  we  had 
come  in  through  the  breakers  from  the  North  Sea  in  an  open  boat" 

Plate  64  shows  the  Lundin  decked  life  boat,  with  col- 
lapsible sides,  capable  of  carrying  60  passengers  with  ample  re- 
serve buoyancy.  The  boat  is  decked  throughout  its  length  and 
fitted  with  trunks  for  self-baling.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  col- 
lapsible feature  of  the  bulwarks  adds  greatly  to  the  compactness 
of  stowage.  The  hinged  weather  boards  fold  down  upon  the 
deck  when  not  needed,  but  can  be  quickly  raised  when  the  boat  is 
to  be  used,  and  lock  securely  into  their  places.  The  space  below 
the  deck  is  divided  into  water-tight  compartments  which  are  in 
reality  air-tanks  placed  in  the  very  bottom  of  the  boat.  This  type 
of  boat,  in  which  the  buoyancy  is  secured  by  a  water-tight  subdi- 
vision of  the  hull  of  the  boat,  and  not  by  the  addition  of  air-tanks, 
is  called  the  Pontoon  type. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  characteristic  spoon-shaped  bow  and  stern 
of  the  Lundin  boat  add  much  to  its  seaworthiness. 

Life  Rafts.  Plate  67,  Fig.  3,  shows  an  Elliptical  Life  Raft  of 
a  type  approved  by  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  and  by  the 
Navy  Department.  The  elliptical  cylinder  is  sometimes  a  tubular 
copper  air-tank  covered  with  cork  and  sometimes  is  of  "balsa" 
wood,  a  strong  wood  lighter  than  cork,  which  does  not  become 
water-logged. 

The  elliptical  body  carries  a  net,  which,  when  passengers  are  on 
the  raft,  sinks  to  $y>  feet.  In  the  larger  sizes,  which  are  capable 
of  supporting  60  men,  a  wooden  platform  is  attached  to  the  net 
to  give  a  more  comfortable  footing.  The  smallest  size  weighs 


i6o 


Plate  No.    64. 


BOATS.  l6l 

only  40  pounds,  can  be  launched  overboard  by  one  man,  and  is 
capable  of  supporting  five  persons. 

Man-of-War  Boats. 

The  boats  carried  by  Men-of-War  of  the  United  States  Navy 
are  classified  as  follows : 

Steam  Launches  ("Steamers"). 

Motor  Boats. 

Sailing  Launches   (with  or  without  motor  propulsion). 

Barges  (flag  ships  only). 

Cutters. 

Whale  boats. 

Dinghies. 

Motor  Dories  (Destroyers  and  Gunboats). 

Steam  Launch.  (Plate  65,  Fig.  i.)  (Technically  called 
merely  a  "  Steamer.")  .  A  large  and  very  heavy  boat,  formerly 
the  standard  working  boat  of  the  Navy  but  now  used  principally 
for  towing.  This  type  is  recognized  as  unnecessarily  heavy  and 
more  or  less  out  of  date.  It  is  gradually  being  replaced  by  the 
Motor  Boat  described  below.  The  5o-ft.  steamer  at  present  car- 
ried by  Dreadnoughts  will  not  hereafter  be  issued,  the  4O-foot 
steamer  being  the  largest  boat  of  this  type  to  be  hereafter  con- 
structed. 

Motor  Boat.  (Plate  65,  Fig.  2.)  To  replace  the  Steam 
Launch.  A  light,  roomy,  capable  boat,  well  suited  for  the  gen- 
eral work  of  the  ship.  In  the  5o-foot  size,  weighs  18,000  pounds 
as  against  50,000  pounds  for  the  5o-foot  steamer. 

Sailing  Launch.  A  large,  roomy  boat,  of  good  beam,  flat 
floor  and  rather  shallow  draft,  designed  for  handling  men  and 
stores  and  fitted  to  carry  one  or  more  light  guns.  Equipped  with 
spars  and  sails,  which  however  are  seldom  used  although  the 
name  "  Sailing  Launch  "  continues  in  use.  In  modern  practice, 
boats  of  this  class  are  usually  fitted  with  motors  capable  of  giving 
a  speed  of  from  six  to  eight  knots.  As  thus  fitted,  the  motor 
launcJi  is  the  general  utility  boat  of  the  ship  and  is  to  a  great 
extent  taking  the  place  of  other  types  for  miscellaneous  work  in 
port  and  at  sea.  (Plate  65.) 

Barge.  Any  boat,  without  reference  to  its  type,  assigned  to 
the  personal  use  of  a  Flag  Officer,  The  barge  of  the  present  day 


1 62 


Plate   No.    65, 


FIG.  i.    STEAMER. 


FIG.  2.    MOTOR   BOAT. 


FIG.  3.     MOTOR  SAILER. 


U.  S.  NAVY  BOATS. 


BOATS.  163 

is  usually  a  fast,  comfortable  motor  boat  of  appropriately  hand- 
some appearance.  (Plate  66.) 

Gig.  Any  boat,  without  reference  to  its  type,  assigned  to  the 
personal  use  of  a  Commanding  Officer. 

Cutter.  Practically  a  small  launch,  though  of  slightly  different 
build  from  standard  launches.  Cutters  are  being  replaced  by 
motor  launches. 

Dinghy.  A  small,  square-stern  boat,  pulling  four  oars,  used 
for  light  work  in  port. 

Whaleboat.  A  light  carvel  or  clinker  built  boat,  with  sharp 
bow  and  stern,  with  a  flat  floor  and  considerable  sheer,  designed 
to  ride  over  the  waves  rather  than  to  cut  through  them.  (Plate 
66,  Fig.  2.)  A  very  handy  boat  and  the  standard  type  of  life- 
boat for  the  Navy,  using  the  term  "  life-boat "  in  the  narrow 
sense  of  a  boat  carried  at  davits,  swung  out-board,  and  kept 
always  (at  sea)  in  readiness  for  immediate  lowering  to  pick  up 
a  man  overboard.  Carried  in  this  way,  a  light  handy  boat  is  very 
convenient,  not  only  for  life  saving  but  for  use  in  any  emergency 
calling  for  quick  action.  There  are,  however,  serious  objections 
on  a  fighting  ship  to  carrying  boats  on  davits ;  and  in  view  of  the 
facilities  now  available  for  handling  boats  when  stowed  in-board, 
there  is  a  growing  belief  that  all  boats,  at  least  in  battleships, 
should  be  carried  on  an  upper  deck.  It  is  probable  that  davits 
will  soon  be  banished  entirely  from  righting  ships,  life-boats 
being  carried  in-board  like  other  boats,  with  special  arrangements 
for  getting  them  into  the  water  quickly. 

Motor  Dory.  This  boat  is  sufficiently  described  by  its  name. 
It  is  the  handy  boat  of  destroyers  and  gunboats,  supplementing 
the  motor  sailor,  but  is  badly  adapted  for  its  manifold  duties. 
Its  speed  is  low,  its  capacity  limited,  and  the  protection  from 
weather  inadequate. 

MODERNIZATION   OF   NAVY   BOATS. 

The  movement  toward  modernizing  Navy  boats  is  progress- 
ing rapidly.  The  5o-foot  steamer  is  already  being  replaced  by 
the  50-foot  motor  boat.  The  4O-foot  steamer,  while  not  officially 
abolished,  will  gradually  be  replaced  by  the  35-foot  motor  boat. 

The  3<>foot  steamer  now  carried  by  gunboats  and  small 
cruisers  and  the  motor  dory  carried  by  destroyers  and  other 
small  craft  will  be  replaced  by  a  26-foot  motor  boat  especially 
designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  vessels. 


1 64 


Plate  No.    66, 


>      FIG.  i.    MOTOR   BARGE. 


FIG.  2.    WHALE  BOAT. 


FIG.  3.    26-FT.  MOTOR  LIFE  BOAT. 


U.  S.  NAVY  BOATS. 


Plate  No.   67. 


165 


FIG.  i.    NAVY  26- FOOT   MOTOR  LIFE  BOAT.     (SPECIAL  TYPE) 


FIG.  2.    SURF  BOAT  WITH   DROGUE,  STEERING  OAR,  ETC. 


FIG.  3.    LIFE  RAFTS. 


BOATS. 

Most  important  of  all,  perhaps,  the  whaleboat  which  has  long 
been  the  standard  Navy  life  boat,  as  above  described,  is  being  re- 
placed on  large  ships  by  the  26-foot  motor  life  boat  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  Plate  66,  which  is  to  be  carried  on  the  upper  deck  and 
handled  by  a  boat  crane.  To  make  it  instantly  available,  the  en- 
gine is  turned  over  daily  and  a  man  is  kept  on  watch  at  the  boat's 
crane  at  all  times  (at  sea). 

For  smaller  vessels,  the  whaleboat  will  for  the  present  con- 
tinue in  use  as  the  life  boat  and  it  is  possible  that  one  or  two  of 
this  type  will  be  carried  on  battleships  in  time  of  peace  for  pur- 
poses of  exercise  and  recreation. 

§11.    THE  STOWAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  BOATS. 

Merchant  Steamers  and  Transports  usually  carry  their  boats 
in-board  under  their  davits  and  resting  on  chocks,  with  gripes 
(lashings)  holding  them  securely  and  with  canvas  covers  to 
protect  them  from  the  weather.  (Plates  60  and  70.)  The  tackles 
are  kept  hooked  and  hauled  taut,  with  the  falls  coiled  down  either 
inside  or  outside  the  boat,  preferably  outside.  If  outside,  they 
are  usually  coiled  in  a  container  of  some  kind  to  insure  their 
being  always  clear  for  running.  A  better  way  is  to  carry  the  falls 
on  a  drum,  controlled  by  a  brake,  with  both  falls  handled  from 
the  same  shaft  and  controlled  by  the  same  brake.  (Fig.  3, 
Plate  68.)  This  makes  it  possible  for  one  man  to  lower  the  boat, 
keeping  it  under  perfect  control,  and  insures  both  falls  being 
lowered  together.  A  further  advantage  of  the  arrangement,  and 
one  which  is  not  always  realized,  is  the  smoothness  with  which  the 
boat  can  be  lowered  from  a  drum  as  contrasted  with  the  jerkiness 
which  often  accompanies  the  lowering  of  a  boat  by  easing  the  fall 
around  a  cleat.  It  has  been  explained  (Chapter  VII,  §2)  that  the 
sudden  application  of  a  load  greatly  increases  the  effect  of  the 
stress  and  may  even  double  it, — a  serious  matter  where  the  load 
consists  of  a  life-boat  filled  .with  people. 

Davits.  The  old-style  curved  iron  davit  (Plate  68)  is  still  in 
very  general  use  although  it  is  being  gradually  replaced  on  pas- 
senger steamers  and  transports  by  the  patent  davits  to  be  here- 
after described.  It  rests  in  a  shoe,  usually  bolted  to  the  side  of 
the  ship,  and  swings  on  a  radius  with  this  shoe  as  a  center.  In 
order  that  all  shall  work  smoothly,  careful  attention  must  be 
given  in  the  design  to  the  relative  positions  of  the  heel  of  the 
davit,  the  head  of  the  davit,  and  the  lifting  hook  of  the  boat. 


Plate  No.   68. 


167 


!68  BOATS. 

Also  to  the  distance  between  the  forward  and  after  lifting  hooks, 
and  the  forward  and  after  davits.  The  relations  of  all  these 
features  to  each  other  should  be  such  that  while  the  boat  is  be- 
ing swung  outboard  and  lowered,  the  falls  shall  at  all  times 
hang  vertically,  the  ends  of  the  boat  being  swung,  one  at  a  time, 
in  a  perfect  circle  around  the  heel  of  the  davit. 

In  all  cases  where  the  boats  rest  in  chocks,  it  is  important  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  lifting  the  boats  to  clear  them  from  the 
chocks.  A  common  arrangement  is  one  in  which  chocks  are 
used  on  the  in-board  side  of  the  boat  only ;  an  iron  rod,  running 
along  the  side  of  the  chock,  serving  to  hold  the  boat  on  the  out- 
board side.  Plate  70.  The  gripes  by  which  the  boat  is  held  down 
to  the  chocks  are  secured  by  lashings  but  can  be  released  instantly 
by  tripping  a  slip-hook  such  as  is  always  interposed  between  the 
deck  lashing  and  the  clamp  on  the  gunwale  of  the  boat.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  devise  a  method  by  which  the  canvas  cover  may  be 
secured  so  that  it  can  be  cast  adrift  quickly. 

There  are  several  patented  systems  of  boat  control, — two  of 
which  are  described  below — :n  which  all  of  the  above  details  are 
covered  by  methods  which  have  been  carefully  worked  out  and 
found  efficient  in  practice.  The  important  point  is  that  none  of 
the  details  should  be  overlooked ;  for  any  one  of  them  may  be  of 
vital  significance  in  an  emergency. 

It  is  of  course  necessary  that  the  boat-falls  should  be  taut  and 
belayed  before  the  boat  is  released. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  importance  of  lowering 
the  boat  smoothly  and  to  the  fact  that  this  can  best  be  done  by 
a  drum  controlled  by  a  brake.  Where  no  such  arrangement  is 
provided,  the  fall  may  be  led  through  a  snatch-block  and  taken 
to  a  bollard  or  bitt  around  which  it  will  run  smoothly.  The 
snatch-block  must  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  heel  of  the  davit, 
especially  if  the  davits  are  of  the  old  fashioned  type. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  lower  from  a  cleat,  the  fall  should  be 
belayed  in  such  a  way  that  when  it  comes  to  lowering  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  jamming  by  reason  of  one  turn  riding  over 
another.  If,  in  belaying,  the  first  turn  is  taken  around  the  shank 
of  the  cleat  and  the  later  turns  in  figure-of-eight  fashion  around 
the  horns,  the  fall  can  be  eased  away  in  lowering  without  any 
turn  binding  upon  any  other. 

Mechanical  Davits.  Plates  63  and  68  show  two  of  the  best 
known  and  most  efficient  types  of  mechanical  davits,— the 


Plate  No.    69. 


170  BOATS. 

Steward*  and  the  Wclin.-  While  resembling  each  other  in  many 
respects,  they  differ  in  the  principle  utilized  for  multiplying 
power ;  but  in  both  cases  the  result  is  that  the  boat  can  be  cleared 
away,  swung  out  and  lowered  by  two  men,  and  in  a  very  short 
time. 

Nesting  Boats.  (Plate  70.)  With  certain  types  of  boats  and 
davits  it  is  possible  to  carry  two  boats  under  a  single  set  of 
davits.  This  is  a  great  economy  of  space  and  where  the  space 
gained  is  utilized  to  increase  the  number  of  boats  carried,  it  is  a 
very  desirable  feature.  But  a  given  number  of  boats  will  be 
more  accessible  when  each  boat  has  its  own  davits. 

Many  seamen  contend  that  the  boats  of  passenger  steamers  and 
transports  should  be  carried  hanging  at  their  davits  and  swung 
out,  under  all  ordinary  circumstances,  and  rigged  in  only  in  very 
bad  weather.  The  fact  that  all  well-organized  steamers  habitu- 
ally carry  one  or  two  boats  in  this  way  is  sufficient  evidence  that 
it  is  not  impracticable,  although  the  wear  and  tear  upon  blocks 
and  falls  would  doubtless  entail  considerable  expense. 

Captain  Mills  of  the  Steamship  Westcrnland  writes  to  the  author  in 
reply  to  the  question  whether  he  considers  it  practicable  to  carry  the 
boats  of  an  ocean  steamer  swung  out.  "  Yes,  I  have  carried  this  ship's 
largest  boats  (548  cubic  feet)  swung  out  in  several  heavy  gales  and  I 
think  they  are  safer  there  than  "in  chocks  unless  the  vessel  is  very  low  in 
the  water." 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  feasibility  of  this  plan  in 
general,  there  can  be  no  question  that  all  the  boats  of  a  passenger 
steamer  should  be  cleared  away  and  kept  ready  for  lowering  at 
certain  times  of  exceptional  danger;  as,  for  example,  when  run- 
ning through  crowded  waters  in  a  fog,  or  through  a  danger  zone 
in  time  of  war. 

The  photograph  of  the  Olympic  from  an  air-plane  reproduced 
in  Plate  71  shows  the  practice  followed  by  transports  during  the 
World  War. 

Unless  the  boats  and  all  their  fittings  are  inspected  frequently 
and  thoroughly,  there  will  be  trouble  when  they  are  wanted.  The 
custom  in  well-ordered  vessels  is  to  overhaul  everything  when 
preparing  for  sea  and  at  regular  and  frequent  intervals  afterward ; 
examining  and  oiling  all  parts  of  the  disengaging  gear  and  all 
blocks,  swivels,  etc.  The  boats  are  swung  out  before  starting 

1  Steward  Davit  and  Equipment  Corporation,  New  York. 

2  American  Balsa  Company,  New  York. 


Plate  No.   70. 


172 


Plate  No.   71. 


S.  S.  OLYMPIC  FROM  AN  AIRSHIP. 


BOATS.  173 

on  a  trip,  and,  if  possible,  lowered  and  hoisted  to  make  sure  that 
everything  is  in  good  working  order.  All  the  fittings  and  equip- 
ments of  the  boats  (see  list  below)  are  inspected,  water-breakers 
and  bread-tins  emptied,  cleaned  and  refilled.  Both  at  sea  and  in 
port,  wooden  boats  are  wetted  frequently  to  keep  the  seams  tight, 
but  are  never  allowed  to  lie  for  long  periods  of  time  with  water  in 
them,  as  this  rots  the  wood  and  rusts  the  fittings. 

Plugs,  if  removable,  are  habitually  kept  out,  but  especial  care 
must  be  taken  to  insure  that  they  are  secured  in  such  a  way  that 
they  cannot  be  lost.  In  modern  practice  boats  are  required  by 
law  to  be  fitted  with  automatic  plugs. 

DETACHING  APPARATUS  (RELEASING  GEAR). 
The  most  important  requisite  for  a  detaching  apparatus  is  that 
it  shall  be  incapable  of  releasing  one  end  of  the  boat  before  the 
other. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  whether  the  boat  should 
be  detached  while  it  is  still  clear  of  the  water  or  not  until  it  is 
"  waterborne,"  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  ideal  mechan- 
ism is  one  which  may  be  operated  under  either  of  these  condi- 
tions and  which,  in  addition  to  releasing  both  ends  of  the  boat 
simultaneously,  makes  provision  for  lowering  the  boat  on  an 
even  keel. 

The  following  are  the  requirements  of  the  United  States  and 
British  Governments  in  the  matter : 
UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT: 

The  life-boats  shall  be  provided  with  suitable  boat  disengag- 
ing apparatus,  so  arranged  as  to  allow  such  boats  to  be  safely 
launched  while  such  vessels  are  under  speed  or  otherwise,  and 
so  as  to  allow  such  disengaging  apparatus  to  be  operated  by 
one  person  disengaging  both  ends  of  the  boat  simultaneously 
from  the  tackles  by  which  it  may  be  lowered  to  the  water. 
BRITISH  BOARD  OF  TRADE  : 

All  disengaging  gears  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  ensure  si- 
multaneous release  of  both  ends  of  the  boat. 

The  means  of  effecting  release  must  be  placed  aft  so  as  to 
be  under  the  personal  control  of  the  coxswain  in  charge  of  the 
boat. 

The  action  should  be  such  that  the  hook  offers  no  resistance 
to  release  should  there  be  a  towing  strain  on  the  falls. 

The  hooks  must  be  suitable  for  instant  unhooking  by  ha.nd% 


174 


BOATS. 


The  gear  and  mechanism  for  effecting  release  must  be  sucl 
and  so  arranged  as  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  boat  indepen- 
dently of  any  "  safety  pins." 

No  part  of  the  gear  taking  the  weight  of  the  boat  is  to 
made  of  cast  metal. 
TESTS  : 

Boat  fully  waterborne. 

Boat  partially  waterborne,  one  end  being  out  of  the  water. 

With  the  keel  of  the  boat  just  clear  of  the  water. 

Automatic  Releasing  Hooks. 

Plate  72  shows  a  form  of  releasing  hook  used  in  the  United 
States  Navy.  The  hook  is  in  two  parts,  hinged  one  upon  the 
other  with  a  double  joint.  The  outer  part,  which  forms  the  point 
cf  the  hook,  is  weighted,  and  falls  down  when  free  to  do  so,  dis- 
engaging itself  from  the  link  in  the  boat.  The  release  can  act 
only  when  the  boat  is  waterborne,  as  the  weight  of  the  boat  at 
other  times  holds  up  the  other  part  of  the  hook.  For  hooking 
on,  a  lanyard  attached  to  the  point  of  the  hook  is  rove  through 
the  link  in  the  boat,  and  the  hook  is  pulled  through  with  this 
and  held  up  in  place  until  jammed  by  the  weight  of  the  boat. 

To  insure  detaching  both  ends  together,  the  falls  are  rove  of  a 
single  length  of  rope  "  on  the  bight."  This  being  the  case,  as 
soon  as  one  hook  is  disengaged  the  slack  is  communicated  to  the 
other  fall  and  the  second  hook  released  also,. 

The  following  directions  are  from  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the 
manufacturers  of  the  device: 

Mode  of  Reeving  the  Falls. — "  If  the  boat  is  always  carried  out- 
board two  single  swivel  blocks  should  be  seized  to  the  cranes  about 
six  inches  from  the  upper  blocks  at  the  davit  heads.  The  falls  must 
be  in  one  piece,  and  should  be  passed  through  the  two  single  blocks 
until  the  same  amount  of  rope  is  on  each  side  of  the  davits,  then  go 
to  the  lower  and  upper  blocks,  the  same  as  if  reeving  off  a  set  of 
davit  falls  ordinarily,  with  this  exception — bring  the  hauling  part  of 
the  forward  fall  through  the  forward  sheave  of  the  upper  forward 
block,  and  the  hauling  part  of  the  after  fall  through  the  after  sheave  of 
the  after  upper  block.  A  piece  of  '  ratlin  stuff  '  spliced  around  a 
bull's-eye  and  rove  in  the  bight  of  the  falls  between  the  two  single 
blocks,  so  that  it  will  play  freely  between  them,  will  enable  one  to 
secure  the  bight  and  control  it  if  necessary,  and  by  setting  a  strain  on 
it  hoist  the  hooks  clear  of  the  boat  when  they  are  detached.  Keep- 
ing a  strain  on  the  bight  and  the  falls,  after  the  boat  is  hooked  on, 
takes  up  whatever  slack  there  is  when  the  sea  lifts  the  boat.  By 


Plate  No.    72. 


175 


FIG.  t. 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


AUTOMATIC  RELEASING  HOOKS  (U.  S.  NAVY), 


176  BOATS. 

stopping  the  bight  between  the  two  single  blocks,  the  falls  will  act  in- 
dependently of  each  other  and  are  similar  to  an  ordinary  set  of  davit 
falls. 

"  If  the  boat  is  carried  inboard,  the  single  blocks  should  be  made 
fast  around  the  necks  of  the  upper  blocks  with  a  grommet  strap,  so  as 
to  allow  them  to  swing  in  and  out  with  the  cranes;  by  doing  this  the 
bight  of  the  falls  will  swing  clear  of  the  upper  blocks," 


The  Rottmer  Detaching  Gear. 

Plate  73  illustrates  this  gear,  which  is  used  in  the  United 
States  Transport  service,  where  it  is  viewed  with  much  favor. 

A  rod,  made  in  sections  connected  by  knuckle  joints,  runs 
along  the  keel  of  the  boat,  and  ends,  forward  and  aft,  in  a  con- 
nection, also  by  a  knuckle  joint,  to  an  upright  locking  bolt  which 
carries  the  detaching  hook  and  mechanism.  The  upper  end  of 
this  bolt  is  a  cup,  open  on  one  side. 

The  detaching  hook  is  pivoted;  and  when  turned  down,  en- 
gages the  cup  on  the  end  of  the  locking  bolt. 

If  this  bolt  is  so  turned  that  the  opening  in  its  cupped  upper 
end  is  in  line  with  the  point  of  the  detaching  hook,  the  hook 
is  free  to  open,  and  the  boat,  if  hooked  on,  is  at  once  released. 

If,  the  hook  being  turned  down,  we  turn  the  locking  bolt  in 
'such  a  way  that  the  wall  of  the  cup  holds  it  from  swinging  clear, 
the  hook  is  closed,  and  the  boat  may  be  hooked  on. 

Thus  the  key  to  the  working  of  the  gear  lies  in  the  position 
of  the  cupped  head  of  the  locking  bolt ;  and  this  is  regulated  by 
the  position  of  the  rod,  which,  as  already  stated,  runs  the  length 
of  the  boat  and  connects  the  mechanism  at  the  two  ends. 

The  turning  of  the  rod,  and  hence  of  the  locking  bolt,  is  de- 
termined by  the  position  of  a  lever,  shown  in  the  sketch.  When 
this  lever  is  in  the  upright  position,  where  it  is  secured  by  a  pin, 
the  locking  bolt  is  in  the  locking  position,  the  point  of  the  de- 
taching hook  is  held  secure,  and  all  is  ready  for  hooking  on. 

If  the  lever  is  turned  down,  the  locking  bolt  revolves,  bringing 
the  open  section  of  the  cup  in  line  with  the  point  of  the  hook, 
which  is  thus  released. 

Steward  Releasing  Gear.     (Plate  74.) 

In  this  device,  the  boat  is  held  by  a  lifting  hook,  A,  which 
hangs  eccentrically  on  the  pivot-bolt  B,  between  the  side-plates 
of  the  frame  C.  The  hook  is  extended  beyond  and  below  the 
pivot  bolt  by  the  shank,  D,  which,  in  the  normal  position  of  the 


Plate  No.   73. 


177 


o: 
< 

UJ 

O 


x 
o 
< 

UJ 

Q 

QC 
LU 


O 

cr 


178 


BOATS.  179 

gear,  is  prevented  from  swinging  (to  capsize  the  hook)  by  the 
clevis  bolt  F.  With  the  gear  in  this  position  (Fig.  i)  the  link  of 
the  lower  tackle-block  may  be  engaged  in  the  hook  by  slipping  it 
past  the  retaining  pawl,  G,  which  lifts  freely  but  drops  back  im- 
mediately and  holds  the  link  from  unhooking.  Fig.  I  shows 
the  condition  of  the  gear  when  the  boat  is  hooked  on,  either  for 
hoisting  or  for  lowering. 

To  release  the  link  (and  the  boat)  it  is  necessary  that  the 
clevis  bolt  F  should  be  withdrawn  sufficiently  to  let  the  shank  of 
the  hook  swing  clear,  permitting  the  hook  to  capsize  (Fig.  2). 
The  withdrawal  of  the  clevis  bolt  is  effected  by  the  vertical  shaft, 
H,  which  is  drawn  downward  through  the  slot  K  by  the  turning 
of  the  eccentric  M,  on  the  end  of  the  horizontal  shaft,  P.  The 
horizontal  shaft  is  held  against  turning  by  the  lever,  L,  which  is 
normally  turned  doivn  and  securely  engaged  in  a  casting  bolted 
to  the  bottom  of  the  boat  (port  side)  (Fig.  3). 

To  release  the  boat,  the  toggle  pin  holding  the  lever  in  "  secure  '* 
position  is  withdrawn,  and  the  lever  thrown  to  starboard,  turning 
the  horizontal  shaft  P  and  with  it  the  eccentric,  M.  The  throw 
of  the  eccentric  draws  down  the  vertical  shaft,  H,  and  with  it 
the  clevis  bolt,  F,  releasing  the  shank  of  the  hook,  and  allowing 
the  hook  to  capsize  and  throw  off  the  link  of  the  tackle-block  and 
release  the  boat. 

To  hook  on,  the  hook  A  is  turned  down  to  its  normal  position, 
the  releasing  lever  thrown  down  to  port  and  secured,  carrying 
the  clevis  bolt  up  to  the  point  where  it  engages  the  shank  of  the 
hook.  The  link  of  the  tackle-block  is  snapped  in,  past  the  retain- 
in  pawl,  and  all  is  ready  for  hoisting. 

The  parts  of  this  gear  are  strong  and  rigid,  and  the  mechanism 
direct  acting.  It  appears  to  comply  with  the  rules  which  have 
been  quoted  as  those  of  both  the  United  States  Steamboat  In- 
spection Service  and  the  British  Board  of  Trade. 

The  Mills  Releasing  Gear.     (Plate  75.) 

In  this  gear  the  lifting-hook  A  is  pivoted  in  the  forked  upper 
end  of  a  lifting-bolt  strongly  secured  to  the  keel  of  the  boat.  On 
the  reverse  shank  of  the  hook  is  a  heavy  metal  ball  B,  the  weight 
of  which  tends  to  keep  the  hook  upright  at  all  times,  whether 
the  hoisting  tackle  is  hooked  or  not.  The  apparatus  is  mounted 
in  the  boat  in  such  a  way  that  the  hook  stands  approximately 


i8o 


Plate  No.    75. 


BOATS.  l8l 

flush  with  the  bow  (or  stern)  sheets  of  the  boat,  with  a  slot 
through  which  the  gear  is  operated.  The  link  L  on  the  lower 
tackle-block  engages  the  lifting  hook  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
so  long  as  the  weight  of  the  boat  is  supported  by  the  link  and 
hook,  the  hook  cannot  be  turned  to  release  the  link.  This  means 
that  the  boat  can  be  released  only  when  it  is  water-borne,  and 
then  only  by  the  actual  lifting  of  the  ball  B  by  an  applied  force. 
A  chain  leads  from  the  ball  B  at  each  end  of  the  boat  to  a  sheave 
attached  to  the  structure  of  the  boat  above  the  ball,  and  thence 
along  the  side  to  a  releasing  handle,  where  the  chains  from  bow 
and  stern  are  coupled  up  in  such  a  way  that  the  pulling  of  this 
handle  lifts  both  balls  (bow  and  stern)  simultaneoulsy  releasing 
both  ends  of  the  boat. 

The  Broady  Releasing  Gear.     (Plate  75.) 

This  gear,  like  the  Mills,  which  it  somewhat  resembles,  is  much 
used  in  the  American  Merchant  service  and  by  the  Shipping 
Board.  Its  details  and  operation  are  made  clear  in  the  illustra- 
tion. It  can  be  worked  with  the  boat  either  waterborne  or  clear 
of  the  water. 

Carrying  a  Life-boat  Rigged  Out.     (Plate  68.) 

As  has  been  already  explained,  most  ships,  and  practically  all 
men-of-war,  when  at  sea,  carry  a  life-boat  hanging  from  davits 
on  the  quarter,  ready  for  lowering  in  the  event  of  a  man  over- 
board (Plate  68).  The  boat  is  griped  in,  to  prevent  swinging, 
the  gripes  being  secured  by  a  slip-hook  which  can  be  released  in 
an  instant.  A  sea-painter,  from  a  point  well  forward  on  the  ship, 
is  taken  into  the  boat  through  a. rowlock  on  the  in-board  side  and 
made  fast  to  a  thwart  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  quickly  cast 
adrift,  leaving  a  turn  around  the  thwart.  Life-lines  are  hung 
from  a  span  between  the  davit  heads.  The  falls  are  kept  clear 
for  lowering  and  should  be  belayed  on  their  cleats  (if  cleats  are 
used)  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  not  jam.  If  the  boat  is  not 
fitted  with  an  automatic  plug,  two  plugs  should  be  at  hand  and 
secured  by  lanyards  to  avoid  possibility  of  loss.  The  rudder 
is  shipped,  or,  better,  a  steering  oar  ready  in  its  crutch.  Life 
belts  should  be  in  the  boat  for  the  whole  crew,  and  water,  pro- 
visions, compass,  lanterns,  signals,  etc.,  in  place. 


1 82  BOATS. 

To  Lower  a  Boat  at  Sea  in  Bad  Weather. 

Having  to  lower  a  boat  at  sea,  a  lee  boat  is  always  selected,  a 
lee  being  made,  if  necessary,  by  changing  the  course  of  the  ship. 

It  is  customary  to  bring  the  sea  a  little  on  the  bow,  but  in  this 
position  the  lee  for  the  boat  is  very  far  from  perfect.  The  ship 
will  roll  and  pitch  considerably,  and  waves  will  wash  along  to 
leeward,  making  things  very  ugly  at  times.  Some  seamen  prefer 
to  bring  the  sea  on  the  quarter  rather  than  the  bow.  Others 
advise  lying  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  notwithstanding  the  heavy 
rolling. 

The  best  position  will  doubtless  depend  upon  the  build  and 
trim  of  the  ship  and  the  nature  of  the  sea.  In  any  case,  oil 
should  be  used  both  ahead  and  astern  of  the  boat.  The  ship 
should  be  kept  moving  slowly  ahead.  A  sea-painter  from  well 
forward  in  the  waist  of  the  ship  should  be  brought  into  the  boat 
through  the  inboard  bow  rowlock  and  tended  by  the  second  bow 
oarsman  with  a  turn  around  the  thwart.  It  must  not  be  made 
fast. 

To  keep  the  boat  from  swinging,  frapping-lines  may  be  passed 
around  the  falls,  the  ends  leading  inboard  and  holding  the  boat 
close  in  to  the  side  as  it  is  lowered.  In  some  ships  jackstays 
are  fitted  from  the  davit-heads  to  the  side  of  the  ship,  with 
lanyards  travelling  up  and  down.  A  turn  is  taken  with  the 
lanyard  under  a  thwart  or  around  the  standing  part  of  the  fall 
and  the  boat  is  held  in,  near  the  side,  as  by  the  frapping-line 
above  described.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  lanyard  be 
secured  to  the  boat  otherwise  than  as  described  (by  passing  it 
under  the  thwart  and  holding  on  by  hand).  Life-lines  hanging 
from  the  davit-head  and  from  the  span  assist  in  steadying  the 
boat  and  give  the  crew  something  to  hold  on  to  in  case  of  acci- 
dent. A  hatchet  in  the  boat  is  handy  if  anything  jambs  at  a 
critical  moment. 

The  great  danger,  both  in  lowering  and  immediately  after- 
wards, is  that  the  boat  will  be  dashed  against  the  side.  The 
painter  brought  in  on  the  inner  bow  as  already  described  helps  to 
sheer  her  off  as  she  strikes  the  water,  and  the  helm  may  be  lashed 
hard-over  toward  the  ship  for  the  same  purpose. 

A  steering-oar  is  better  than  a  rudder,  and  where  it  is  used 
the  coxswain  sheers  the  bow  out  by  throwing  the  stern  in  as  the 
boat  strikes  the  water. 


BOATS.  183 

The  after  fall  is  always  unhooked  first,  except  when  a  detach- 
ing apparatus  releases  both  ends  simultaneously. 

Under  no  circumstances  short  of  the  most  imperative  necessity 
should  a  boat  be  lowered  while  the  ship  has  sternway,  and  it  is 
always  desirable  to  have  a  little  headway.  There  is  much  differ- 
ence cf  opinion  as  to  the  speed  at  which  it  is  sate  to  lower  a  boat, 
an  important  question  in  picking  up  a  man  overboard.  Many 
officers,  having  seen  boats  lowered  without  accident  at  speeds  as 
high  as  eight  and  ten  knots,  maintain  that  it  is  perfectly  safe  to 
lower  at  this  speed.  A  more  conservative  view  fixes  the  maxi- 
mum at  something  like  half  this  speed.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
there  is  far  less  danger  at  five  knots  than  ten,  and  most  practical 
men  would  prefer  to  wait  a  little  longer  rather  than  to  take  the 
chance  of  having  to  deal  with  a  whole  boat's  crew  in  the  water. 

Lowering  a  Stern  Boat. 

Here,  as  soon  as  the  boat  touches  the  water,  the  after  fall  is 
1^t  po  altogether  and  the  boat  allowed  to  swing  at  once  parallel 
to  the  course  of  the  ship,  towing  by  the  forward  fall,  which  is 
then  unhooked  or,  in  an  emergency,  allowed  to  unreeve. 

Hoisting. 

To  hook  on  and  hoist  a  boat  in  a  seaway  is  quite  as  difficult  as 
to  lower  and  detach  it.  The  ship  is  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  a  good  lee,  and  it  is  well  that  she  should  be  moving  very 
slowly  through  the  water,  but  the  screws  should  be  stopped  while 
working  with  the  boat.  The  falls  are  overhauled  ready  for  hook- 
ing on,  but  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  hand  at  each  davit-head 
holding  the  blocks  clear  as  the  boat  comes  alongside  to  avoid 
danger  of  hitting  the  men  in  the  boat.  The  falls  are  well  manned, 
with  force  enough  to  run  away  when  ordered  to  do  so.  If  a 
winch  is  to  be  used,  the  proper  turns  are  taken  loosely  around 
the  drum  and  the  winch  is  started.  The  sea-painter,  from  well 
forward,  is  led  aft  and  held  in  a  coil  by  a  good  man  who  stands 
by  to  throw  it  to  the  bow  oarsman  in  the  boat  at  just  the  right 
instant.  It  is  convenient  to  have  a  light  line  bent  to  the  painter 
near  the  end  for  hauling  it  in  for  another  throw  in  case  of  miss- 
ing the  boat. 

The   officer   who   is  to  direct  the  maneuvre   should   take  his 


i&4  BOATS- 

place  on  the  rail  as  close  as  possible  to  the  point  where  the  boat 
is  to  be  hoisted. 

The  boat  pulls  near  the  ship  abreast  of  her  falls  or  a  little 
astern  of  them,  and  waits  to  receive  the  line,  the  bow  oarsman 
laying  in  his  oar  and  standing  by.  The  line  is  thrown  and  caught, 
and  a  turn  is  taken  around  the  forward  thwart.  The  oars  are 
then  laid  in  as  quickly  as  possible  and  the  boat  is  dropped  in 
alongside  the  ship  and  under  her  falls  by  careful  use  of  the  steer- 
ing oar;  being  hauled  ahead  slowly,  if  necessary,  by  the  sea- 
painter,  which  is  manned  on  board  the  ship  by  a  few  men  only. 
If  the  coxswain  is  skilful,  he  will  work  her  slowly  in,  first  canting 
her  head  slightly  toward  the  ship  and  then  catching  her  before 
she  can  touch,  by  -throwing  her  stern  in  enough  to  straighten  her 
up  parallel  to  the  ship. 

Two  men  stand  by  to  breast  her  off  with  boat-hooks  if  neces- 
sary. 

If  the  ship  is  making  way  through  the  water,  a  line  should  be 
used  from  the  stern  of  the  boat,  leading  well  aft  on  the  ship,  to 
hold  the  boat  from  launching  forward  as  she  leaves  the  water. 

The  men  who  are  to  hook  on  forward  and  aft  see  the  links  in 
the  boat  ready  and  stand  by  with  the  lower  blocks.  Oil  should 
be  used  to  calm  the  sea  if  necessary.  When  all  is  ready  in  the 
boat  and  on  deck,  watch  for  a  smooth  time  and  as  the  ship  starts 
to  roll  toward  the  boat,  hook  on  forward,  then  aft ;  then,  "  Set 
taut!"  "Hoist  away!" 

Man-of-War  Rules  with  Regard  to  Life-Boats. 

At  Sea.  When  at  sea,  every  ship  shall  at  all  times  keep  on  each 
side,  ready  for  lowering,  a  boat  which  is  best  adapted  for  a  life-boat. 

At  the  beginning  of  every  watch  at  sea,  the  officer-of-the-deck  shall 
have  the  life-boat  crew  of  the  watch  mustered  abreast  the  lee  boat, 
and  the  coxswain  of  the  life-boat  crew  of  that  watch  shall  satisfy 
himself  by  personal  inspection  that  both  life-boats  are  ready  for  lower- 
ing, and  shall  report  the  fact  to  the  officer-of-the-deck. 

A  life-boat  is  secured  for  sea,  i.  e.,  ready  for  lowering,  when  in  the 
following  condition :  Boat  at  the  davits,  griped  in,  falls  clear,  detach- 
ing apparatus  ready  for  detaching  at  the  word,  steering-car  shipped  in 
crutch,  oars  fitted  with  trailing  lines  and  ready  for  getting  out  quickly, 
rowlocks  shipped  and  fitted  with  lanyards,  plug  in,  sea-painter  half- 
hitched  around  forward  thwart,  life-lines  bent  to  span,  life-belts  in  boat, 
lantern  filled  and  trimmed  (and  at  night,  lighted),  and  all  other  articles 
of  the  boat-equipment  in  the  boat  and  ready  for  use,  with  two  days' 
water  and  provisions  for  the  crew.  When  the  coxswain  of  the  life-boat 


BOATS.  185 

crew  of  the  watch  reports  a  life-boat  ready  for  lowering,  it  is  under- 
stood that  the  boat  is  in  the  above  condition  and  that  the  crew  of  the 
watch  have  been  mustered,  each  man  abreast  his  own  thwart  (or  sta- 
tion) of  the  lee  boat,  and  that  each  man  understands  his  duties  at 
"  Man-overboard."  In  lowering,  the  officer  or  coxswain  in  charge  of 
the  lifeboat  will  give  the  command  for  detaching. 

EQUIPMENT    OF    BOATS. 

In  preparing  a  list  of  articles  for  the  proper  equipment  of  a 
boat,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  service  for  which  the  boat 
may  be  needed.  One  which  is  to  be  carried  at  the  davits  ready 
for  lowering  at  a  moment's  notice  to  pick  up  a  man  overboard 
calls  for  a  very  different  outfit  from  one  which  is  never  to  be 
used  except  in  case  of  disaster  to  the  ship. 

The  following  list  includes  all  articles  of  ordinary  equipment ; 
others  may  be  needed  for  special  service  of  various  kinds : 

1.  Set  of  oars,  with  spare  for  one  thwart,  with  trailing  lines  if  used. 

2.  Set  of  rowlocks,  if  used,  secured  by  lanyards,  with  two  spare. 

3.  Set  of  stretchers. 

4.  Plug,  secured  by  lanyard,  unless  boat  fitted  with  automatic  plug. 
5-  Rudder  and  tiller,  with  lanyards. 

6.  Three  boat-hooks. 

7.  Breaker,  kept   filled  with  good   drinking  water  and  cairying  three 
days'  supply  for  crew. 

8.  Fenders. 

9.  Compass. 

10.  Lantern. 

11.  Bucket. 

12.  Boat-box    containing    tools    and    material    for    meeting    emergencies 
which  may  arise  on  distant  service. 

Items  i  .to  12  are,  as  a  rule,  kept  in  all  boats  at  all  times,  except  that 
the  compass  and  lantern  may  be  removed  for  safe-keeping  when  the 
boat  is  not  to  be  used  for  some  time. 

13.  Anchor,  with  chain  or  good  line. 

14.  Sails  and  spars,  or  sea-anchor. 

15.  Tarpaulin. 

16.  Boat's  ensign,  with  staff. 

17.  Hand  grapnels,  with  light  chain  or  line. 

18.  Rifle  and  shot  gun,  with  ammunition. 

19.  Provisions;  usually  bread  and  canned  meats,  and  emergency  rations. 

20.  Night  signals  or  other  fire-works  of  some  satisfactory  kind  for  at- 
tracting attention  at  night. 

21.  Hand  signal  flags. 

22.  Crutch  and  steering  oar  for  boats  using  them. 

23.  Life  belts  (life  boats  only). 

Items  13  to  23  are  kept  in  the  boat  whenever  they  are  likely  to  be 
needed. 


1 86  BOATS. 

24.  Package  medical  and  surgical  "First  Aid"  supplies. 

25.  Sextant  and  general  chart.     (Put  in  at  time  of  emergency  if  indi- 
cated by  conditions.) 

The  English  Board  of  Trade  rules  require  sails  and  spars,  and 
a  sea-anchor.  The  insistence  upon  sails  and  spars  clearly  con- 
templates the  possibility  of  a  trip  of  some  length  after  leaving 
the  ship.  No  doubt  such  trips  have  been  made  by  boats  under 
sail,  but  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  the  space  occupied  by  the 
sails  and  spars  could  be  utilized  to  better  advantage  for  passen- 
gers, even  if  the  boat  were  reduced  to  waiting  helplessly  for  a 
passing  vessel.  A  sea-anchor  would  be  useful  in  a  gale,  but  need 
only  be  carried  if  sails  are  omitted,  as  these  two  would  never 
be  wanted  at  the  same  time  and  the  sails  and  spars  lashed 
together  (with  sails  loosed)  make  a  perfectly  efficient  sea-anchor. 

Handling  Heavy  Boats  by  a  Crane. 

The  heaviest  boats  carried  by  merchant  vessels  do  not  as  a 
rule  exceed  about  5  tons  in  weight,  and  the  problems  of  lower- 
ing and  hoisting  them  present  no  serious  difficulties  except  such 
as  arise  from  unfavorable  conditions  of  weather,  collision,  etc. 
They  are  in  practically  all  cases  handled  by  davits ;  and  the  me- 
chanical davits  and  releasing  gears  already  described  have  solved 
many  of  the  problems  connected  with  their  use. 

The  steamers  and  motor  boats  carried  by  men  of  war  may 
weigh  as  much  as  20  tons.  They  are  handled  by  booms  or  cranes 
of  special  design,  and  extra  heavy  fittings  are  provided  for  hoist- 
ing and  lowering. 

Plate  76  shows  the  boat-crane  of  a  battleship  and  the  slings  and 
other  fittings  for  hoisting  a  2O-ton  boat.  As  the  slings  and  the 
crane-block  are  heavy  and  unwieldy,  the  matter  of  handling  them 
is  always  difficult  and  becomes  not  only  difficult  but  dangerous 
when  the  boat  is  tossing  about  in  a  rough  sea.  The  matter  is 
greatly  simplified  by  the  use  of  the  safety  runner^  shown  in  Plate 
76,  which  has  been  officially  adopted  as  an  attachment  to  all 
boat-crane  hooks. 

The  following  description  of  the  runner  and  its  uses  is  from 
a  circular  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  under 
date  of  May  2,  1916. 

1  Devised  by  Captain  W.  L.  Littlefield,  U.  S.  Navy. 


Plate  No.   76. 


187 


Method  of  Lowering 
Boat  Slings 

FIG.  2 


Slmgsfor  Hoisting  a.  Heavy  Boat 
(Steam  Launch,  Unfted  States  Navy) 

FIG. 3 


HANDLING  A  HEAVY  BOAT. 


1 88  BOATS. 

"The  device  consists  of  a  wire  about  3*4  fathoms  long  made  fast  to 
the  hook  of  the  lower  crane  block.  The  wire  has  an  eye  splice  worked 
in  the  free  end  and  the  standing  part  is  rove  through  a  l/z  inch  hole 
drilled  about  three  inches  long,  axially,  in  the  point  of  the  hook,  and  the 
end  knotted.  The  sketch  shows  a  more  flexible  fastening  to  the  point  of 
the  hook. 

"It  is  useful  in  hoisting  boats  in  a  heavy  seaway  as  the  wire  may  be 
rove  through  the  ring  of  the  slings,  and  a  heaving  line  bent  to  the  eye 
splice,  the  other  end  of  the  heaving  line  being  kept  on  deck.  The  ring  of 
the  slings  and  the  crane  block  remain  above  the  heads  of  the  crew  and 
clear  of  such  parts  of  the  boat  as  might  be  damaged,  until  a  compara- 
tively calm  spell  presents  an  opportunity  for  hoisting,  when,  by  quickly 
taking  in  the  slack  of  the  heaving  line,  the  wire  will  run  the  ring  on  to 
the  hook. 

"  It  is  particularly  serviceable  in  lowering  the  slings  of  steamers  into 
a  boat  for  hooking  on.  In  this  case  the  wire  is  rove  through  the  ring  of 
the  slings,  and  a  line  from  deck  bent  to  the  wire,  before  the  slings  are 
sent  down  to  the  steamer.  The  crane  block  is  lowered  just  far  enough  to 
permit  the  wire  to  take  the  weight  of  the  slings  while  they  are  being 
made  fast,  the  end  of  the  line  on  deck  being  hauled  in  and  paid  out  just 
enough  to  keep  control. 

"As  before,  when  a  comparatively  calm  spell  presents  itself,  lowering 
the  block  slightly  and  heaving  in  on  the  wire  will  run  the  ring  onto  the 
hook  and  the  boat  can  be  hoisted. 

"  This  arrangement  also  serves  for  quick  detachment  and  is  better  than 
a  toggle  and  strap  for  this  purpose.  In  this  case,  the  ring  of  the  slings 
is  put  over  the  point  of  the  hook  and  the  bight  of  the  wire.  Hauling  on 
the  wire  will  straighten  the  bight  and  lift  the  ring  clear  of  the  hook  as 
soon  as  there  is  the  least  slacking  of  the  slings." 

Where  a  heavy  boat  is  to  be  lowered  or  hoisted  at  sea  in  bad 
weather,  the  ship  brings  the  sea  a  little  on  the  off  bow  to  give  a 
lee,  and  uses  oil  if  necessary,  making  a  "  slick "  in  which  the 
boat  will  be  comparatively  quiet.  The  ship  may  be  stopped,  or 
making  just  enough  way  through  the  water  to  maintain  the 
course  that  is  found  best  for  the  boat.  If  the  ship  is  moving  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  boat  will  tend  to  surge  forward 
as  it  leaves  the  water.  This  calls  for  a  good  stern  line  leading 
well  aft,  in  addition  to  the  regular  steadying  lines,  bow  and  stern, 
which  are  always  used  in  hoisting  a  boat  at  sea.  If  the  ship  is 
rolling  enough  to  involve  danger  that  the  boat  will  swing  in 
against  the  side,  special  fenders  should  be  provided.  For  im- 
provised fenders,  hammocks  answer  very  well. 

All  preparations  having  been  made,  including  hanging  the 
slings  from  the  bight  of  the  safety  runner,  the  boat  is  brought 


BOATS.  189 

under  the  crane,  the  boat  rope  and  steadying  lines  are  passed,  and 
the  crane-block  is  lowered.  The  slings  hang  slack  in  the  bight  of 
the  runner  while  their  lower  ends  are  hooked  in  the  boat,  Fig.  I, 
Plate  76.  When  all  is  ready,  advantage  is  taken  of  a  quiet 
moment  to  run  the  ring  of  the  slings  into  the  hook  of  the  crane- 
block  and  start  the  winch: 

In  getting  out  the  boat  (at  sea),  the  ship  makes  a  lee  as  for 
hoisting,  the  boat-rope  and  steadying  lines  are  passed  as  before, 
except  that  no  special  stern  line  is  needed.  The  boat  is  lowered 
until  just  clear  of  the  water,  and  at  a  favorable  moment  13 
lowered  quickly.  As  soon  as  it  is  waterborne,  slacking  the  slings, 
the  ring  of  the  slings  is  run  clear  of  the  hook  by  a  pull  on  the 
runner,  which  in  this  case  is  rove  as  in  Fig.  4. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  safety  runner  as  thus  used  is  a  simple 
and  very  efficient  releasing  apparatus. 

§IIT.  NOTES  ON  THE  CARE  OF  STEAM  LAUNCHES  AND 
MOTOR  BOATS  OF  MEN  OF  WAR.* 

Each  steam  launch  should  have  two  crews,  assigned  to  dif- 
ferent watches  in  the  engine  room,  so  that  there  will  always  be 
one  crew  off  duty  and  ready  to  go  in  the  boat  when  the  ship  en- 
ters or  leaves  port,  without  calling  upon  men  to  leave  their 
stations  in  the  engine  room.  Any  man  of  ordinary  intelligence 
can  soon  be  taught  how  to  do  the  routine  work  required  of  the 
fireman  and  coal  passer,  provided  that  one  of  the  mechanics  of 
the  ship  exercises  strict  supervision  of  the  machinery  and  keeps 
it  in  repair. 

When  a  vessel  is  about  to  enter  port  notice  should  be  given 
one-half  hour  or  more  in  advance  to  the  fireman  in  charge  of 
the  launch,  who  should  see  that  the  boat  is  supplied  with  fuel 
and  fresh  water,  that  all  parts  of  the  machinery  are  connected, 
that  bolts,  nuts,  keys,  split  pins,  oil  cups,  steam-  and  water-gauge 
lamps  are  in  place,  all  usual  and  necessary  tools  on  board,  the 
boiler  filled  to  proper  level  with  fresh  water,  the  cocks  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  water  gauge  open,  and  the  engines  oiled  and 
turned  by  hand. 

The  water  used  in  the  launch  boiler  should  always  be  ob- 
tained by  distilling  on  board.  Fresh  water  from  shore  often 

1  Although  steam  launches  are  being  gradually  replaced  by  motor  boats, 
large  numbers  of  them  will  continue  in  use  in  the  Navy  for  many  years. 


I  go  BOATS. 

contains  corrosive  ingredients  or  lime  salts,  and  should  never 
be  used  unless  chemical  tests  show  that  it  is  free  from  these 
impurities. 

When  the  launch  is  about  to  be  lowered  it  will  often  be 
practicable  to  start  fires  at  once  and  to  have  steam  ready  by 
the  time  the  boat  is  in  the  water.  As  soon  as  the  launch  is  in 
the  water,  if  not  before,  the  feed  pump  or  pumps  must  be 
worked  by  steam,  the  engines  turned  back  and  forth,  the 
whistle,  safety  valve  and  bell  tried.  If  at  such  times  any  of  the 
machinery  fails  to  work  it  is  better  to  try  to  discover  the  cause 
by  reasoning  and  by  simple  experiments  rather  than  to  use  up 
time  taking  the  machinery  apart  to  see  what  is  wrong  inside, 
and  to  run  the  risk  of  twisting  off  studs,  losing  nuts  and  spoil- 
ing gaskets. 

Reciprocating  Engines.  If  an  engine  or  pump  stop-valve  is 
detached  from  its  stem,  and  steam-pressure  is  on  top  of  the  valve, 
no  steam  gets  to  the  engine  and  none  comes  out  of  either  cylin- 
der drain. 

If  steam  comes  out  of  both  cylinder  drains  at  the  same  time, 
the  slide  valve  must  leak. 

If  opening  the  drains  shows  that  there  is  a  good  head  of 
steam  against  one  side  of  a  pump  piston  and  the  piston  does  not 
move,  then  there  may  be  a  stop  valve  shut  in  some  part  of  the 
exhaust  pipe,  or  a  stop  valve  in  the  exhaust  pipe  may  be  off 
its  stem  and  kept  shut  by  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust  steam. 

If  on  opening  the  drains  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  good  head 
of  steam  acting  against  the  piston  and  the  piston  does  not 
move,  shut  off  steam  and  open  the  drains  on  the  water  end  and 
let  out  the  water,  then  use  a  lever  and  try  to  move  the  pump 
piston  by  hand  and  see  if  it  is  stuck.  It  may  be  stuck  from  the 
steam  piston  being  rusted  in  place,  or  from  the  piston  rod  stuf- 
fing box  being  set  up  too  tight  when  the  rod  is  worn  unevenly, 
or  the  packing  in  the  water  cylinder  may  be  too  tight  when  the 
water  cylinder  is  worn  barrel  shape. 

If  the  pump  starts,  makes  a  few  strokes  and  stops,  it  would 
indicate  a  valve  in  the  exhaust  closed,  or  a  check  closed. 

If  the  pump  runs  but  does  not  throw  water,  the  causes  may 
be: 

(a).  The  water  in  the  feed  tank  is  too  hot  so  that  vapor  forms 
in  the  pump.  The  vapor  can  be  condensed  by  pouring  cold 
water  over  the  pump. 


BOATS. 


191 


(b.)  One  or  more  of  the  suction  or  delivery  valves  may  be 
unseated  or  stuck  open  by  waste  under  them.  In  this  case  it 
will  be  necessary  to  remove  one  or  more  bonnets  to  get  at  the 
valves. 

The  pump  may  run  and  throw  water  so  that  a  strong  jet 
comes  out  of  the  pet  cock  on  the  discharge  side  and  yet  no 
water  gets  into  the  boiler.  This  may  be  due  to  the  pump  piston 
or  valves  leaking  under  boiler  pressure,  yet  not  so  much  as  to 
prevent  the  pump  throwing  water  under  atmospheric  pressure, 
or  even  a  little  above.  If  such  leak  is  suspected,  try  reducing 
the  boiler  pressure  to  see  if  the  pump  will  feed  at  any  pressure 
and  thus  enable  the  boat  to  continue  in  service  until  opportu- 
nity occurs  to  repack  the  piston  or  refit  the  valves. 

The  pump  may  make  a  few  strokes  then  gradually  slow  down 
and  stop.  This  would  indicate  that  the  boiler  check  valve  was 
stuck,  or  the  stop  valve  at  the  check  was  detached  from  its  stem. 
If  the  check  is  stuck,  it  can  often  be  loosened  by  rapping  on  the 
valve  chamber  with  a  light  hammer  or  bar  of  iron  or  by  pouring 
cold  water  over  it.  If  the  stop  valve  is  off  the  stem,  nothing  can 
be  done  until  the  fires  are  hauled. 

A  common  cause  of  the  failure  of  naval  pumps  is  the  slipping 
of  ther  valve  tappets,  and  this  is  the  first  thing  to  be  looked  for. 

Each  type  of  engine  and  pump  has  its  own  peculiarities,  which 
must  be  learned  by  experience.  No  pains  should  be  spared 
to  get  all  parts  into  thorough  repair,  and  when  the  boat  is  not 
required  for  service  no  temporizing  with  machinery  which 
works  imperfectly  should  be  tolerated.  The  labor  required  to 
go  through  the  routine  overhauling  of  all  parts  of  the  machin- 
ery is  far  less  than  the  labor  of  repairing  breakages  which 
are  sure  to  result  from  neglect  of  such  systematic  overhauling. 

While  the  launch  is  alongside  the  ship  the  furnace  should  be 
fired  as  lightly  as  possible  to  avoid  blackening  the  ship  by  the 
smoke  that  is  given  off  when  firing  heavily.  For  the  same 
reason  the  use  of  the  steam  jet  is  to  be  avoided  at  such  times. 

When  the  launch  shoves  off  and  gets  fairly  under  way,  the 
first  point  to  notice  is  the  vacuum,  and  if  that  is  below  normal, 
search  must  be  made  to  ascertain  the  cause.  The  feed  water 
should  also  be  tasted  to  see  if  it  is  salt  and  this  test  repeated 
from  time  to  time  while  the  launch  is  in  use.  The  firemen 


1 92  BOATS. 

should  carry  a  uniform  steam  pressure,  fully  up  to  that  pre- 
scribed for  the  boat.  Inability  to  do  this  shows  something 
wrong  with  the  engine,  boiler,  the  fuel,  or  with  the  men ;  and 
the  exact  reason  should  be  discovered  and  the  difficulty  over- 
come. The  most  common  causes  of  low  steam  are  too  heavy 
firing,  too  high  water  in  the  boiler,  and  tubes  which  require 
cleaning.  Any  kind  of  coal  likely  to  be  bought  by  men-of-war 
will  burn  well  if  lumps  are  selected  for  use  in  the  launch.  As 
the  men  gain  experience  and  confidence  in  themselves  and  the 
feed  pump,  they  are  inclined  to  carry  water  lower  than  the 
normal  level  because  they  find  that  the  boilers  steam  more 
freely.  The  principal  danger  to  be  anticipated  from  this  is  that 
a  temporary  failure  of  the  pump  may  result  in  the  water  disap- 
pearing from  the  glass,  in  which  case,  there  is  no  way  of  know- 
ing how  little  water  may  be  in  the  boiler,  and  it  might  therefore 
become  necessary  to  haul  the  fires.  While  under  way  the  water 
in  the  gauge  generally  rises  and  falls  with  the  motion  of  the 
boat.  If  it  remains  motionless,  it  would  indicate  that  the  gauge 
was  choked.  If  the  water  in  the  gauge  shows  a  muddy  color, 
or  a  drop  of  oil  floating  on  the  surface,  it  would  be  an  indica- 
tion that  the  boiler  needed  cleaning  badly.  Absolutely  no  oil 
should  be  used  in  any  steam  cylinder  except  when  the  machin- 
ery is  to  be  laid  up  for  an  indefinite  time,  say  not  less  than  sev- 
eral months.  In  this  case  it  should  be  applied  by  removing  the 
cylinder  and  valve  chest  covers,  wiping  over  the  surfaces  with 
waste  dipped  in  mineral  oil  and  replacing  the  covers.  A  groan- 
ing noise,  which  often  occurs  in  the  L.  P.  cylinder  of  a  com- 
pound engine,  especially  when  the  engines  are  slowed  after 
running  full  speed,  is  not  an  indication  that  oil  is  needed  in  the 
cylinder.  When  the  engines  are  in  free  route,  a  sudden  slow- 
ing down  is  sometimes  noticed.  It  may  be  due  to  an  increased 
resistance  encountered  by  the  boat  from  changing  the  course 
bringing  the  wind  from  astern  to  ahead;  or  to  the  boat  leaving 
deep  water  and  running  into  shoal  water;  or  to  the  propeller 
fouling  or  the  helm  being  suddenly  put  hard  over;  or  some  bear- 
ing, especially  a  crank  pin,  may  be  heating,  or  the  water  in  the 
boiler  going  over  into  the  engine,  or  the  vacuum  may  be  spoiled 
by  an  air  pump  valve  carrying  away,  or  there  may  be  a  drop  in 
steam  pressure  from  improper  firing,  or  the  water  in  the  boiler 
may  be  run  up  too  high  and  too  quickly.  A  hot  crank  pin  or 


BOATS.  193 

other  bearing  should  never  occur  with  such  engines  as  are  now 
used  in  launches.  If  water  gets  into  the  cylinder  to  any  extent 
a  knocking  sound  will  be  heard,  and  the  drains  cannot  be 
opened  too  quickly.  Such  an  accident  ought  to  be  most  care- 
fully guarded  against  as  it  is  very  apt  to  cant  the  piston  and 
bend  the  rod.  It  is  caused  by  irregular  firing,  carrying  the 
water  too  high,  the  steam  too  low,  or  suddenly  speeding  up 
the  engines. 

If  when  the  engines  are  in  free  route  a  sudden  great  increase 
in  the  number  of  revolutions  is  noticed,  it  is  an  indication  that 
the  propeller  is  lost  or  one  or  more  blades  are  broken  off. 
Slight  increases  may  be  due  to  the  wind  and  change  of  depth 
of  the  water,  &c. 

In  case  the  water  cannot  be  kept  in  sight  in  the  glass  owing 
to  failure  of  the  pump  or  a  leak  in  the  boiler,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  haul  the  fire.  In  this  event  a  shovelful  of  live  coals 
may  be  left  in  the  furnace  to  start  a  new  fire  with.  If  the  leak 
is  so  great  that  fires  cannot  be  hauled  without  risk  of  scalding 
the  fireman,  there  is  no  objection  to  putting  out  the  fire  with 
a  bucket  or  two  of  water. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  using 
salt  water  in  the  boilers,  and  to  prevent  it  getting  in  from  a 
leaky  condenser.  If  the  condenser  leaks,  the  mixture  of  salt 
and  fresh  water  from  the  air  pump  may  be  allowed  to  go  to 
waste  and  fresh  water  from  the  reserve  tanks  used  exclusively 
for  feed  provided  those  tanks  carry  enough  water  to  last  until 
the  boat  returns  to  the  ship.  If,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  salt  water,  the  boiler  should  be  emptied  and  washed  out 
with  fresh  water  at  the  earliest  opportunity,  and  if  much  salt 
water  has  been  used  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  use  kerosene 
to  remove  the  lime  scale  from  the  tubes. 

Although-  the  tubes  of  launch  boilers  are  not  found  to  cor- 
rode to  anything  like  the  extent  that  the  tubes  in  the  main  boil- 
ers do,  it  is  well  always  to  keep  the  water  in  the  launch  boiler 
slightly  alkaline  by  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  caustic  soda  or 
caustic  potash  in  the  feed  from  time  to  time  when  the  launch 
is  in  use,  and  especially  when  the  launch  is  hoisted;  except  that 
when  the  weather  is  so  cold  that  there  is  danger  of  the  water 
freezing,  the  boiler  must  be  kept  empty.  The  amount  of  alkali 
used  should  be  just  enough  to  turn  red  litmus  paper  blue. 


194 


BOATS. 


In  a  seaway  the  water  gauge  glass  must  be  screened,  as  cold 
spray  striking  the  hot  glass  is  apt  to  crack  it.  If  the  glass  is 
broken  the  water  level  can  be  judged  by  using  the  pet  cocks, 
or  if  none  are  provided,  then  by  allowing  the  lower  cock  of  the 
water  gauge  to  drip  slightly.  A  thumping  sound  is  sometimes 
heard  under  the  stern  when  the  engines  are  running  and  the 
helm  is  suddenly  put  hard  over  or  if  the  water  is  rough.  This 
indicates  that  the  bushing  in  the  stern  tube  is  much  worn  and 
needs  renewal. 

When  a  launch  returns  alongside  of  the  ship  the  fireman 
should  report  to  the  coxswain  before  the  latter  leaves  the  boat 
what  repairs  or  supplies  are  needed  in  order  that  the  officer  of 
the  deck  may  get  prompt  information  on  these  points. 

When  a  launch  is  to  be  hoisted  on  board  all  necessary  pipe 
joints  must  be  broken  and  preparations  made  for  removing  the 
engine  or  boiler  or  both  if  the  amount  of  repair  work  required 
renders  it  necessary.  As  soon  as  the  boat  is  hoisted  in,  an  in- 
spection is  made  of  the  propeller  to  see  that  none  of  the  blades 
are  bent,  that  the  nut  is  secure  with  its  split  pin,  and  that  there 
has  been  no  corrosion  of  the  shaft  close  to  the  propeller  hub. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  shaft  corrodes  deeply  at  this  point 
and  then  a  slight  blow  from  the  propeller  striking  a  piece  of  drift 
wood  or  other  obstruction  breaks  the  shaft,  disabling  the  boat  and 
causing  the  propeller  to  be  lost.  If  any  blades  are  bent  they  can 
be  hammered  out  to  their  proper  form.  If  a  blade  is  broken  off 
it  is  sometimes  practicable  to  have  a  new  one  cast  on. 

An  examination  must  be  made  to  see  if  the  lignum  vitae  bush- 
ing of  the  stern  tube  is  worn  down,  and  if  it  is  a  new  spare 
bushing  should  be  fitted.  If  there  is  no  spare  bushing  or  lig- 
num vitse  block  in  store,  a  temporary  bushing  may  be  made  of 
anti-friction  metal. 

All  the  under-water  fittings  of  the  rudder  should  be  exam- 
ined and  put  in  good  order.  The  keel  condenser  can  be  tested 
for  leaks  by  filling  with  water  and  afterwards  draining  by  re- 
moving the  plug  provided  for  that  purpose.  A  question  arises 
as  to  whether  or  not  the  keel  condenser  should  be  painted.  It 
is  inconvenient  of  access  when  the  boat  is  hoisted,  and  unless 
cleaned  daily  it  is  an  unsightly  object  if  left  unpainted  when  the 
bottom  of  the  launch  is  painted.  Paint  protects  the  copper 
from  corrosion  when  the  boat  is  in  the  water  but  diminishes  its 
conductivity  to  some  extent. 


BOATS.  195 

The  following  spare  parts  are  usually  provided:  Boiler 
tubes,  grate  and  bearing  bars  with  their  patterns,  water-gauge 
glasses,  brasses  for  the  engine,  propeller  shaft,  propeller,  keel 
condenser.  Except  the  special  tube  expander  and  steam-tube 
sweeper,  such  tools  and  stores  as  are  found  in  the  ship's  store- 
room will  do  for  the  launch.  It  is  convenient  to  have  on  board 
in  or  near  the  machine  shop,  suitable  pipe  and  connections  ar- 
ranged to  facilitate  testing  the  engines,  boilers  and  pumps  after 
they  have  been  repaired  and  before  they  are  replaced  in  the 
boat. 

A  water-tube  launch  boiler  using  only  distilled  water  should 
be  cleaned  at  least  every  three  months.  If,  however,  the  boiler 
gets  much  scale  or  oil  in  it,  the  most  effective  way  to  clean  it  is 
to  pump  into  the  boiler  with  the  feed  water  a  few  pints  of  kero- 
sene lamp  oil  while  the  boiler  is  in  use.  The  first  effect  of  this 
will  be  to  loosen  up  the  dirt,  and  the  water  in  the  glass  will  ap- 
pear very  cloudy.  Then  blow  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  glass 
and  repeat  the  operation  until  the  water  in  the  glass  gets  clear. 

When  the  engines  and  boilers  are  removed  for  repairs,  an 
opportunity  is  offered  for  thoroughly  cleaning  and  painting  the 
bilges,  repairing  floor  plates,  water  tanks,  coal  bunkers  and 
such  parts  as  are  inaccessible  at  other  times.  New  bearing 
bars  and  grate  bars  are  to  be  fitted  when  required.  The  pro- 
longed use  of  bent  bars  wastes  coal  and  makes  it  difficult  to 
keep  up  steam. 

After  the  engines  and  boilers  are  repaired  and  replaced  all 
bright  work  should  be  kept  clean,  the  polished  steel  being  cov- 
ered with  the  thinnest  possible  coat  of  mineral  oil,  all  oil  holes 
plugged,  and  the  engines  and  pumps  moved  by  hand  every  day. 
The  boiler  may  be  painted  with  asphaltum  or  brown  zinc.  If 
the  latter  is  used,  it  can  be  kept  in  excellent  condition  by  wip- 
ing it  over  from  time  to  time  with  oily  waste.  The  best  way 
to  preserve  the  boiler  is  to  keep  it  completely  filled  with  water 
made  slightly  alkaline  with  caustic  soda  (or  caustic  potash)  ex- 
cept in  freezing  weather,  when  it  must  be  kept  empty  and  as 
dry  as  possible,  all  openings  being  closed  to  prevent  access  of 
air  and  thus  retard  corrosion. 

If  the  boiler  is  of  such  a  type  that  it  cannot  be  completely 
drained,  it  may  be  dried  out  by  using  a  very  light  wood  fire  or 
large  lamp,  at  the  same  time  raising  the  safety  valve  and  noting 


196 


BOATS. 


when  vapor  ceases  to  come  off.  In  cold  weather  the  engines, 
pumps,  pipes  and  condenser  must  also  be  kept  drained.  It  is 
well  to  provide  tarpaulins  for  engines  and  boilers,  putting  them 
on  in  wet  weather  and  removing  them  promptly  when  the 
weather  clears.  Launch  machinery  being  out  of  sight  when  the 
boat  is  at  the  davits  or  on  the  skids,  it  is  apt  to  be  neglected  in 
this  as  well  as  in  other  respects.  At  sea  it  is  preferable  to  cover 
the  polished  steel-work  of  launch  machinery  with  a  mixture  of 
white  lead  and  tallow  instead  of  the  thin  coat  of  oil,  as  in  stormy 
weather  it  is  often  difficult  to  clean  the  machinery,  and  salt  spray 
washes  off  the  oil. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  a  launch  will  find  it  convenient  to 
keep  for  reference  a  memorandum  of  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
boat,  the  type,  weight  and  number  or  other  distinguishing  marks 
of  engines,  boilers  and  pumps,  a  list  of  necessary  tools,  stores, 
amount  of  coal,  water  and  oil  usually  carried,  the  maximum 
speed  of  the  boat  and  revolutions  of  engine,  the  steaming  ra- 
dius, amount  of  extra  coal,  water  and  oil  required  to  cover  a 
given  distance  at  the  desired  speed,  the  allowable  steam  pres- 
sure, the  usual  vacuum  attainable  when  all  parts  are  in  good 
order,  and  the  greatest  number  of  passengers  the  boat  can 
carry.  This  data  will  be  found  convenient  when  about  to  order 
stores  or  spare  parts,  when  instructing  a  new  crew,  or  fitting 
out  for  a  long  trip. 

Special  Notes  for  Turbine  Engines.  The  coxswain  should  re- 
member that  turbines  have  not  the  backing  power  that  a  recip- 
rocating engine  has,  and  should  come  alongside  of  the  landing 
very  slowly  and  not  depend  on  his  engines  for  checking  his  speed 
too  much,  when  making  a  landing. 

The  valve  to  the  scoop  should  be  opened  as  soon  as  the  boat 
has  headway,  but  kept  closed  at  all  times  when  backing  or  the 
boat  is  stopped. 

The  lubricating  oil  pumps  should  be  running  before  any  attempt 
is  made  to  start  the  turbine,  and  the  oil  circulating  to  all  bearings 
and  the  gear. 

The  turbmes  should  be  warmed  up  well  before  the  engine  is 
started. 

The  drains  from  the  turbines  should  be  opened  to  the  con- 
denser, at  all  times  when  the  engine  is  not  running  or  the  engine 
is  being  warmed  up. 


BOATS.  197 

When  starting  to  warm  up,  steam  should  be  opened  to  the 
glands,  and  after  the  boat  is  under  way,  the  steam  to  the  glands 
should  be  turned  off,  and  turned  on  again  when  the  boat  is 
stopped. 

The  speed  of  the  air  pump  should  be  so  regulated  to  give  a 
vacuum  of  25  inches  or  more. 

The  air  ejector  should  never  be  used  except  as  an  emergency, 
as  it  heats  the  feed  water  to  such  a  high  temperature  that  the  feed 
pump  takes  its  suction  with  difficulty,  and  vapor  forms  in  the 
water  seal  to  the  turbine  and  causes  the  vacuum  to  fall. 

If,  after  getting  under  way,  the  vacuum  does  not  increase  to 
25  inches,  examine  the  glands,  and  see  they  are  getting  plenty  of 
water,  and  that  the  condenser  is  cool  and  the  air  pump  is  running 
at  proper  speed;  then  if  the  vacuum  does  not  increase  there  are 
air  leaks  in  either  the  turbine  or  exhaust  lines. 

When  running,  always  keep  about  5  inches  back  pressure  on 
auxiliary  exhaust  line,  as  this  is  necessary  to  prevent  air  leaks 
into  the  condenser,  and  to  heat  the  feed  water  and  fuel  oil. 

When  the  boat  is  hoisted  in  for  overhaul,  the  gear  case  should 
be  opened  up,  gear  examined  and  smoothed  up  with  a  file  or  oil 
stone  by  an  experienced  machinist. 

The  lubricating  oil  should  be  taken  out  of  the  system  fre- 
quently and  thoroughly  cleaned,  as  more  trouble  is  caused  in  a 
geared  installation  by  improper  lubrication,  than  for  any  other 
cause.  The  forced  lubricating  system  should  be  thoroughly  ex- 
amined and  cleaned  out  at  the  time. 

The  clearance  on  the  turbine  should  also  be  taken  and  the 
thrust  block  properly  set. 

If  the  fuel  oil  burner  should  go  out,  it  would  probably  be 
caused  by  either  the  burner  tip  being  covered  with  carbon,  or 
water  in  the  oil.  In  such  case,  clean  burner  and  shift  the  fuel  oil 
supply  to  another  tank,  until  the  water  can  be  drained  out  of  the 
tank. 

If,  after  getting  under  way,  the  boiler  smokes,  it  will  probably 
be  caused  by  forcing  the  boiler  too  much ;  the  blower  not  supply- 
ing sufficient  air ;  cold  fuel  oil  supplied  to  the  boiler ;  or  the  fire 
side  of  the  boiler  being  dirty. 

To  overcome  the  smoke,  see  fuel  oil  at  proper  temperature,  and 
speed  up  the  forced  draft  blower  and  slow  down  slightly  if 
necessarv. 


BOATS. 


When  stopped,  the  vacuum  can  be  kept  fairly  high,  if  proper 
attention  is  given  to  the  steam  glands,  and  shifting  from  the 
scoop  injection  to  the  circulating  pump;  but  when  backing,  the 
vacuum  will  of  necessity  drop  somewhat. 

In  getting  up  steam  from  a  cold  boiler,  turn  steam  on  atomizer 
for  steam  atomization  until  boiler  is  hot,  then  close  off  steam  and 
use  atomizer  as  continuous  flow  pressure  atomizer. 

Motor  Boat  Engines.  There  are  now  in  the  naval  service 
numerous  types  of  internal  combustion  engines  installed  in  ships' 
boats.  The  standard  types  van,  in  2-cycle  construction,  from  the 
small  5  horse-power  dory  engine  to  the  20  horse-power  engine 
used  in  sailing  launches.  In  4-cycle  construction,  engines  of  100 
to  150  horse-power  are  used  in  motor  "  speed-boats." 

The  2-cycle  engines  operate  at  revolutions  per  minute  up  to  600. 
The  4-cycle  speed  boat  engines  are  of  the  light  high  speed  type 
and  operate  at  revolutions  per  minute  up  to  1,500. 

Besides  the  standard  types  mentioned  above  there  are  numer- 
ous commercial  engines  in  service  of  various  types  and  sizes.  In 
general,  a  "  heavy  duty "  engine  of  rugged  construction,  low 
speed,  goodly  reliability  with  average  attendance,  are  required  for 
general  utility  and  varied  service.  A  "  light  duty  "  engine  of  light 
weight,  high  rotative  speed,  with  reliability  rather  dependent  on 
expert  attendance,  is  used  for  express  service. 

In  handling  a  boat  fitted  with  internal  combustion  engines, 
care  should  be  taken  in  making  landings,  the  speed  being  so 
regulated  in  coming  alongside  as  to  prevent  the  necessity  of 
throwing-  out  the  clutch  when  the  engine  is  running  at  full  speed, 
as  to  do  this  would  cause  the  engine  to  race  and  in  time  to  tear 
itself  to  pieces. 

The  fuel  generally  used  is  gasoline,  for  which  tanks  are  pro- 
vided in  the  boat.  Any  commercial  grade  of  gasoline  running 
from  62  to  70  proof  will  work  satisfactorily.  In  cold  weather 
there  may  be  a  little  difficulty  in  starting  on  a  low  proof  gasoline, 
but  if  a  high  grade  is  used  for  priming,  the  engine  should  start, 
and  after  it  is  warmed  up  the  low  grade  fuel  can  be  used. 

The  supply  .tanks  should  always  be  above  the  carburetor,  so 
that  the  fuel  will  flow  by  gravity.  The  tanks  should  be  thor- 
oughly tight  and  fitted  with  a  drain  to  lead  overboard.  All  joints 
in  the  fuel  line  must  be  thoroughly  tight  and  should  be  soldered. 
Strainers  should  be  fitted  in  the  fuel  tanks  and  a  separator  in  the 
fuel  line  to  prevent  any  dirt  reaching  the  carburetor. 


BOATS.  199 

Extreme  care  is  needed  in  the  handling  of  gasoline,  as  its 
vapor  is  explosive.  It  begins  to  vaporize  at  low  temperatures 
and  the  rate  of  vaporization  increases  with  the  temperature,  so 
that  it  vaporizes  much  more  rapidly  in  the  tropics  than  in  cooler 
climates 

The  two  most  important  factors  in  the  running  of  an  internal 
combustion  engine  are : 

The  ignition  on  the  engine  and  the  mixture  entering  the  cylin- 
der. 

If  both  of  these  work  properly,  the  engine  is  bound  to  run. 

The  ignition  is  always  high-tension,  jump  spark.  All  wiring 
should  be  heavily  insulated  and  protected. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  keep  the  ignition  perfectly 
watertight.  No  wiring  should  ever  be  run  in  the  bilge  of  the 
boat.  All  ends  of  the  wiring  should  have  permanent  marks  to 
show  where  they  connect,  and  the  connections  to  the  engine 
should  be  marked  to  correspond. 

The  plugs  must  be  frequently  examined  and  kept  scrupulously 
clean. 

The  magneto  should  be  placed  high  up  on  the  engine  to  keep 
it  out  of  the  dirt  and  water  of  the  bilge. 

The  engines,  whatever  their  size,  should  have  a  covering  which 
is  perfectly  watertight,  as  it  is  very  important  that  they  should 
be  kept  absolutely  dry.  For  small  engines  a  detachable  covering 
may  be  fitted  which  can  be  easily  removed  when  the  necessity 
arises  for  overhauling  the  engine.  The  larger  engines  should  be 
placed  in  a  separate  watertight  compartment. 

In  cold  weather  the  carburetor  and  the  inlet  pipe  are  liable  to 
freeze  as  a  result  of  the  vaporization  in  the  pipe.  If  the  air  to 
the  carburetor  is  warmed  and  the  inlet  pipe  is  jacketed  by  warm 
water  or  heated  air,  no  trouble  will  be  experienced.  The  jacket 
on  the  inlet  pipe  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  cut  out  in 
warm  weather  and  a  shutter  should  be  fitted  in  the  hot  air  pipe 
to  the  carburetor  for  regulating  the  temperature. 

Three  pumps  should  always  be  used  in  connection  with  an 
internal  combustion  engine  equipment ;  one  circulating,  one  bilge, 
and  one  air  pump.  No  bilge  water  should  ever  be  pumped 
through  the  jackets. 

No  chain,  belt,  or  friction  drive  should  ever  be  used  in  any 
engine  equipment. 


20O  BOATS. 

The  engine  should  be  kept  well  lubricated  and  should  never  be 
allowed  to  run  above  the  rated  number  of  revolutions  or  to  race 
when  coming  alongside. 

Handling  a  Launch  or  Motor  Boat  Underway 
and  Alongside. 

The  laws  governing  the  steering  of  a  power  boat  are  identi- 
cal with  those  laid  down  in  Chapter  XI  for  the  handling  of 
single-screw  steamers. 

When  running  in  a  seaway,  speed  should  be  reduced  some- 
what, not  only,  to  avoid  shipping  seas,  but  to  reduce  the  strain 
on  the  machinery  due  to  the  "  racing  "  of  the  screw.  In  run- 
ning into  a  sea,  it  is  possible  by  careful  nursing  to  make  fair 
speed,  watching  the  seas  and  slowing  or  even  stopping  for  a 
moment  as  heavy  ones  are  seen  bearing  down  upon  the  boat. 
If  the  man  who  is  running  the  engine  has  sufficient  intelligence 
and  experience  to  regulate  the  speed  in  this  way  (assuming 
that  he  can  see)  it  is  convenient  to  leave  it  to  him.  If  running 
more  or  less  across  the  sea,  it  is  well  to  head  up  momentarily 
for  a  heavy  wave. 

In  towing,  the  stern  of  the  boat  should  be  kept  well  down  by 
shifting  weight  aft  if  necessary.  This  keeps  the  propeller  well 
immersed  and  gives  it  a  good  hold  on  the  water. 

In  making  a  landing,  whether  at  a  dock  or  at  a  ship's  gangway, 
it  is  a  common  mistake  to  keep  too  much  way  and  to  rely  upon 
backing  full  speed  to  stop  the  boat  at  the  proper  point.  This 
is  bad  seamanship.  The  engines  may  and  often  do  fail  to  re- 
spond promptly,  and  when  they  do  respond,  the  sudden  backing 
throws  an  undue  strain  upon  the  engines  and  upon  the  rudder- 
stops.  Moreover,  the  backing  throws  the  stern  off  to  one  side 
or  the  other — according  as  the  screw  is  right-  or  left-handed. 
In  coming  alongside  a  ship's  gangway,  in  a  current,  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  catch  the  tide  on  the  outboard  bow,  as  this  will 
sweep  the  bow  in,  forward  of  the  landing  platform  and  perhaps 
underneath  it,  with  the  result  that  the  boat  may  capsize  or  be 
swamped.  The  landing  should  be  made  by  the  aid  of  a  boat- 
line  from  forward,  the  boat  being  kept  off  a  little  from  the  side 
until  the  line  is  fast  and  then  sheered  in  by  the  helm. 


Plate   No.    77. 


201 


Fig.l. 


Fig.Z. 


Fig. 4. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


HANDLING  A   BOAT  ALONGSIDE 
UNDER  5TEAM  OR  SAIL. 


202 


BOATS. 


A  launch  coming  alongside  in  rough  weather  or  in  a  strong 
tide-way  should  always  be  required  to  take  a  boat-line,  whether 
the  coxwain  and  bowman  think  it  necessary  or  not.  It  has 
come  to  be  the  custom  in  the  navy  for  the  crews  of  steamers 
to  make  their  landings  at  the  gangway  by  the  aid  of  boat- 
hooks  alone,  taking  hold  with  these  of  anything  which  may 
chance  to  be  within  reach,  and  holding  on,  often  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  more  or  less  danger.  This  entirely  eliminates  the  helm, 
which  is  the  one  factor  by  which  the  whole  situation  could  be  and 
should  be  controlled.  A  boat  lying  at  the  gangway  in  a  tide-way, 
holding  on  by  a  line  from  some  distance  forward  made  fast  to  a 
cleat  on  her  inboard  bow,  can  be  controlled  perfectly  by  a  touch 
of  the  helm,  throwing  the  stern  out  or  in  a  little  and  thus  catching 
the  current  on  one  bow  or  the  other.  Plate  77,  Figs.  I  and  2. 

Boat-hooks  are  helpful  and  perhaps  necessary,  at  bow  and 
stern,  to  complete  the  control ;  but  they  are  of  altogether  second- 
ary importance  if  the  coxswain  understands  that  he  can  sheer  his 
boat  when  lying  in  .this  way  in  a  current,  exactly  as  if  she  were 
making  way  through  the  water.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  cleat 
for  use  with  the  boat-line  as  far  around  on  the  turn  of  the  bow 
as  is  practicable,  as  this  gives  a  better  turning  leverage  for  the 
helm  and  the  current  than  if  it  were  near  the  stem. 

If  the  boat  is  to  lie  at  the  gangway  for  some  time,  it  is  con- 
venient .to  use  a  breast  line  from  the  bowcleat  to  a  point  a  little 
forward  of  the  accommodation  ladder,  as  in  Fig.  2.  A  boat  will 
lie  like  this  in  a  tide-way  with  the  helm  half  over  to  the  side 
toward  the  ship  as  long  as  the  current  runs. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  desired  to  hold  the  bow  up  to  the  gang- 
way, a  spring  may  be  taken  from  .the  bowcleat  to  any  suitable 
point,  as  in  Fig.  3.  Then,  by  putting  the  helm  over  and  keeping1 
the  engine  ahead  slow,  she  can  be  held  in  position  without  diffi- 
culty. A  stern  line  is  convenient,  but  is  only  necessary  in  the 
rather  unusual  case  when  the  wind  or  current  is  from  aft  so  that 
it  would  tend  to  throw  the  stern  off  too  far.  This  plan  is  often 
convenient  when  we  have  to  hold  the  launch  at  some  other  point 
than  the  gangway,  for  giving  her  coal  which  it  is  desired  to  land 
on  the  forecastle,  or  for  putting  in  or  taking  out  stores. 

A  fender  is  always  fitted  to  the  lower  platform  of  the  accom- 


BOATS.  203 

modation-ladder  to  keep  the  boat  off  and  prevent  danger  of  her 
being  caught  under  the  platform.  Another  fender  is  usually 
fitted  forward  of  this  to  prevent  boats  from  being  set  in  under  the 
ladder  and  athwart  the  lower  platform  (Fig.  4).  A  boat  in  this 
situation  is  in  danger  of  being  swamped.  The  situation  is  brought 
about  by  the  boat  having  run  too  far  ahead  and  being  caught  by 
the  tide  on  the  outer  bow.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  a  launch 
come  charging  up  to  the  gangway  under  such  speed  that  she 
cannot  be  stopped  until  she  has  run  far  ahead  of  the  point  where 
she  should  have  landed,  crashing  against  the  fender  and  scraping 
along  the  side,  while  the  men  at  the  bow  and  stern  attempt  to 
catch  something  with  their  boat  hooks  by  which  they  can  check 
her.  All  this  is  lubberly  in  any  case  and  may  be  very  dangerous 
(especially  when  the  forward  fender  is  not  in  use)  if  there  is  a 
current  tending  to  set  her  in  under  the  ladder  as  above  described. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  in  making  a  landing,  that  the 
engine  may  be  slow  in  responding  to  signals,  and  the  signal  to 
stop  should  be  given  in  time  to  come  up  to  the  gangway  with 
very  moderate  speed. 

A  good  coxswain,  in  handling  a  boat  in  a  strong  tide  or  a 
moderate  sea,  lands  his  boat  near  the  gangway  platform,  but  not 
against  it,  and  having  caught  and  made  fast  the  boat  line,  drops 
in,  by  skilful  use  of  his  helm,  'and  holds  her  just  where  he  wants 
her  while  his  passengers  enter  or  leave  the  boat. 

For  details  of  United  States  Navy  boats,  see  Appendix. 

§IV.     RIG  OF  SHIPS'  BOATS  FOR  SAILING. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  boat  built  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes,  of  which  sailing  is  by  no  means  the  most  important, 
should  sail  as  if  designed  for  that  purpose  alone.  Not  only  must 
the  lines  and  dimensions  of  the  boat  be  regulated  by  the  de- 
mands of  general  utility,  but  even  the  rig  for  sailing  must  be  fixed 
by  quite  other  considerations  than  those  of  speed  and  weatherli- 
ness.  The  spars  and  sails  must  be  light  and  easily  handled,  and 
must  stow  compactly  when  the  boat  is  under  oars.  They  must 
admit  of  carrying  passengers  and  stores,  of  coming  alongside 
safely,  of  hooking  on  and  hoisting  conveniently.  The  fewer, 
shorter  and  lighter  the  spars,  the  better.  Masts,  especially, 
should  be  short  and  light,  easily  stepped  by  a  few  men,  and  call- 
ing for  little  support  from  shrouds  and  stays.  Bowsprits  and 


2O4 


Plate  No.   78. 


Launch -U.S.  Navy. 
(Gaff  and  Boom  Rig). 

Fig.  1 


Launch  — British  Navy. 

(Full  lines  show  service  rig;  dotted  lines 

additional  rig  for  racing). 

Fig.  2 


Sprit  Rig. 
Fig,   3 


Dipping  Lug  Foresail  and 

Standing  Lug  Mainsail. 

Fig.   4 


Dipping  Lug  Foresail  and 
Standing  Lug  Mizzen. 
Fig-  5 


RIG  OF  BOATS  FOR  SAILING. 


BOATS.  205 

booms  are  particularly  inconvenient,  as  are  also  the  bumpkins 
which  in  some  rigs  project  beyond  the  stern.  A  rig  which  en- 
tails danger  cf  capsizing  if  it  chances  to  be  caught  aback  is  of 
course  objectionable. 

Of  the  rigs  considered  suitable  for  man-of-war  boats,  the  most 
common  are  the  following : 

1.  A  gaff  and  boom  mainsail  with  bowsprit  and  jib.     Used  in 
the  United  States  Navy  for  launches  (Plate  78,  Fig.  i). 

2.  A  gaff  mainsail  without  a  boom  and  a  jib  without  a  bow- 
sprit.    Used  in  the  English  Navy  for  launches,  and  called,  from 
the  admiral  who  introduced  it,  the  "  De  Horsey  "  rig  ( Plate  78, 
Fig.  2).     A  topmast  is  sometimes  added  to  this  rig,  making  it 
possible  to  carry  a  gaff-topsail  and  another  jib. 

The  arrangement  devised  by  Admiral  de  Horsey  for  handling  the  mast 
of  this  rig  is  of  such  convenience  that  it  might  well  be  adopted  for  all 
boats  having  rather  heavy  masts  to  be  stepped  and  unstepped.  The 
mast  is  mounted  on  trunnions  at  the  height  of  the  thwarts  and  as  it  is 
lifted,  turning  about  these  trunnions,  the  heel  is  guided  into  the  step  by 
a  light  frame  shaped  to  the  arc  about  which  the  heel  moves. 

3.  The  dipping-lug.     Used  in  the  English  Navy  for  pinnaces 
and  cutters,  usually  in  combination  with  a  standing-lug  main  or 
mizzen  (Plate  78,  Fig.  4). 

4.  The  standing-lug.     Used  in  the  United   States   Navy   for 
cutters,  and  in  the  English  Navy  for  the  main  and  mizzen  of 
cutters  and  whale-boats.     (Plate  79,  Fig.  4). 

5.  The  balance  or  French  lug.     Used  in  the  French  Navy  for 
cutters   (Plate  79,  Fig.  3). 

6.  The  sliding-gunter.     Formerly  used  in  the  United  States 
Navy  for  cutters,  whale-boats  and  gigs  (Plate  79,  Fig.  i). 

7.  The  sprit.    Used  very  generally  for  dinghys  and  other  small 
boats  (Plate  78,  Fig.  3). 

Of  these  rigs,  the  dipping-lug  is  commonly  regarded  as  the 
best  for  speed  and  weatherliness,  but  it  is  hard  to  handle  and 
even  dangerous  with  any  other  than  a  very  smart  and  well-drilled 
crew. 

The  standing-lug  is  safe  and  convenient  to  handle,  but  lacks 
something  of  the  driving  power  of  the  dipping-lug. 

The.  French  lug  is  a  compromise  between  the  two  preceding 

rigs  and  combines  many  of  their  advantages.     It  may,  in  fact, 

1  be  used  either  as  a  standing-  or  as  a  dipping-lug,  the  forward 

yardarm  being  dipped  if  either.     If  it  is  not  dipped,  the  yard  lies 


206 


Plate  No.   79. 


Sliding  Gunter 
Fig.  1 


Low  Dipping  Lugs 
Fig.  2 


Balance  (French)  Lug 
Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


RIG  OF  BOATS  FOR  SAILING 


BOATS.  2O7 

to  windward  of  the  mast  on  one  tack  and  to  leeward  on  the  other. 
This  rig  perhaps  combines  as  many  points  of  excellence  as  any 
that  could  be  named.. 

The  details  of  rigging  for  lug  sails  vary  considerably,  but  the 
yard  is  always  attached  to  the  mast  by  a  traveller  moving  freely 
up  and  down.  The  halyards  are  usually  rove  through  a  sheave 
in  the  mast,  but  sometimes  through  a  block  at  the  mast-head. 
A  down-haul  should  always  be  fitted  and  it  is  convenient  to  use 
for  this  the  bending  end  of  the  halyards.  As  a  rule,  no  shrouds 
are  used,  but  the  halyards  are  set  up  to  windward  and  abaft,  and 
serve  to  support  the  mast,  except  in  cases  where  the  forward  yard- 
arm  dips;  in  which  cases  the  halyards  lead  down  forward  of  the 
mast  amidships.  The  most  convenient  way  to  fit  the  halyards 
is  to  use  a  pendant  with  a  single  block  at  the  end,  through 
which  a  fall  is  rove. 

In  the  English  Navy  the  larger  cutters  carry  a  dipping-lug 
foresail  and  a  standing-lug  mainsail,  the  latter  being  replaced  in 
cutters  cf  twenty-seven  feet  and  under,  by  a  mizzen  stepped  at 
the  extreme  stern  cf  the  boat  with  a  bumpkin  rigged  out  beyond 
the  stern  for  the  sheet.  As  the  mizzen  is  of  necessity  a  small 
sail,  the  foresail  must  be  large,  to  give  a  fair  spread  of  canvas,  and 
being  a  dipping-lug  it  is  not  convenient  to  handle.  In  spite  of 
this  and  the  seeming  clumsiness  of  the  mizzen,  with  its  boom 
and  bumpkin  projecting  from  the  stern,  this  rig  is  much  liked  in 
the  English  service.  It  involves  very  little  gear,  and  is  quickly 
and  easily  rigged.  The  greater  part  of  the  sail  area,  being  in  a 
single  sail  reaching  well  out  to  windward  and  with  nothing  for- 
ward to  becalm  it,  is  favorably  placed  for  holding  a  wind;  and 
boats  with  this  rig  sail  faster  on  a  wind  than  those  with  their  can- 
vas divided  between  a  fore  and  main;  but  they  are  at  a  disad- 
vantage in  reaching,  and  they  do  not  lie-to  well.  The  forward 
part  of  the  foresail  acts  as  a  jib,  but  with  greater  pull  and 
smaller  leverage ;  and  the  absence  of  a  bowsprit  is  an  advantage 
in  going  alongside  and  in  plunging  into  a  head  sea. 

The  halyards  of  a  dipping-lug  are  bent  one-third  of  the  length 
of  the  yardarm  from  the  forward  end.  The  tack  is  usually  hooked 
to  the  stem,  except  in  sailing  free,  when  it  is  shifted  to  the  weather 
bow.  Some  seamen  prefer  to  hook  it  always  to  the  bow,  but  the 
boat  will  not  point  quite  so  high  with  it  there.  The  most  serious 
danger  connected  with  the  lug  arises  from  the  fact  that  if  the  sail 


2O8  BOATS. 

gets  aback,  it  binds  against  the  mast  and  cannot  be  lowered.  In 
this  situation,  in  a  fresh  breeze,  there  is  serious  danger  of  cap- 
sizing. It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  the  tack  fast  with  a  "  slip- 
hitch,"  which  admits  of  casting  it  off  in  an  instant,  when  the  sail 
immediately  spills,  as  it  is  a  characteristic  of  the  lug  that  its  sta- 
bility depends  entirely  upon  the  tack. 

1  he  dipping-lug  sometimes  takes  the  shape  of  Fig.  2,  Plate  79, 
which,  it  will  be  seen,  :.s  :n  approach  to  the  latteen  rig.  Here 
the  forward  yardarm  is  the  one  to  be  dipped,  and  the  luff  is  short 
enough  to  admit  of  dipping  without  lowering  the  yard.  The  tack 
makes  fast  amidships,  a  light  jigger  being  used  to  get  it  well 
down.  The  halyards  are  led  down  forward,  close  in  to  the  mast, 
and,  as  in  all  cases  where  the  halyards  are  not  available  for  sup- 
porting the  mast,  the  mast  must  be  stout  and  well  secured  at  the 
partners.  Like  the  French  rig  already  described,  this  rig, 
although  designed  for  dipping,  will  work  fairly  well  as  a  standing- 
lug.  It  is  well  suited  for  boats  like  gigs  (old  style)  which  are  not 
built  for  sailing  and  have  not  the  stiffness  to  stand  up  under  a  rig 
whose  center  of  effort  is  high. 

The  tack  of  a  standing-lug  is  made  fast  to  the  mast,  and  the 
halyards  are  bent  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  yardarm  from 
the  end.  With  the  balance-lug,  the  tack  may  conveniently  be 
fitted  to  travel  across  on  an  iron  rod  or  "  horse  "  just  forward  of 
the  mast.  The  point  for  bending  the  halyards  varies. 

The  sliding-gunter  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  convenient  of 
rigs  for  boats  of  small  and  medium  size,  but  it  has  comparatively 
little  driving  power,  particularly  on  a  wind,  and  for  all-around 
work  is  distinctly  inferior  to  several  of  the  rigs  that  have  been 
mentioned  above.  Safl  is  reduced  in  an  instant  by  letting  go 
the  halyards,  and  taken  in  altogether  by  tricing  up  the  boom  (or 
clew)  as  the  topmast  comes  down,  brailing  up  at  the  same  time. 
This  is  done  as  easily  with  the  sails  aback  as  when  they  are  full. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  spars  are  awkward  to  handle,  and  still 
more  awkward  to  stow,  since  the  lower  mast,  topmast,  and  sails 
are  usually  made  up  together.  This  makes  it  inconvenient  to 
carry  the  rig  in  the  boat  when  under  oars  and  impossible 
to  do  so  if  the  oars  are  to  be  used  in  rough  water.  It  is  a 
great  improvement  to  make  the  gunter-irons  with  clamps  so 
that  the  top-mast  and  sail  can  be  stowed  separately  from  the 
lower  mast.  A  good  deal  of  power  is  required  to  step  the 


BOATS.  2O9 

masts  in  shifting  from  oars  to  sail,  particularly  if  the  boat  is 
rolling. 

The  halyards  of  the  sliding  gunter  are  bent  to  the  neck  of  the 
upper  gunter-iron  and  lead  through  a  sheave  in  the  mast.  The 
clewrope  leads  from  the  clew  to  the  proper  point  on  the  mast 
for  tricing  up  the  boom  snugly. 


§  V.      HANDLING    BOATS    UNDER    SAIL. 

TRIM. — To  do  her  best  under  sail,  a  boat  must  be  trimmed  in 
accordance  with  her  build  and  rig. 

If  she  carries  considerable  head  sail,  she  will  need  to  be  deeper 
forward  than  would  otherwise  be  desirable.  If  she  has  little  or 
no  head  sail,  she  should  trim  by  the  stern.  The  build  and  rig 
are  fixed  upon  with  reference  to  each  other,  due  consideration 
being  given  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  boat  is  designed.  Once 
fixed,  these  characteristics  are  practically  permanent.  The  trim 
of  both  boat  and  sails,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  varied  within 
rather  wide  limits ;  but  they,  too,  must  be  considered  with  refer- 
ence to  each  other.  Most  boats  when  on  the  wind  sail  best  when 
carrying  a  little  weather  helm;  that  is  to  say,  when  they  have  a 
slight  tendency  to  come  into  the  wind.  Too  much  weather  helm 
may  be  corrected  by  shifting  weights  aft;  too  much  lee  helm,  by 
shifting  forward. 

The  weights  should  be  kept  out  of  the  ends  of  the  boat,  with- 
out being  unduly  crowded  together  amidships,.  It  is  especially 
important  to  keep  heavy  weights  out  of  the  bow.  The  only  bal- 
last, as  such,  that  should  be  carried,  is  water  in  breakers.  Under 
no  circumstances  should  "sinking"  ballast  be  allowed;  ballast, 
in  other  words,  which  is  heavier  than  water.  The  lower  the 
weights  can  be  stowed,  the  better;  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  well  clear  for  baling.  Ballast  and  cargo  must  be 
secured  against  the  possibility  of  shifting.  The  crew  should  be 
kept  well  down  and  nobody  allowed  to  stand  on  the  thwarts  or  to 
sit  on  the  gunwale.  If  the  men  are  sitting  to  windward  in  a  fresh 
breeze,  they  should  move  amidships  for  passing  under  the  lee  of 
a  vessel  or  other  object,  where  the  wind  may  fail  or  even  shift  in 
an  eddy.  The  mast  should  be  properly  stayed,  up  and  down  or 
with  a  slight  rake  aft,  and  the  halyards  taut  up. 

In  a  lug  rig,  the  halyards  act  as  a  weather  shroud,  the  tie  being 


2IO 


BOATS. 


led  down  to  windward  and  abaft,  and   set  up  by  a  purchase. 
In  most  other  rigs,  shrouds  are  fitted. 

On  the  wind,  as  has  been  said,  a  boat  should  carry  a  little 
lee  rudder.1  The  sails  should  be  kept  well  full,  sheets  not  too 
flat,  but  everything  drawing  and  the  boat  alive.  It  is  a  common 
mistake  to  get  the  sheets  so  flat  that  the  boat,  while  pointing 
high,  actually  makes  a  course  to  leeward  of  that  which  she  would 
make  if  kept  away  a  little  with  sheets  eased  accordingly;  and  it 
is  of  course  clear  that  if  kept  away,  her  speed  will  be  greater  than 
when  jammed  up  into  the  wind  in  the  hope  of  stealing  a  fraction 
of  a  point.  A  boat  of  good  draft  with  a  deep  keel  or  center- 
board,  and  yachts  designed  for  racing,  with  fin-keels  hanging 
ten  feet  below  their  normal  draft,  will  lie  amazingly  close  to  the 
wind  with  little,  or  no  leeway.  Ship's  boats,  however,  are  not 
constructed  on  yachting  lines  and  cannot  be  held  up  in  the  same 
way. 

Sheets  may  be  hauled  flatter  in  smooth  water  than  in  rough, 
and  the  sheets  of  standing  lugs,  gaff-  and  boom-sails,  sliding- 
gunters  and  the  like,  may  be  hauled  flatter  than  those  of  dipping- 
lugs.  The  sails  being  properly  set,  the  weather  cloths  of  the 
sails  are  kept  just  trembling,  with  weather  helm l  enough  to  let 
the  helmsman  "  feel  "  that  she  wants  to  come  into  the  wind.  As 
the  wind  will  vary  more  or  less  (in  apparent,  if  not  real,  direction), 
it  is  necessary  to  be  watchful  and  to  bring  her  up  or  keep  her 
away  from  time  to  time  in  order  that  she  may  be  always  at  her 
best.  The  sails  should  be  kept  fuller  in  rough  than  smooth 
water,  and  it  is  more  important  that  the  boat  should  be  kept 
going  so  as  to  be  always  under  command  of  the  rudder.  If  a 
heavy  breaking  sea  is  seen  bearing  down  upon  her,  she  should  be 
luffed  to  meet  it  and  kept  away  again  as  soon  as  it  has  passed.  If 
she  loses  way  she  becomes  helpless  at  once.  It  is  dangerous  to 
be  caught  by  a  heavy  sea  on  the  beam;  and  if  the  course  to  be 
made  in  rough  water  would  bring  the  boat  into  the  trough  of  it, 
the  best  plan  is  to  run  off  for  a  time  with  the  sea  on  the  quarter, 
then  bring  her  up  with  it  on  the  bow,  and  so  to  make  good  the 
course  desired  without  actually  steering  it  at  any  time, 

It  is  a  universal  rule  in  boat  sailing  that  the  sheets  should 
never  be  belayed  in  any  weather. 

For  a  moderate  squall,  the  boat  should  be  luffed  sufficiently  to 
shake,  without  spilling,  the  sail,  thus  keeping  headway  enough 

i    weather  helm. 


BOATS.  211 

to  retain  control,  but  with  the  sheet  (as  always)  in  hand.  If  it 
comes  stronger,  she  must  be  luffed  more  decidedly  and  the  sheet 
slacked  more  or  less.  The  sheet  may  of  course  be  let  go,  and  in 
a  sudden  emergency  this  must  be  done  at  once  in  addition  to 
putting  down  the  tiller,1  and,  if  necessary,  reducing  sail ;  but  the 
longer  she  can  be  kept  under  control  the  better,  and  to  let  go 
the  sheet  is  to  give  up  control. 

The  situation  is  quite  different  in  running  free.  Here  the  sail 
cannot  be  spilled  by  a  touch  of  the  rudder,1  and  the  only  prudent 
thing  is  to  slack  the  sheet  while  luffing.  The  force  of  the  wind 
would  be  much  reduced  by  running  off,  but  the  trouble  with  this 
is  that  if  it  comes  too  strong  there  is  no  resource  but  to  lower 
the  sail,  and  the  chances  are  that  it  will  bind  against  the  shrouds 
and  refuse  to  come  down.  Moreover,  there  is  always  danger  that 
the  wind  will  shift  in  the  squall,  and  the  mainsail  may  gybe  with 
dangerous  force. 

REEFING. 

When  a  boat  begins  to  take  in  water  it  is  time  to  reef.  And 
she  should  never,  even  in  smooth  water,  be  allowed  to  heel  too 
much.  A  boat  that  is  decked  over  may  run  with  her  lee  rail 
awash;  but  when  an  open  boat  is  approaching  this  point  it  must 
be  remembered  that  a  fresher  puff  may  bear  the  gunwale  lower 
without  warning,  and  that  the  moment  it  dips,  the  boat  will  almost 
certainly  fill  and  capsize.  The  details  of  reefing  will  depend  upon 
the  rig,  but  a  few  general  rules  may  be  laid  dowa  The  men 
should  be  stationed  before  beginning,  and  should  all  be  required 
to  remain  seated.  One  hand  lowers  the  halyards  as  much  as 
may  be  necessary,  another  hauls  down  on  the  luff  and  shifts 
the  tack.  The  sheet  is  hauled  in  a  little  to  let  the  men  detailed 
for  the  reef  points  get  hold  of  and  gather  in  the  foot.  The  sheet 
is  then  slacked  and  shifted,  the  points  passed,  the  halyards 
manned,  the  sail  hoisted  and  the  sheet  trimmed.  It  is  important 
to  keep  the  boat  under  command  while  reefing,  and  for  this  she 
must  have  way  enough  to  obey  her  helm.1  If  she  can  be  luffed 
a  little  and  still  kept  going  through  the  water  sufficiently  to  obey 
her  helm,1  then  it  is  unquestionably  wise  to  luff,  but  not  suf- 
ficiently to  risk  losing  control  by  the  rudder.1 

If  the  boat  has  more  than  one  sail,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  reef 
them  one  at  a  time. 

I.  helm. 


212 


BOATS. 


RUNNING  BEFORE  THE   WIND. 

This  is  the  most  dangerous  point  of  sailing  in  a  fresh  breeze 
because  of  the  chance  of  gybing.  The  danger  increases  if  the 
boat  yaws,  as  she  will  have  a  tendency  to  do  if  trimmed  at  all  by 
the  head;  from  which  follows  the  rule,  in  running,  to  keep  the 
weights  fairly  well  aft,  though  never  at  the  extreme  after  end. 
Very  careful  steering  is  required;  and  if  the  sea  is  really  heavy, 
the  chances  are  that  the  boom  will  gybe  in  spite  of  all  the  care 
that  can  be  taken,  unless  lashed  to  the  rail  or  a  shroud  by  a 
"  lazy  guy/' 

Squalls  are  not  so  dangerous  before  the  wind  as  when  close- 
hauled,  unless  they  are  accompanied  by  a  shift  of  wind. 

If  they  call  for  any  reduction  of  sail,  it  may  be  made  by  drop- 
ping the  peak  of  the  mainsail  (if  a  gaff  sail)  or,  more  satisfac- 
torily, by  reefing. 

The  foresail  is  sometimes  set  on  the  side  opposite  the  main- 
sail, in  running  before  the  wind,  a  temporary  boom  being  rigged 
by  using  a  boat-book  or  an  oar.  A  boat  sailing  in  this  way  is 
going  "  wing  and  wing/' 

If  the  sea  is  rough,  it  is  well  to  avoid  running  with  the  wind 
dead  aft.  To  make  a  course  directly  to  leeward,  the  wind  may 
be  brought  first  on  one  quarter  and  then  on  the  other,  the  main- 
sail being  clewed  up  or  the  peak  dropped  each  time  the  course  is 
changed,  if  the  breeze  is  strong  enough  to  make  gybing  dan- 
gerous. 

A  serious  danger  in  running  before  a  heavy  sea  is  that  of 
"  broaching-to."  The  boat  will  yaw  considerably,  the  rudder  will 
be  often  out  of  water  when  it  is  most  needed  to  meet  her,  and 
the  sails  will  be  becalmed  in  the  trough  of  the  seas.  The  situa- 
tion here  is  much  like  that  of  a  boat  running  in  a  surf;  and,  as  in 
that  case,  the  yawing  will  be  reduced  by  keeping  the  weights  aft 
and  by  steering  with  an  oar.  The  jib  should  always  be  set,  with 
the  sheet  flat  aft.  It  helps  to  meet  and  pay  her  off  if  she  flies  to 
against  the  helm.  A  drag  towed  over  the  stern  is  also  helpful. 

Another  danger  in  running  is  that  the  boom  may  dip  as  she 
rolls  and  thus  capsize  the  boat. 

TACKING. 

In  tacking,  the  same  principles  apply  to  a  boat  as  to  a  ship. 
After-sail  tends  to  bring  her  head  to  wind,  head-sail  to  keep  her 


BOATS.  213 

off ;  but  all  sails,  so  long  as  they  draw,  give  her  headway  and  so 
add  to  the  steering  power  of  the  rudder.1 

It  is  clear  that  a  short  full  boat  will  turn  to  windward  better 
than  a  long-  and  narrow  one  and  will  require  a  much  shorter 
distance  for  coming  round.  Thus  a  short  boat  is  preferable  to 
a  long  one  for  working  up  a  narrow  channel. 

Under  ideal  conditions,  a  boat  close-hauled  but  with  good 
way  on,  shoots  up  into  the  wind  as  the  tiller1  is  eased  down,  mak- 
ing a  good  reach  to  windward  and  filling  away  on  the  new  tack 
without  for  a  moment  losing  headway.  The  main  boom  is  hauled 
amidships,  and,  as  the  jib  and  foresail  lift,  their  sheets  are  let  go. 
The  boat  comes  head  to  wind  and  as  she  pays  off  on  the  new  tack 
the  sheets  are  hauled  aft  and  she  is  steadied  on  her  course. 
Under  less  favorable  conditions,  tacking  is  not  so  simple.  If 
there  is  a  sea  on  the  bow  advantage  must  be  taken  of  a  smooth 
time  to  ease  the  tiller1  down ;  the  main  boom  must  be  hauled  amid- 
ships gradually,  and  the  foresail  kept  full  as  long  as  it  will  draw. 
If  the  boat  loses  headway,  the  jib  sheet  is  held  out  on  the  old  lee 
bow  (not  too  far)  to  pay  her  head  around,  and  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  make  a  "  back-sail  "  of  the  mainsail.  As  she  gathers  stern- 
way,  the  rudder1  is  shifted,  and,  if  necessary,  an  oar  is  gotten  out 
to  help  her  around.  Carrying  the  weights  forward  is  favorable 
for  tacking,  but  when  a  boat  has  sternboard  she  may  be  helped 
around  by  putting  a  few  of  the  crew  on  the  (new)  lee  quarter, 
where,  by  increasing  the  immersion  of  the  full  lines  of  the 
counter,  they  add  to  the  resistance  and  cause  the  bow  to  fall  off. 

If  she  gets  "  in  irons,"  either  an  oar  must  be  used  or  the  jib 
and  fore  sheets  must  be  hauled  over  on  the  old  tack,  flat  aback, 
to  give  her  stern  board.  This  last  is  a  dangerous  maneuver  in  a 
strong  breeze  and  rough  sea. 

The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  it  is  lubberly  to  use  an 
oar  in  a  boat  under  sail.  The  lubberly  part  is  the  getting  into  a 
position  where  an  oar  is  needed.  Being  in  such  a  position,  it  is 
proper  to  use  the  oar  for  getting  out. 

Attention  may  again  be  called  to  the  fact,  already  mentioned 
more  than  once,  that  in  squally  weather,  a  boat  is  in  a  dangerous 
position  whenever  she  is  without  headway,  because  she  can 
neither  be  luffed  nor  kept  away  in  the  event  of  being  struck  by  a 
heavy  puff.  If,  through  ignorance  or  carelessness,  the  sheets  are 
belayed  at  such  a  time,  the  danger  is  enormously  increased. 


214  BOATS. 

On  July  17,  1902,  a  sail-boat  full  of  people,  in  charge  of  an  expe- 
rienced fisherman,  was  capsized  near  the  Isles  of  Shoals,  off  the  coast 
of  New  Hampshire,  under  the  following  circumstances: 

The  weather  had  been  stormy,  but  had  moderated.  The  wind  was 
light  but  puffy,  and  there  was  a  rather  heavy  sea  running.  The  boat 
had  tacked,  but  had  not  gathered  headway  and  was  lying  in  the  trough 
of  the  sea  when  a  squall  struck  her.  The  sheets  were  belayed.  The 
helm  was  put  down,  but  the  boat,  having  no  way,  could  not  answer  it. 
A  sudden  dash  of  spray  caused  the  passengers  to  crowd  hastily  to 
leeward,  and  this,  added  to  the  effect  of  the  squall  and  the  sea,  cap- 
sized the  boat.  Fourteen  lives  were  lost. 

Some  years  ago  a  schooner  yacht  was  lying  at  anchor  in  New  York 
harboi,  with  foresail  and  mainsail  set  and  the  sheets  belayed  to  prevent 
the  sails  from  slatting  about.  A  sud'den  squall  came  up,  on  the  beam, 
and  the  yacht  capsized  before  she  had  time  to  swing. 

WEARING. 

In  wearing,  the  rudder  is  put  down  and  the  main  sheet  slacked 
away  roundly  The  boat  goes  off  before  the  wind,  the  mainsail 
is  either  gybed  or  clewed  up  and  shifted  over  (preferably  the 
latter)  and  the  boat  is  hauled  up  on  the  new  tack,  losing  more 
or  less  ground  to  leeward  according  to  circumstances.  The  de- 
tails of  the  maneuver  may  vary  considerably  according  to  the 
conditions  of  wind  and  sea  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  boat  as 
to  rig  and  trim.  In  a  light  breeze,  the  main  sheet  is  slacked 
away  roundly  until  the  wind  is  aft,  then  hauled  in  smartly  for 
rrbing  and  eased  away  steadily  on  the  new  lee  quarter.  In  a 
fresh  breeze,  as  gybing  would  be  dangerous,  the  mainsail  is 
clewed  up  just  before  the  wind  comes  aft,  and  set  again  in  time 
to  bring  her  to  the  wind  on  the  new  tack ;  or,  in  the  case  of  a 
"  cat "  or  other  rig  where  the  head  of  the  mainsail  sets  on  a  gaff, 
the  peak  is  dropped  to  reduce  sail  temporarily. 

The  fore  and  jib  sheets  are  shifted  when  nearly  before  the 
wind.  As  she  comes  to  on  the  new  tack,  they  are  left  flowing; 
until  hauled  aft  to  meet  her  by  the  wind. 


REMARKS    ON    GYBING. 

A  sail  is  "  gybed  "  when  it  is  allowed  to  swing  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  the  wind  being  aft  or  nearly  so,  and  the  sail  full  first 
on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  This  may  be  done  inten- 
tionally, as  in  wearing  or  in  changing  course,  or  it  may  come 


BOATS.  215 

unexpectedly  from  a  shift  of  wind  or  from  the  yawing  of  the 
boat.  As  it  necessarily  involves  a  violent  swing  of  the  sail,  it 
puts  a  heavy  strain  upon  the  spars  and  fittings  and  causes  the 
boat  to  lurch  more  or  less  deeply  to  leeward.  Moreover,  the 
violent  sweep  of  the  boom  across  the  stern  endangers  everybody 
in  its  path. 

In  a  light  breeze,  these  dangers  are  perhaps  not  serious 
enough  to  justify  the  rule  that  a  mainsail  should  never  be  gybed, 
but  in  a  fresh  breeze  it  should  not  be  thought  of ;  and  the  fact 
.that  it  is  often  done  by  experienced  boatmen  does  not  make  it 
any  more  seamanlike. 

When  a  necessary  change  of  course  in  a  fresh  breeze  will  bring 
a  shift  of  wind  from  one  quarter  to  the  other,  the  sail  should  be 
lowered  or  clewed  up  for  a  moment  before  putting  down  the 
rudder,  and  then  set  again  on  the  other  quarter.  If  this  cannot 
be  done  and  it  is  still  necessary  to  gybe,  the  peak  should .  be 
dropped,  the  boom  hauled  in  slowly  and  eased  away  on  the  new 
tack. 

With  a  sliding-gunter  rig  the  mainsail  should  be  brailed  up 
for  gybing. 

§VI.     HANDLING  A  BOAT  UNDER  OARS. 

There  is  perhaps  quite  as  much  art  in  handling  a  boat  under 
oars  as  in  handling  it  under  sail,  but  comparatively  little  of  this 
art  can  be  taught  by  precept.  There  is  of  late  years  a  tendency  in 
all  navies  to  rely  very  much  upon  steamers  and  motor  boats,  and 
as  a  consequence  of  this  it  has  become  rare  to  see  man-of-war 
boats  handled  with  the  smartness  which  characterized  the  best 
of  them  not  many  years  ago.  Yet  the  need  of  just  such  train- 
ing as  produced  this  smartness  is  greater  now  than  ever  before, 
because  of  the  changes  which  are  making  of  the  modern  man- 
of-war's  man  a  mechanic  and  a  soldier  rather  than  a  sailor. 

In  going  into  a  crowded  or  difficult  landing,  pull  easily 
and  keep  the  boat  under  control  with  the  oars  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  going  through  a  narrow  entrance,  get  good  way  on  the 
boat,  then  trail  or  toss  the  oars. 

Remember  that  a  loaded  boat  holds  her  way  much  longer  than 
a  light  one. 


216  BOATS. 

In  pulling  across  a  current,  try  to  get  a  range  of  two  objects 
in  line  and  steer  by  these  to  avoid  being  set  down  by  the  cur- 
rent. 

Having  a  long  pull  against  the  tide,  run  inshore  where  the  tide 
is  slacker  than  in  midstream. 

If  the  weather  is  thick  or  may  become  so,  make  sure  you  have 
a  compass  in  the  boat,  and  note  the  course  you  must  make  com- 
ing and  going. 

There  should  always  be  a  lantern,  filled  and  trimmed,  in  the 
boat,  and  boats  should  never  leave  the  ship  for  a  trip  of  any 
great  length  without  a  compass.  Weather  is  liable  to  thicken 
at  any  time,  and  a  boat  without  a  compass  would  have  dif- 
ficulty in  reaching  a  landing  or  returning  to  the  ship.  For 
this  reason,  boat-officers  and  coxswains  of  running-boats  should 
at  all  times  know  the  compass  course  between  the  ship  and 
landing,  and  if  they  are  away  from  the  ship  and  it  begins  to 
thicken,  they  should  at  once  observe  the  compass  course  before 
the  ship  is  shut  in,  and  note  the  direction  and  force  of  wind 
and  current. 

If  taken  in  tow  by  a  vessel,  make  her  give  you  a  line  instead 
of  taking  your  painter,  and  keep  this  clear  for  letting  go  in  an 
instant.  If  towing  astern,  hold  on  with  a  short  line  close  up 
under  the  counter;  if  towing  alongside,  have  a  long  line  and  watch 
your  steering. 

Never  go  alongside  a  vessel  when  she  has  stern  way.  In  a 
seaway  always  board  a  vessel  to  leeward,  unless  there  is  wreckage 
floating  alongside. 

(See  Chapter  "  Rescuing  the  Crew  of  a  Wreck.") 

In  coming  alongside  in  a  seaway  or  a  strong  tide,  warn  the 
bow  oarsmen  to  look  out  for  the  line  which  will  be  thrown  from 
the  ship. 

Caught  in  a  Gale  in  a  Boat. 

Rig  a  sea-anchor  by  lashing  the  spars  and  sails  together,  the 
sails  loosed.  Fit  a  span  to  this  and  ride  by  the  painter.  If  there 
is  oil  in  the  boat,  use  a  bag  of  it  on  the  sea-anchor. 

Running  a  Line. 

Coil  the  greater  part  of  the  line  in  the  stern  sheets,  but  take 
end  enough  in  the  bow  to  make  fast  when  you  reach  the  landing. 


BOATS.  217 

Pull  away  and  let  the  ship  pay  out  more  line  until  you  are  sure 
of  having  enough  in  the  boat  to  reach,  then  pay  out  from  the 
boat.  Always  have  plenty  of  good  seizing  stuff  for  making  all 
secure,  and  if  you  are  to  stand  by  the  line,  have  an  axe  for  cut- 
ting if  ordered. 

If  laying  out  with  the  tide,  take  less  line  in  the  boat  than 
otherwise ;  if  against  the  tide  it  will  save  work  to  take  all  the  line 
in  the  boat,  pull  up  and  make  fast,  then  bring  the  end  back  to  the 
ship.  With  a  long  line  to  be  laid  out  in  a  strong  current,  it  will 
usually  be  necessary  to  have  several  boats,  one  to  run  away  with 
the  end,  the  others  to  underrun  at  intervals,  floating  the  line  and 
pulling  up  stream  with  the  bight. 

If  the  line  is  to  be  secured  to  a  post,  put  a  bowline  in  the  end 
before  starting,  and  throw  this  over  the  post.  Bend  on  a  heav- 
ing line  and  let  the  bow  man  throw  this  if  hands  are  standing  by 
to  take  it,  or  jump  ashore  with  it  himself  if  necessary. 

The  running  of  lines  is  now  usually  done  by  a  power  boat. 

Towing. 

In  ordinary  cases  of  towing — an  unladen  boat  in  a  smooth  sea 
— the  towing  boat  passes  clear  of  the  oars  of  the  tow  (oars  of 
tow  should  preferably  be  tossed  to  facilitate  this),  placing  her- 
self in  line  ahead,  receives  painter  from  the  tow,  secures  it  to 
ring-bolt  in  stern-post,  and  starts  ahead  immediately  she  has 
hold  of  the  painter. 

The  bowman  in  the  tow  must  not  give  the  towing  boat  his 
painter  until  she  is  in  line  ahead ;  he  will  then  take  in  the  slack 
of  the  towline,  keeping  a  strain  on  it,  and  gradually  pay  it  out, 
thus  getting  way  on  the  tow  gradually.  This  latter  precaution 
is  particularly  necessary  if  the  tow  is  at  all  heavy. 

Though  it  is  frequently  impracticable,  it  is  always  preferable 
for  the  towing  boat  to  give  the  tow  a  painter  (instead  of  vice 
versa),  which  the  tow  should  tend  and  keep  ready  for  letting  go 
in  an  instant.  If  this  is  not  done,  and  the  tow  gives  the  towing 
vessel  her  bow  painter,  which  is  shackled  in  the  bow,  a  hatchet  or 
sharp  knife  should  be  kept  at  hand  for  cutting  the  towline  in  an 
emergency. 

If  the  tow  is  heavily  laden,  or  the  sea  rough,  the  above  method 


218  BOATS. 

brings  too  much  strain  on  the  stem  and  stern-posts  of  the  boats ; 
hence  in  such  a  case  the  painter  should  be  toggled  to  a  stretcher 
between  the  two  after  thwarts  of  the  towing  boat  and  to  the 
forward  thwart  of  the  tow.  To  steer  a  boat  that  is  towing-  in  this 
manner,  bear  the  towline  over  on  the  quarter  toward  which  it  is 
desired  to  turn,  for  the  helm  will  be  of  little  use. 

Towing  of  ship's  boats  is  now  usually  done  by  the  steamers, 
which  are  frequently  fitted  with  a  span  the  ends  of  which  are 
secured  to  either  quarter.  This  facilitates  steering  and  is  in  all 
respects  preferable  to  securing  the  towline  to  the  shackle  in  the 
stern-post. 

When  being  towed  astern  of  a  large  vessel,  use  a  short  scope 
so  as  to  remain  close  under  the  counter,  with  the  bow  partly  out 
of  water.  In  casting  off  when  there  are  other  boats  towing 
astern,  be  careful,  before  letting  go,  either  to  drop  clear  of  them 
all  with  your  towline,  or  be  handy  with  your  oars  to  avoid  getting 
athwart  the  hawse  of  some  of  them. 

Except  in  the  case  of  unladen  boats  in  smooth  water,  a  number 
of  boats  should  never  be  towed  tandem  by  their  painters,  for  in 
a  long  tow  this  brings  a  considerable  strain  on  stem  and  stern 
timbers  of  the  foremost  boats.  To  avoid  this  strain,  the  towing 
vessel  should  pay  out  sufficient  line  to  reach  the  bow  of  the  last 
boat,  the  other  boats  being  secured  to  it  by  slip-lines  at  bow  and 
stern. 

If  towing  alongside,  have  the  towline  from  as  far  forward  on 
the  towing  vessel  as  possible ;  either  toggle  it  to  the  forward 
.thwart  (steadying  it  over  the  stem  with  a  bight  of  the  painter),  or 
pass  it  through  the  forward  rowlock  on  the  side  nearest  the  tow- 
ing vessel.  Pay  particular  attention  to  the  steering. 


(2I9) 


CHAPTER    X. 

HANDLING  BOATS  IN  A  SURF. 

§1.    PRELIMINARY. 

The  handling  of  boats  in  a  surf  is  an  art  in  itself,  calling  for 
special  knowledge  and  skill  such  as  can  be  acquired  only  by 
practical  experience.  When  undertaken  by  those  who  have 
not  this  experience,  the  danger  involved  can  hardly  be  over-esti- 
mated. 

Of  the  various  methods  of  landing  on  a  flat  beach  which  are 
described  in  the  Rules  of  the  National  Life-boat  Association 
quoted  below,  the  safest  is  probably  that  of  backing  in,  keep- 
ing the  bow  toward  the  surf,  pulling  out  to  meet  each  breaker, 
then  backing  in  as  fast  and  as  far  as  possible  on  its  back. 

A  surf  never  looks  as  dangerous  when  seen  from  seaward  as 
it  really  is;  and  a  boat  having  to  land  through  it,  should,  if  there 
is  a  possibility  of  help  from  the  shore,  await  such  help  before 
attempting  to  go  in.  As,  however,  it  is  often  necessary  to  attempt 
a  landing  where  no  expert  assistance  is  available,  the  following 
rules  have  been  drawn  up  and  published  by  the  Royal  National 
Life-boat  Institution  of  Great  Britain: 


§11.  RULES  PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ROYAL  NATIONAL 
LIFEBOAT  INSTITUTION,  ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  OPEN 
ROWING  BOATS  IN  A  SURF;  BEACHING  THEM,  ETC 

IN  ROWING  TO  SEAWARD. 

x 

As  a  general  rule,  speed  must  be  given  to  a  boat  rowing 
against  a  heavy  surf. 

Indeed,  under  some  circumstances,  her  safety  will  depend  on 
the  utmost  possible  speed  being  attained  on  meeting  a  sea. 

For,  if  the  sea  be  really  heavy,  and  the  wind  blowing  a  hard  on- 
shore gale,  it  can  only  be  by  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  crew  that 
any  headway  can  be  made.  The  great  danger  then  is,  that  an 


22O  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A   SURF. 

approaching  heavy  sea  may  carry  the  boat  away  on  its  front, 
and  turn  it  broadside  on,  or  up-end  it,  either  effect  being  imme- 
diately fatal.  A  boat's  only  chance  in  such  a  case,  is  to  obtain 
such  way  as  shall  enable  her  to  pass  end-on,  through  the  crest  of 
the  sea,  and  leave  it  as  soon  as  possible  behind  her.  Of  course 
if  there  be  a  rather  heavy  surf,  but  no  wind,  or  the  wind  off  shore, 
and  opposed  to  the  surf,  as  is  often  the  case,  a  boat  might  be  pro- 
pelled so  rapidly  through  it,  that  her  bow  would  fall  more  sud- 
denly and  heavily  after  topping  the  sea,  than  if  her  way  had  been 
checked;  and  it  may  therefore  only  be  when  the  sea  is  of  such 
magnitude,  and  the  boat  of  such  a  character,  that  there  may  be 
chance  of  the  former  carrying  her  back  before  it,  that  full  speed 
should  be  given  to  her. 

It  may  also  happen  that,  by  careful  management  under  such 
circumstances,  a  boat  may  be  made  to  avoid  the  sea,  so  that  each 
wave  may  break  ahead  of  her,  which  may  be  the  only  chance  of 
safety  in  a  small  boat;  but  if  the  shore  be  flat,  and  the  broken 
water  extend  to  a  great  distance  from  it,  this  will  often  be  im- 
possible. 

The  following  general  rules  for  rowing  to  seaward  may  there- 
fore be  relied  on: 

1.  If  sufficient  command  can  be  kept  over  a  boat  by  the  skill 
of  those  on  board  her,  avoid  or  "  dodge  "  the  sea  if  possible,  so  as 
not  to  meet  it  at  the  moment  of  its  breaking  or  curling  over. 

2.  Against  a  head  gale  and  heavy  surf,  get  all  possible  speed 
on  a  boat  on  the  approach  of  every  sea  which  cannot  be  avoided. 

If  more  speed  can  be  given  to  a  boat  than  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent her  being  carried  back  by  a  surf,  her  way  may  be  checked 
on  its  approach,  which  will  give  her  an  easier  passage  over  it. 

ON  RUNNING  BEFORE  A  BROKEN  SEA,  OR  SURF,  TO  THE  SHORE. 

The  one  great  danger,  when  running  before  a  broken  sea,  is 
that  of  broaching-to.  To  that  peculiar  effect  of  the  sea,  so  fre- 
quently destructive  of  human  life,  the  utmost  attention  must  be 
directed. 

The  cause  of  a  boat's  broaching-to,  when  running  before  a 
broken  sea  or  surf,  is,  that  her  own  motion  being  in  the  same 
direction  as  that  of  the  sea,  whether  it  be  given  by  the  force  of 
oars  or  sails,  or  by  the  force  of  the  sea  itself,  she  opposes  no 
resistance  to  it,  but  is  carried  before  it.  Thus,  if  a  boat  be  run- 
ning with  her  bow  to  the  shore,  and  her  stern  to  the  sea,  the 


HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF.  221 

effect  of  a  surf  or  roller,  on  its  overtaking  her,  is  to  throw  up 
the  stern,  and  as  a  consequence  to  depress  the  bow;  if  she  then 
has  sufficient  inertia  (which  will  be  proportional  to  weight)  to 
allow  the  sea  to  pass  her,  she  will  in  succession  pass  through  the 
descending,  the  horizontal  and  the  ascending  positions,  as  the  crest 
of  the  wave  passes  successively  her  stern,  her  midships,  and  her 
bow  in  the  reverse  order  in  which  the  same  positions  occur  to  a 
boat  propelled  to  seaward  against  a  surf.  This  may  be  defined 
as  the  safe  mode  of  running  before  a  broken  sea. 

But  if  a  boat,  on  being  overtaken  by  a  heavy  surf,  has  not 
sufficient  inertia  to  allow  it  to  pass  her,  the  first  of  the  three  posi- 
tions above  enumerated  alone  occurs — her  stern  is  raised  high  in 
the  air  and  the  wave  carries  the  boat  before  it  on  its  front  or 
unsafe  side,  sometimes  with  frightful  velocity,  the  bow  all  the 
time  being  deeply  immersed  in  the  hollow  of  the  sea,  where  the 
water,  being  stationary  or  comparatively  so,  offers  a  resistance, 
whilst  the  crest  of  the  sea,  having  the  actual  motion  which 
causes  it  to  break,  forces  onward  the  stern,  or  rear  end  of  the 
boat. 

A  boat  will,  in  this  position,  sometimes  aided  by  careful  oar- 
steerage,  run  a  considerable  distance  until  the  wave  has  broken 
and  expended  itself.  But  it  will  often  happen,  that  if  the  bow  be 
low,  it  will  be  driven  under  water,  when  the  buoyancy  being  lost 
forward,  whilst  the  sea  presses  on  the  stern,  the  boat  will  be 
thrown  (as  it  is  termed)  end-over-end;  or  if  the  bow  be  high,  or 
it  be  protected,  as  in  most  lifeboats,  by  a  bow  air-chamber,  so 
that  it  does  not  become  submerged,  that  the  resistance  forward, 
acting  on  one  bow,  will  slightly  turn  the  boat's  head,  and  the 
force  of  the  surf  being  transferred  to  the  opposite  quarter,  she  will 
in  a  moment  be  turned  round  broadside  by  the  sea  and  be 
thrown  by  it  on  her  beam-ends,  or  altogether  capsized,.  It  is 
in  this  manner  that  most  boats  are  upset  in  a  surf,  especially  on 
flat  coasts,  and  in  this  way  many  lives  are  annually  lost  amongst 
merchant  seamen  when  attempting  to  land,  after  being  com- 
pelled to  desert  their  vessels. 

Hence  it  follows  that  the  management  of  a  boat,  when  landing 
through  a  heavy  surf,  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  assimilated  to 
that  when  proceeding  to  seaward  against  one,  at  least  so  far  as  to 
stop  her  progress  shoreward  at  the  moment  of  being  overtaken 
by  a  heavy  sea,  and  thus  enabling  it  to  pass  her.  There  are  dif- 
ferent, ways  of  effecting  this  object: 


222  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF. 

1.  By  turning  a  boat's  head  to  the  sea  before  entering  the 
broken  water,  and  then  backing  in  stern  foremost,  pulling  a  few 
strokes  ahead  to  meet  each  heavy  sea,  and  then  again  backing 
astern.     If  a  sea  be  really  heavy,  and  a  boat  small,  this  plan  will 
be  generally  the  safest,  as  a  boat  can  be  kept  more  under  com- 
mand when  the  full  force  of  the  oars  can  be  used  against  .a  heavy 
surf,  than  by  backing  them  only, 

2.  If  rowing  to  shore  with  the  stern  to  seaward,  by  backing  all 
the  oars  on  the  approach  of  a  heavy  sea,  and  rowing  ahead  again 
as  soon  as  it  has  passed  to  the  bow  of  the  boat,  thus  rowing  in  on 
the  back  of  the  wave;  or,  as  is  practised  in  some  lifeboats,  plac- 
ing the  after-oarsmen  with  their  faces  forward,  and  making  them 
row  back  at  each  sea  on  its  approach. 

3.  If  rowed  in  bow  foremost,  by  towing  astern  a  pig  of  ballast 
or   large    stone,   or   a   large   basket,    or   canvas   bag   termed    a 
"  drogue  "  or  drag,  made  for  the  purpose,  the  object  of  each  be- 
ing to  hold  the  boat's  stern  back,  and  to  prevent  her  being  turned 
broadside  to  the  sea  or  broaching-to. 

Drogues  are  in  common  use  by  the  boatmen  on  the  Norfolk 
coast;  they  are  conical-shaped  bags  of  about  the  same  form  and 
proportionate  length  and  breadth  as  a  candle  extinguisher,  about 
two  feet  wide  at  the  mouth  and  four  and  a  half  feet  long.  They 
are  towed  with  the  mouth  foremost  by  a  stout  rope,  a  small  line, 
termed  a  tripping  line,  being  fast  to  the  apex  or  pointed  end. 
When  towed  with  the  mouth  foremost,  they  fill  with  water,  and 
offer  a  considerable  resistance,  thereby  holding  back  the  stern; 
by  letting  go  the  stouter  rope  and  retaining  the  smaller  line,  their 
position  is  reversed,  when  they  collapse,  and  can  be  readily  hauled 
into  the  boat. 

Drogues  are  chiefly  used  in  sailing-boats,  when  they  both  serve 
to  check  a  boat's  way  and  to  keep  her  end  on  to  the  sea.  They 
are,  however,  a  great  source  of  safety  in  rowing-boats,  and  the 
rowing  lifeboats  of  the  National  Lifeboat  Institution  are  now 
all  provided  with  them. 

A  boat's  sail  bent  to  a  yard,  and  towed  astern  loosed,  the  yard 
being  attached  to  a  line  capable  of  being  veered,  hauled  or  let  go, 
will  act  in  some  measure  as  a  drogue,  and  will  tend  much  to 
break  the  force  of  the  sea  immediately  astern  of  the  boat. 

Heavy  weights  should  be  kept  out  of  the  extreme  ends  of  a 
boat ;  but  when  rowing  before  a  heavy  sea  the  best  trim  is  deepest 
by  the  stern,  which  prevents  the  stern  being  readily  thrown  on 
one  side  by  the  sea. 


HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF.  223 

A  boat  should  be  steered  by  an  oar  over  the  stern,  or  on  one 
quarter  when  running  before  a  sea,  as  the  rudder  will  then  at 
times  be  of  no  use.  If  the  rudder  be  shipped,  it  should  be  kept 
amidships  on  a  sea  breaking  over  the  stern. 

The  following  general  rules  may  therefore  be  depended  on 
when  running  before,  or  attempting  to  land,  through  a  heavy 
surf  or  broken  water: 

1.  As  far  as  possible  avoid  each  sea  by  placing  the  boat  where 
the  sea  will  break  ahead  or  astern  of  her. 

2.  If  the  sea  be  very  heavy,  or  if  the  boat  be  very  small,  and 
especially  if  she  have  a  square  stern,  bring  her  bow  round  to 
seaward  and  back  her  in,  rowing  ahead  against  each  heavy  surf 
that  cannot  be  avoided  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  pass  the  boat. 

3.  If  it  be  considered  safe  to  proceed  to  the  shore  bow  fore- 
most, back  the  oars  against  each  sea  on  its  approach,  so  as  to 
stop  the  boat's  way  through  the  water  as  far  as  possible,  and  if 
there  is  a  drogue,  or  any  other  instrument  in  the  boat  that  may 
be  used  as  one,  tow  it  astern  to  aid  in  keeping  the  boat  end-on, 
to  the  sea,  which  is  the  chief  object  in  view. 

4.  Bring  the  principal  weights  in  the  boat  towards  the  end  that 
is  to  seaward,  but  not  to  the  extreme  end. 

5.  If  a  boat,  worked  by  both  sails  and  oars,  be  running  under 
sail  for  the  land  through  a  heavy  sea,  her  crew  should,  under  all 
circumstances,  unless  the  beach  be  quite  steep,  take  down  her 
masts  and  sails  before  entering  the  broken  water,  and  take  her 
to  land  under  oars  alone,  as  above  described. 

If  she  has  sails  only,  her  sails  should  be  much  reduced,  a  half- 
lowered  foresail  or  other  small  head-sail  being  sufficient. 

BEACHING  OR  LANDING  THROUGH  A  SURF. 
The  running  before  a  surf  or  broken  sea,  and  the  beaching  or 
landing  of  a  boat,  are  two  distinct  operations;  the  management  of 
boats,  as  above  recommended,  has  exclusive  reference  to  running 
before  a  surf  where  the  shore  is  so  flat  that  the  broken  water 
extends  to  some  distance  from  the  beach.  Thus  on  a  very  steep 
beach,  the  first  heavy  fall  of  broken  water  will  be  on  the  beach 
itself,  whilst  on  some  very  flat  shores  there  will  be  broken  water 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  sometimes  extending  to  even  four  or 
five  miles  from  the  land.  The  outermost  line  of  broken  water, 
on  a  flat  shore,  where  the  waves  break  in  three  or  four  fathoms 
water,  is  the  heaviest,  and  therefore  the  most  dangerous,  and 


224  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF. 

when  it  has  been  passed  through  in  safety,  the  danger  lessens  as 
the  water  shoals,  until,  on  nearing  the  land,  its  force  is  spent  and 
its  power  harmless.  As  the  character  of  the  sea  is  quite  different 
on  steep  and  flat  shores,  so  is  the  customary  management  of  boats 
on  landing  different  in  the  two  situations.  On  the  flat  shore, 
whether  a  boat  be  run  or  backed  in,  she  is  kept  straight  .before 
or  end  to  the  sea  until  she  is  fairly  aground,  when  each  surf 
takes  her  further  in  as  it  overtakes  her,  aided  by  the  crew,  who 
will  then  generally  jump  out  to  lighten  her,  and  drag  her  in  by  her 
sides.  As  above  stated,  sail  will,  in  this  case,  have  been  pre- 
viously taken  in  if  set,  and  the  boat  will  have  been  rowed  or 
backed  in  by  oars  alone. 

On  the  other  hand,  on  the  steep  beach,  it  is  the  general  practice, 
in  a  boat  of  any  size,  to  retain  speed  right  on  to  the  beach,  and  in 
the  act  of  landing,  whether  under  oars  or  sail,  to  turn  the  boat's 
bow  half  round  towards  the  direction  from  which  the  surf  is  run- 
ning, so  that  she  may  be  thrown  on  her  broadside  up  the  beach, 
when  abundance  of  help  is  usually  at  hand  to  haul  her  as  quickly 
as  possible  out  of  the  reach  of  the  sea.  In  such  situations,  we 
believe,  it  is  nowhere  the  practice  to  back  a  boat  in  stern  fore- 
most under  oars,  but  to  row  in  under  full  speed  as  above  de- 
scribed. 


fill.  NOTES  ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  BOATS  IN  A 
SURF.' 

From  the  ship  a  mile  or  two  off  shore,  the  surf  may  seem  uni- 
form, with  no  sign  of  a  choice  for  making  a  landing.  Looking 
at  the  backs  of  the  breakers,  as  to  leeward  over  the  waves  at  sea, 
gives  an  inadequate  idea  of  their  height  and  abruptness.  In  fact, 
what  appears  to  be  a  mere  swash  on  the  beach,  may  involve  much 
danger  to  a  carelessly  handled  or  deeply-laden  boat.  Careful 
study  will  often  give  hints  of  important  differences  in  the  nature 
of  the  coast. 

There  may  be  stretches  of  sand  beach  backed  by  trees,  the 
lights  and  shadows  of  which,  according  to  their  relative  distances, 
indicate  low-lying  points,  shallow  bays,  sand-choked  river 
mouths,  or  even  the  lateral  entrance  of  a  lagoon  into  which  the 
ship  herself  may  safely  pass.  There  may  be  bluffs,  below  which 
doubtless  lie  rocks,  sometimes  only  shown  in  the  churned-up  surf 

1  By  Lieutenant  A.  A.  Ackerman,  United  States  Navy. 


HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF.  225 

when  dangerously  near.  There  is  often  a  current  along  the 
shore,  and  this  should  be  studied  before  attempting  to  land. 
Sometimes  its  direction  changes  with  the  tide;  again  it  is  of  the 
nature  and  perhaps  part  of  an  ocean  current  flowing  constantly 
in  one  direction.  Where  there  are  cliffs,  their  debris  is  often 
swept  into  the  form  of  an  irregular  breakwater  towards  the  lee 
side.  This  shoal,  being  of  varying  height  and  lacking  continuity, 
may  be  of  little  help  when  covered  by  high  water,  but  at  low 
water  it  sometimes  affords  all  the  lee  required  to  make  an  easy 
landing. 

Narrow  canons  in  long  stretches  of  bluffs,  or  pockets  in  a  rocky 
coast,  sometimes  mark  quiet  spots;  the  swell  flowing  in  through 
deep  water  and  breaking  directly  on  the  beach.  Such  places 
should  as  a  rule  be  avoided  until  carefully  studied.  It  may  be 
possible  to  make  use  of  them  to  land  behind  detached  rocks  or 
pass  behind  the  breakers  of  the  adjacent  bluffs,  but  there  are 
always  sunken  rocks  to  be  feared;  and  the  fall  of  the  tide,  or  the 
setting  in  of  a  heavier  swell,  may  suddenly  turn  the  smooth  seas 
at  the  entrance  into  heavy  breakers. 

A  single  rock,  hardly  far  enough  off  shore  to  be  shown  on  the 
chart  as  separated  from  the  beach,  will  frequently  have  a  quiet 
place  in  its  lee,  although  the  approach  to  it  may  at  times  be  dan- 
gerous. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  choose  a  landing  on  a  long  stretch  of 
sand  beach;  but  wherever  a  shoal  appears,  or  the  surf  stretches 
far  out,  a  comparatively  light  surf,  and  perhaps  even  a  smooth 
way  in,  should  be  looked  for  on  the  lee  side. 

Confused  surf  off  the  mouth  of  a  lagoon  or  river,  or  the  slant- 
ing breakers  which  sometimes  run  along  the  beach,  as  a  rule 
indicate  strong  currents.  When  these  are  understood,  a  handy 
boat  may  sometimes  dodge  the  breakers  and  work  into  smooth 
water  with  surprising  ease.  There  is  always  danger,  however, 
that  the  stranger  may  be  swept  down  into  heavy  surf,  or  while 
heading  up  against  the  current  or  main  breakers,  have  the  boat 
filled  by  cross-seas. 

Often  a  number  of  the  heaviest  swells  follow  each  other  in 
succession,  after  which  there  is  a  short  and  comparatively  mild 
interval.  Such  a  recurrence  of  quiet  spells,  as  well  as  the  point 
at  which  the  swells  become  dangerous  by  commencing  to  break, 
and  that  at  which  they  fall  into  harmless  confusion,  should  be 
watched  for  and  taken  advantage  of  in  landing. 


226  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF. 

The  number  of  lines  of  breakers  or  width  of  surf  does  not 
always  determine  the  difficulty  of  landing,  as  the  outer  lines  will 
be  much  the  heaviest;  and  if  these  can  be  avoided  or  passed  with- 
out shipping  too  much  water,  the  others  will  probably  not  be 
dangerous  to  a  well-handled  boat.  Notice  should  always  be 
taken  before  entering  the  surf,  especially  where  it  is  wide,  of  the 
probable  drift  of  the  boat.  It  may  be  set  by  the  current  down 
among  rocks  or  into  heavy  breakers. 

The  beach,  too,  may  present  obstacles  to  a  safe  landing,  apart 
from  the  surf.  At  high  water,  it  may  break  directly  on  a  steep 
shingle  beach  which  would  be  difficult  to  climb,  even  without 
being  obliged  to  drag  the  boat  clear  of  the  breakers.  If  assist- 
ance could  be  had  from  on  shore,  such  a  beach  might  be  charged 
on  the  back  of  a  breaker  and  the  boat  hauled  up  clear  before  the 
next  one  filled  it.  Working  with  the  crew  alone,  however,  the 
depth  of  water  and  poor  foothold  would  usually  prevent  any  but 
the  most  active  crew  in  a  light  boat  from  landing  without  being 
swamped.  At  the  same  point,  an  easy  landing  might  be  made 
on  the  sloping  sand  beach  below  the  shingle  by  waiting  an  hour 
or  two  for  lower  water. 

Before  entering  the  surf  at  a  strange  locality,  it  is  well  to  lie 
off  it  for  awhile,  noting  its  peculiarities  and  accustoming  the 
crew  to  them.  Dangerous  breakers  may  form  and  pass,  but 
the  quieter  intervals  are  very  encouraging. 

Speaking  generally,  a  very  light  and  buoyant  boat,  with  a  crew 
cf  as  small  a  number  as  possible  to  handle  it,  will  pass  in  an.d  out 
through  moderate  surf  with  ease,  while  a  heavy  ship's  boat  with 
a  powerful  crew  would  at  least  take  on  board  considerable  water. 
Beyond  a  certain  point,  the  added  strength  of  a  man  does  not 
begin  to  compensate  for  the  increased  weight.  The  require- 
ments of  a  good  surf-boat  differ  materially  from  those  of  a  deep- 
sea  life-boat,  yet  they  are  alike  in  some  particulars.  The  differ- 
ence lies  mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  is  designed  to  ride  in 
a  rough  sea,  which,  since  the  boat  rises  and  falls  with  it,  does  not 
have  the  battering  force  of  a  breaker.  The  surf-boat,  on  the 
other  hand,  perhaps  while  lying  dead  in  the  water,  or  carried 
out  by  oars  and  undertow,  must  meet  and  pierce  or  surmount  a 
wall  of  water  advancing  with  great  velocity. 

A  very  light  and  broad-beamed,  single-banked,  six-oared 
whale-boat  is  perhaps  the  type  of  ship's  boat  in  which  the  best 


HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF.  227 

proportion  of  power  to  resistance  and  weight  moved  is  likely  to 
be  obtained. 

If  time  permits,  a  towing-post  should  be  fitted  in  the  bow  for 
veering  the  surf-line  and  this  may  be  suddenly  required  to  take 
great  strain  when  the  boat  is  struck  by  a  breaker. 

Besides  possessing  the  buoyancy  due  to  lightness  of  material, 
it  would  be  a  great  advantage  for  the  boat  to  be  fitted  with  light 
air-tanks  filling  all  unoccupied  space  and  so  reducing  to  a  min- 
imum the  capacity  for  shipping  and  holding  water.  In  fact,  an 
extreme  type  of  surf-boat  would  somewhat  resemble  the  Esqui- 
mo's  kayak,  in  which  the  boat  has  a  cover,  the  only  opening  of 
which  is  gathered  tightly  around  the  occupant's  waist. 

Great  sheer  is  important,  and  the  upper  strakes  should  flare 
somewhat  at  bow  and  stern  to  prevent  their  dipping  under  when 
ihe  opposite  end  of  the  boat  is  lifted  high  on  the  side  of  a  breaker. 
The  flare  of  upper  strakes,  however,  should  not  amount  to  such 
bluffness  as  will  increase  resistance  to  cutting  through  the  crest 
cf  a  wave.  To  permit  the  boat  to  rise  and  fall  quickly  in  response 
to  the  swell,  weights  should  be  kept  out  of  the  extreme  ends.. 

The  underwater  body  of  the  boat  should  offer  as  little  lateral 
resistance  as  possible  to  the  water.  Should  she,  in  pulling  out 
to  meet  a  breaker,  be  inclined  slightly  from  the  normal  and  be 
carried  back,  however  little,  her  keel,  rudder-post  and  run  would 
be  resisted  and  retarded  by  the  dead  water  on  the  front  of  the 
breaker,  while  the  bow  would  be  swept  rapidly  around  turning 
the  boat  more  and  more  broadside  on,  until  the  gunwale  dips  and 
it  finally  rolls  over.  The  coxswain  must  in  such  a  case  attempt  to 
pry  the  stern  around  with  his  steering-oar  and  the  crew  make 
every  effort  to  get  way  on  the  boat  and  surmount  the  breaker 
before  the  turning  action  has  culminated  in  a  capsize.  If  the 
bottom  of  the  boat  is  rounded  and  smoothed  off  in  every  direction, 
the  water  has  very  little  hold 'either  for  turning  it  against  the 
leverage  of  the  steering-oar,  or  to  roll  the  boat  over  should  it 
broach-to.  In  fact,  a  light  dory  has  been  known  to  be  swept 
broadside  on  for  a  long  distance  before  a  breaker  without  cap- 
sizing. The  smooth  bottom  offered  so  little  resistance  to  the 
dead  water  on  the  shore  side  of  the  breaker  that  there  was  very 
little  tendency  to  trip  the  boat  up. 

High  freeboard,  high  roomy  thwarts  and  favorable  positions 
for  oarsmen  and  coxswain  to  exert  their  strength,  are  all  im- 
portant qualities.  The  modern  navy  whale-boat  is  a  great  im- 


228  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF. 

provement  over  the  old  one  in  these  respects.  It  is,  however, 
necessarily  a  compromise;  and  with  very  little  alteration  it  could 
be  greatly  improved  for  passing  the  surf.  Its  propelling  power 
should  be  nearly  equally  spaced  about  the  center  of  buoyancy, 
which  may  be  accomplished  by  placing  an  additional  thwart  in 
the  stern  sheets  and  leaving  the  forward  thwart  vacant.  Pas- 
sengers should  sit  on  the  bottom  of  the  boat  between  thwarts; 
all  unnecessary  weights  and  gear  should  be  removed.  The 
coxswain  should  have  a  grating  lashed  over  the  stern  sheet 
benches  to  give  him  a  good  foothold.  Swivel  rowlocks  should 
be  used;  there  is  great  danger  of  fouling  the  oars  in  the  surf 
and  it  would  then  be  very  difficult  to  free  one  from  an  inserted 
rowlock  before  it  had  caused  the  boat  to  broach-to.  Stretchers 
and  boat-breakers  should  be  lashed  down  and  all  other  unneces- 
sary gear  dispensed  with. 

The  subject  of  oars  merits  consideration.  The  steering-oar 
should  be  broad,  stiff  and  not  too  long.  Its  exact  length  de- 
pends upon  the  boat  and  the  height  of  the  coxswain's  platform; 
eighteen  feet  may  be  regarded  ordinarily  as  a  good  length.  A 
longer  oar  may  be  used  to  advantage  at  sea  and  its  need  may  be 
felt  at  times  in  the  surf;  for  example,  when  the  stern  is  raised 
on  the  crest  of  a  breaker  and  the  blade  of  the  oar  barely  reaches 
the  water  in  the  trough.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  boat 
is  in  a  dangerous  position  and  being  carried  back,  a  long  oar  is 
worse  than  useless,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  its  blade 
from  catching  in  the  dead  water,  where  it  tends  to  turn  her  broad- 
side on.  The  other  oars  should  also  be  light  and  stiff  to  permit 
easy  handling  and  quick  application  of  power.  On  troubled 
water,  either  at  sea  or  in  the  surf,  oars  which  exceed  a  certain 
length  dependent  upon  the  beam  and  freeboard  of  the  boat  are 
a  nuisance.  They  cannot  be  handled  quickly,  wear  the  men 
out  and  are  certain  to  strike  on  the  back  stroke  or  foul  each  other. 
If,  in  addition,  they  are  springy,  by  the  time  the  power  is  well 
applied  in  one  direction,  the  boat  may  be  turned  or  tilted  and  most 
of  the  stroke  lost.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  given  for  the 
length  of  oars;  that  had  better  be  determined  by  actual  test  in 
each  particular  boat.  It  will  seldom,  if  ever,  however,  be  found 
advisable  to  employ  in  a  single  banked  boat,  an  oar  longer  than 
twice  the  beam  at  the  thwart  plus  the  freeboard  at  the  oarlock. 

Whichever  way  of  landing  is  adopted,  a  conical  drag,  towed 
ten  to  twenty  fathoms  astern,  will  be  of  great  assistance.  It 


HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF.  22Q 

should  have  a  tripping  line  to  invert  it  when  it  is  not  required  to 
check  the  boat.  Too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  upon 
the  drag,  however,  for  though  it  will  always  assist  to  keep  the 
boat  pointed  fair  to  the  breakers  when  the  line  is  hauled  in  briskly 
by  a  couple  of  men,  there  is  not  the  positive  assurance  of  holding 
the  boat  that  is  given  by  a  surf-line  attached  to  a  well-bedded 
anchor  planted  outside  the  surf. 

There  are  occasions  when  the  use  of  such  a  surf-line  and  anchor 
is  invaluable.  Among  them  may  be  noted  the  landing  in  a  large  or 
unwieldly  boat;  landing  with  a  weak  or  inexperienced  crew,  or 
in  high  surf  where  it  is  necessary  to  return,  or  in  any  case  where 
it  seems  pretty  certain  that  the  crew  will  be  unable  to  maintain 
control  over  the  boat  with  their  oars.  On  the  other  hand  there 
are  certain  disadvantages  connected  with  the  use  of  the  surf- 
line.  There  is  a  current  along  almost  every  beach  and  if  the 
surf  is  wide,  a  boat  going  out  may  drift  down  so  far  that  when  the 
dangerous  breakers  are  reached,  the  line  to  the  anchor  leads 
broad  off  the  bow  and  tends  to  turn  the  boat  rather  than  steady 
it  head-on  to  the  breakers.  Should  a  boat  using  a  surf-line  be 
capsized  in  the  outer  surf,  the  coils  of  line  will  probably  knot  and 
tangle  so  as  to  prevent  the  boat  from  drifting  in. 

Whenever  the  line  is  used,  a  hatchet  should  be  kept  close  to 
the  bowman's  hand  with  which  to  cut  the  line  should  it  become 
necessary.  In  going  in  where  the  surf  is  wide  or  there  is  a  cur- 
rent, the  line  may  be  used  to  pass  the  outer  breakers  and  then 
abandoned.  If  a  bucket  is  tied  to  the  end,  it  may  be  picked  up 
again  and  used  on  going  out.  The  anchor  should  be  buoyed  with 
spare  oars  or  other  gear  so  as  to  recover  it  should  the  boat  be 
obliged  to  abandon  the  line  or  to  cut  it  in  coming  out. 

All  unnecessary  articles  are  taken  out  of  the  boat.  The 
water-breaker  is  tightly  plugged  and  lashed  down,  as  are  the 
stretchers  and  buckets  for  bailing.  The  men  shift  into  light 
clothes  without  shoes.  If  the  weather  is  sufficiently  cold  to 
require  it,  dry  clothing  may  be  carried  in  the  air-tanks,  which 
should,  however,  be  carefully  inspected  and  all  unnecessary 
articles  removed.  A  hatchet,  copper  tacks,  sheet  lead,  and 
roll  of  felting  should  also  be  carried  for  use  in  case  the  boat 
is  stove.  If  the  beach  is  distant,  it  may  be  possible  to  go  under 
sail,  or  to  be  towed  by  another  boat  so  as  to  keep  the  men 
fresh.  The  presence  of  a  second  boat  would  also  be  of  great 
assistance,  if  it  was  used  to  distribute  oil  over  the  water  abreast 


23O  HANDLING    BOATS    IN    A    SURF. 

the  landing,  for  although  the  quieting  effect  of  oil  is  much  less 
marked  upon  a  surf  than  upon  deep  sea  waves,  there  is  abundant 
evidence  that  its  value  is  considerable,  especially  in  the  compara- 
tively deep  water  where  the  outer  and  most  dangerous  breakers 
form. 

A  second  boat  lying  outside  would  be  an  encouragement  to  a 
crew  pulling  out  from  shore,  and  might  be  of  great  assistance  to 
the  probably  exhausted  men  after  their  trip  through  the  breakers. 

In  going  out,  the  time  of  start,  though  important,  is  less  so  than 
when  coming  in,  as  it  may  be  possible  to  pull  half-way  out  with- 
out taking  water  on  board  or  meeting  dangerous  surf.  If 
a  surf-line  is  used,  take  the  boat  up  the  beach  until  it  appears 
that  when  carried  down  by  the  current  and  hauled  out  at  the 
same  time  it  will  reach  the  dangerous  space  with  the  line  fair 
to  the  anchor.  Station  two  active,  powerful  men  to  haul  in  the 
line,  as  more  progress  will  be  made  in  this  way  than  if  they  took 
oars.  The  four  after-oarsmen  steady  the  boat,  standing  in  the 
water  opposite  their  thwarts,  oars  apeak.  Put  the  passengers 
aboard,  haul  taut  the  line,  and  commence  walking  out  the  boat, 
the  coxswain  at  the  stern.  As  soon  as  the  boat  leaves  .the  bottom 
the  men  climb  in  and  take  their  oars,  pointing  them  to  prevent 
drift  until  ready  to  start.  The  intention  is  to  so  time  the  arrival 
of  the  boat  at  the  outer  line  that  no  heavy  breakers  will  be  met 
at  that  point.  Varying  width  of  surf  and  speed  of  boat  may  make 
this  difficult  of  attainment. 

At  the  start  the  men,  pulling  and  hauling,  force  the  boat  rapidly 
through  the  water.  Irregular  waves  splash  into  the  boat;  later 
they  become  too  large  to  be  pulled  through  without  taking  much 
water  on  board.  It  is  then  best  to  check  headway,  tauten  the 
line,  and  peak  oars  as  the  breaker  passes.  So  the  boat  works 
out,  obviously  passing  many  more  breakers  than  when  coming 
in.  Gradually  the  filling  boat  becomes  sluggish,  difficult  to  pull 
and  steer.  In  this  condition  it  may  be  capsized  if  only  slightly 
turned,  and  it  may  now  be  better  to  go  back,  bail  out,  and  try 
again,  than  to  struggle  on  and  risk  an  almost  certain  capsize  in 
the  heavier  breakers. 

A  properly  pointed  boat  may  succeed  in  passing  through  a 
breaker  that  it  cannot  hope  to  ride.  The  water  may  fill  it  to  the 
thwarts,  in  which  condition  it  will  capsize  at  a  touch,  but  once 
clear  of  the  breakers  it  may  be  bailed  out  and  enabled  to  meet 
the  waves  of  any  ordinary  sea  in  safety. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
GROUND  TACKLE. 

§  I.  ANCHORS. 

The  form  of  anchor  commonly  used  throughout  the  world 
from  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  up  to  about  1875  was, 
in  most  essentials,  that  shown  in  Plate  80.  It  is  true  that  double- 
fluked  anchors  resembling  those  now  so  familiar  were  proposed 
as  early  as  1850,  but  they  were  slow  in  making  their  way,  and  it 
was  not  until  about  the  year  above-named  that  they  began  to 
come  into  anything  like  general  use.  They  are  now  almost  uni- 
versally used  by  steamers,  and  the  prejudice  which  long  existed 
against  them  in  the  minds  of  seamen  is  rapidly  dying  out. 

When  an  old-fashioned  anchor  is  let  go  in  water  fairly  deep, 
it  strikes  the  bottom  crown  first,  and  immediately  falls  over  until 
it  rests  on  the  end  of  the  stock,  the  arms  lying  horizontally. 
From  this  position  any  drag  of  the  chain  to  one  side  capsizes  or 
"cants"  it,  pulling  the  stock  down  horizontally  upon  the  bottom 
and  pointing  one  of  the  flukes  fair  for  biting.  As  the  drag  con- 
tinues, the  fluke  is  forced  into  the  ground,  and  if  the  anchor  is 
well  designed,  the  heavier  the  pull  the  deeper  the  fluke  goes  down 
— provided  sufficient  length  of  chain  is  given  to  keep  the  pull 
approximately  parallel  to  the  bottom.  For  this  reason,  quite  as 
much  as  because  of  the  "cantenary"  that  comes  from  a  long 
scope,  it  is  important  to  use  plenty  of  chain,  particularly  when  the 
anchor  is  taking  the  first  hold.  In  good  holding  ground,  anchors 
frequently  bury  themselves  completely.  This  tendency  of  the 
old-fashioned  anchor  to  work  into  the  ground  under  a  pull  is 
one  of  its  most  valuable  characteristics,  and  one  not  possessed 
by  any  of  the  "  double-fluked  "  types,  using  this  term  to  designate 
the  general  type  in  which  the  two  flukes  are  in  the  same  plane  and 
act  together  in  holding. 

The  principal  advantages  of  the  double-fluked  type  are,  first, 
an  enormous  gain  in  convenience  of  handling  and  stowing,  and 
second  a  freedom  from  danger  that  the  ship  may  ground  on 
some  part  of  the  anchor  when  swinging  over  it  in  shallow  water. 


232 


Plate  No.    80. 


King  orJews~Harp 


Arm- 


Palm  or 
"Fluke  "^ 


"Arm 


Shank -> 


<-Sfock 


Crowns' 


Crown 


OLD  FASHIONED  ANCHOR. 


Plate  No.    81. 


233 


"-•Balancing  Band 

DUNN 


BALDT 


BALDT 


PATENT  ANCHORS. 


234  GROUND   TACKLE. 

The  anchor  shown  in  Plate  80,  represents  fairly  well  the 
most  approved  design  of  the  old  type.  The  palm  is  of  medium 
size,  the  arms  shaped  to  the  angles  most  favorable  for  biting, 
and  the  cross-section  of  each  part  carefully  designed  for  maxi- 
mum strength  in  the  direction  of  the  strain  to  which  it  will  be 
subjected.  All  edges  are  chamfered  off  to  reduce  the  wearing  of 
the  chain  as  its  bight  rides  over  the  anchor,  and  all  re-entering 
angles  are  rounded  as  much  as  possible. 

This  type  is  nearly  obsolete  and  within  a  few  years  will  prob- 
ably have  disappeared  altogether.  At  present  its  use  is  confined 
to  sailing  ships  and  to  small  steamers  and  motor  boats,  except 
that  in  the  Navy  it  is  retained  on  some  of  the  older  cruisers  and 
gunboats  which  are  themselves  rapidly  becoming  obsolete. 

Plates  81  and  82  show  several  of  the  best  known  types  of 
double-fluked  anchors.  The  following  features  are  common  to 
them  all. 

1st.  The  arms  are  pivoted  upon  the  shank  and  can  swing 
from  thirty  to  forty  degrees  on  either  side. 

2nd.  The  palms  are  in  the  plane  of  the  arms  instead  of  at 
right  angles  to  it. 

3rd.  It  results  from  this  construction  that  both  flukes  should 
bite  if  either  one  does. 

4th.  To  insure  that  the  flukes  shall  bite,  the  arms  carry,  at  the 
crown,  a  projecting  shoulder  with  a  sharp  edge,  which  takes  on 
the  bottom  and  throws  the  arms  downward. 

The  anchors  principally  used  in  the  Navy  are  the  Dunn  and 
Baldt.  Others  sometimes  used  in  the  Navy  and  very  frequently 
used  in  the  American  Merchant  Service  are  the  Allison,  Eels 
and  National. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  the  patent  anchor  always 
needs  a  longer  scope  of  chain  to  bite  and  hold  than  does  the  old- 
fashioned  one.  This  is  because  a  slight  upward  pull  on  the  ring 
drives  the  old-fashioned  fluke  into  the  ground  but  breaks  out  the 
flukes  of  the  other  type. 

Anchors  are  usually  made  of  cast  steel,  recent  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  that  metal  having  made  it  sufficiently  reliable 
to  justify  its  employment  for  this  purpose.  But  the  stocks,  rings, 
pins,  shackles,  balancing  bands  and  other  fittings  should  in  all 
cases  be  forged,  and  in  the  case  of  housing  anchors,  the  shanks 
also. 


Plate  No.    8£. 


235 


PATENT  ANCHORS. 


236  GROUND  TACKLE. 

In  ships  of  the  early  design,  anchors  were  stowed  on  a  bed 
(technically  a  "bill-board")  built  on  the  bow  of  the  ship  a  little 
distance  abaft  the  hawse-pipe,  where  they  were  secured  as  in 
Plates  83  and  84.  Anchors  designed  to  be  stowed  in  this  way 
are  fitted  with  a  "Balancing-band"  on  the  shank  (Plate  81, 
Fig.  i)  and  are  handled  by  a  purchase  or  a  pendant  from  a  heavy 
iron  davit,  shown  in  Plate  83.  This  davit  turns  about  a  vertical 
axis,  plumbing  the  proper  point  of  the  bill-board  at  one  part  of 
its  train  and  swinging  out  well  clear  of  the  bow  at  another  part. 
In  men-of-war  it  is  hinged  to  turn  down  flat  upon  the  deck,  out 
of  the  way  of  gun-fire. 

At  the  davit  head  may  be  hooked  either  a  heavy  single  block, 
swivelled  and  carrying  a  pendant,  or  the  upper  block  of  a  heavy 
purchase,  usually  three- fold. 

Where  a  pendant  is  used,  it  leads  down  to  a  block  at  the  heel 
of  the  davit  and  then  aft.  In  some  cases  a  thimble  is  turned  in 
the  end  and  a  deck  tackle  hooked  to  this,  the  fall  going  to  a 
capstan  or  a  winch;  in  others,  the  pendant  is  taken  direct  to  the 
capstan,  the  length  being  such  that  there  are  several  turns  around 
the  barrel  when  the  pendant  is  hooked  and  set  taut  ready  for 
surging  chain. 

If  a  pendant  is  used,  it  may  be  either  chain  or  wire.  The 
latter  is  to  be  preferred,  and  for  several  reasons.  It  works  more 
smoothly  on  the  barrel  of  the  capstan,  and  is  better  adapted,  by 
its  elasticity,  to  stand  the  sudden  jerks  which  are  unavoidable 
in  stowing  anchors.  For  a  given  size  of  sheave,  a  stronger 
pendant  may  be  used  of  wire  than  of  chain;  and  a  flaw  in  wire 
can  be  seen  at  once,  whereas  in  chain  I'  can  never  be  detected 
until  it  gives  away. 

At  its  outer  end  the  pendant  carries  a  large  hook  which  is 
hooked  to  the  balancing-band  when  the  anchor  is  hove  up  to  the 
hawse-pipe.  The  pendant  having  been  set  taut,  the  winch  is 
started,  the  chain  veered,  and  the  anchor  swings  to  the  pendant 
and  is  run  up  and  landed  on  the  bill-board  and  secured  as  in 
Plate  84.  To  let  go,  the  releasing-bar  to  which  the  ends  of  the 
stoppers  are  secured,  is  tripped,  allowing  the  anchor  to  slide  off 
of  the  sloping  bill-board. 

Plate  83  shows  a  patent  anchor  stowed  in  this  way  and  Plate 
84  an  old-fashioned  anchor.  Plate  83  shows  also  a  patent  anchor 
with  the  shank  housed  in  the  hawse-pipe  with  the  flukes  lying 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


Plate  No.   83. 


237 


\ 


o 

ffi 
u 

< 
o 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


Plate  No.   84. 


GROUND   TACKLE.  239 

against  the  side  plating.  If  designed  to  be  stowed  in  this  way  an 
anchor  must  be  very  strong  in  the  shank  to  stand  the  strain  which 
comes  from  canting  over  the  lip  of  the  hawse  pipe  as  it  is  dragged 
inside.  The  strain  is  especially  serious  in  men-of-war  of  recent 
date,  in  which  the  hawse  pipes  are  made  almost  horizontal  with 
a  view  to  getting  the  anchor,  when  housed,  so  high  above  the 
water  that  it  will  not  drive  a  cloud  of  spray  on  board  when  the 
bow  is  pitching  into  a  head  sea.  This  strain,  although  a  maxi- 
mum on  the  shank,  which  has  to  bear  the  leverage  of  lifting  the 
flukes,  is  very  great  also  on  all  other  parts  of  the  ground  tackle, 
including  the  windlass. 

In  very  recent  battleships,  a  third  hawse-pipe  is  fitted  at  the 
stem  (Plate  85).  This  not  only  provides  a  third  anchor  avail- 
able for  immediate  use  but  makes  it  possible  for  the  ship  to  ride 
with  her  stem  true  to  the  tide  or  wind,  thus  doing  away  with  the 
annoying  and  often  dangerous  yawing  which  is  common  where 
the  riding  chain  leads  from  a  hawse  pipe  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance abaft  the  stem. 

Men-of-War  usually  carry  the  following  anchors: 

Three  Bower  Anchors,  one  of  which  may  be  called  a  "  Sheet 
Anchor  "  as  a  convenient  method  of  identifying  it.  The  bower 
anchors  of  the  Massachusetts  and  Lexington  classes  will  weigh 
24,000  Ibs. 

One  Stream  Anchor  of  approximately  one  third  the  weight  of 
a  bower.  This  is  often  carried  astern. 

Three  or  more  Kedges,  the  heaviest  of  which  may  weigh  a  ton. 

Boat  Anchors,  as  required. 

A  Sheet  Anchor  was  formerly  an  anchor  heavier  than  the  bowers, 
kept  in  reserve  for  an  emergency.  The  term  has  now  no  significance 
except  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  the  anchors  being  designated  as: 
"  Starboard  Bower,"  "  Port  Bower,"  "  Sheet.*' 

A  Stream  Anchor,  in  days  when  men-of-war  were  frequently  called 
upon  to  navigate  rivers,  was  carried  at  the  stern  (originally)  for  use 
on  occasions  when  it  became  necessary  to  drop  an  anchor  astern  to 
avoid  swinging  to  the  current  or  for  any  other  reason.  Later  the 
term  came  to  mean  an  anchor  of  medium  weight,  wherever  stowed 
and  for  whatever  purpose  used.  In  this  sense,  the  designation  is  con- 
veniently retained. 

Any.  anchor  carried  at  the  stern  is  conveniently  designated  as  a 
"  Stern  Anchor,"  without  reference  to  its  weight,  or  purpose ;  as  a 
boat  carried  on  the  quarter  is  called  a  "quarter  boat." 


240 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


Plate  No.   85. 


BOW  OF  U.  S.  S.  IDAHO. 


GROUND   TACKLE.  24! 

§11.  CHAIN-CABLES  AND  APPENDAGES. 
MATERIAL.  Until  very  recently  all  chain-cables  for  ships  were 
made  of  wrought-iron.  Experiments  had  from  time  to  time 
been  made  with  steel,  in  some  cases  with  promising  results ;  but 
even  where  greatly  increased  tensile  strength  was  in  evidence, 
there  remained  a  suspicion  in  the  minds  of  seamen  that  the  in- 
crease in  strength  had  been  purchased  by  a  sacrifice  of  the  trust- 
worthiness that  had  long  been  associated  with  the  ductility  of 
wrought-iron. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  when  wrought-iron  and  steel  are  of 
approximately  equal  strength  the  ductility  of  the  iron  gives  it  an 
advantage  for  many  purposes,  and  especially  for  chain  cables — 
first  because  the  absence  of  brittleness  makes  it  safer  under  the 
shocks  to  which  cables  are  often  subjected,  and  again  because  the 
elongation  before  rupture  which  results  from  ductility  serves  as 
a  warning  of  overstrain.     In  cases,  however,  where  the  tensile 
strength  of  steel  is  greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  wrought-iron,  it  is 
clear  that  the  gain  in  strength  may  much  more  than  offset  the 
loss  in  ductility.     It  happens,  moreover,  that  certain  important 
factors  other  than  strength  and  ductility  enter  into  the  efficiency 
of  a  cable,  and  that  several  of  these  are  more  easily  secured  in 
steel,  and  especially  in  cast  steel,  than  in  iron.     Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  uniformity  of  size  and  shape  and  resistance  to  defor- 
mation, ensuring  a  good  fit  on  the  lugs  of  the  windlass  wild-cat. 
The  first  attempts  to  manufacture  chain-cables  of  steel  were 
necessarily  made  with  mild  steel  because  high  carbon  steel  does 
not  weld  securely,  and  the  only  process  available  for  large  chains 
involved  leaving  each  link  open  until  it  could  be  threaded  through 
the  link  which  preceded  it,  and  then  welding  the  ends  of  the  new 
link  together.     Moreover,   it   was    felt,   as   has   been   explained 
above,  that  the  quality  of   ductility,  which  is  common  to  both 
wrought-iron   and   mild  steel,   was   essential.     Recent   improve- 
ments in  the  characteristics  of  steel  and  in  the  methods  of  cast- 
ing, added  to  the  exigencies  of  the  World  War,  have  resulted  in 
the  development  of  a  cast-steel  chain-cable  which  has  40  per  cent, 
greater  strength  than  the  best  wrought-iron.     This  chain  can  be 
cast  complete  in  any  desired  length ;  but  the  following  process  is 
found  more  convenient: 


GROUND    TACKLE. 


n  are 
n  the 


One  half  of  the  links  for  a  complete  length  of  chain 
cast  separately  and  allowed  to  cool.     These  are  to  form 
odd-numbered   links  of  the  chain.     They  are   ranged  in  a 
row  in  mould  cavities,  with  intervening  spaces  left  for  the 
even    numbered    links.     Patterns    representing    the    missing 
links  are  threaded  through  the  finished  links  and  a  continu- 
ous mould  constructed  by  means  of  which  the  missing  links 
are  cast  in  their  proper  places,  the  result  being  a  complete 
and  continuous  chain  of  interthreaded  links.     Plate  91. 
This  chain,  of  "  Naco  "  cast  steel,  has  been  approved  by  the 
British  and  American  "  Lloyds  "  and  is  coming  into  very  general 
use  in  the  Merchant  Service.     It  has  been  subjected  to  severe 
tests  by  the  Bureau  of  Construction  of  the  Navy  Department 
and  issued  to  a  number  of  battleships  for  test  under  service  con- 
ditions.    In  tests  made  at  the  Boston  Navy  Yard  the  average 
breaking  load  of  2-)4  inch  "  Naco  "  chain  was  found  to  be  700,000 
pounds  as  against  506,000  pounds  for  the  best  wrought-iron. 

As  a  result  of  these  tests,  it  has  been  decided  that  the  future 
standard  chain-cable  of  the  United  States  Navy  of  2  inches  and 
above  shall  be  of  cast  steel,  except  the  shackles  and  swivels,  which 
are  to  be  drop-forged  of  a  special  grade  of  steel  having  a  high 
tensile  and  elastic  strength  combined  with  good  ductility.  As 
these  parts  (shackles  and  swivels)  are  not  subject  to  limitations 
either  of  casting  or  of  welding,  it  is  possible  to  use  a  steel  which 
will  give  almost  any  combination  of  characteristics  which  may  be 
desired. 

SIZE  OF  CHAIN.  Chain  is  designated  as  to  size  by  the  diameter 
of  the  iron  of  which  the  common  links  are  made;  standard  sizes 
running  by  sixteenths  of  an  inch  from  }/\  inch  to  $]/2  inches,  this 
last  being  the  size  issued  to  the  largest  battleships  of  the  United 
States  Navy. 

LENGTHS  OF  CHAIN.  Chain  is  manufactured  in  comparatively 
short  lengths,  known  as  "  shots."  The  standard  length  of  an 
ordinary  shot  in  the  United  States  Navy  is  15  fathoms.  In  the 
present  Naval  practice,  the  first  or  outboard  shot  is  of  approxi- 
mately 5  fathoms,  and  the  second  of  40  fathoms,  the  object  of 
this  arrangement  being  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  having  a 
shackle  on  the  windlass  while  breaking  out  the  anchor.  The  5- 
fathom  shot  is  %  inch  larger,  and  its  two  outer  links  from  *4  of 
an  inch  to  a  full  inch  larger,  than  the  other  parts  of  the  cable, 


GROUND   TACKLE.  243 

this  having  been  found  necessary  to  provide  for  the  shock  to 
which  this  part  of  the  cable  is  subjected  in  letting  go. 

As  a  result  of  the  adoption  of  the  new  type  Navy  Shackle  de- 
scribed below,  and  illustrated  in  Plate  87,  it  is  probable  that  a  uni- 
form length  of  15  fathoms  will  ultimately  be  adopted  for  all  shots 
in  new  cables,  except  that  the  5-fathom  shot  at  the  bending  end 
may  be  retained  as  a  matter  of  convenience  for  bending  and  un- 
bending, and  followed  by  a  10  fathom  length ;  these  two  together 
making  a  shot  of  15  fathoms  to  correspond  with  the  rest  of  the 
cable, 

SHACKLES.  (Plate  86.)  In  present  practice,  the  shots  of  chain 
are  joined  by  "  connecting  shackles,"  the  bowed  end  of  the 
shackle  being  always  placed  forward  (toward  the  anchor).  This 
helps  it  to  engage  the  ribs  of  the  windlass  wild-cat  and  prevents  it 
from  catching  on  the  controller  and  hawse-pipe  as  it  runs  out. 

The  bolt  of  the  shackle  is  sometimes  round,  but  more  often 
oval  in  section.  In  the  latest  United  States  Naval  practice  it  is 
egg-shaped.  This  shape  gives  an  increased  bearing  surface  for 
a  given  cross-sectional  area,  and  also  makes  it  impossible  to  put 
the  bolt  in  the  wrong  way — an  important  consideration  in  hand- 
ling ground-tackle  at  night.  The  bolt  is  held  in  place  by  a  fore- 
lock pin  driven  in  a  hole  through  the  bolt  and  the  enlarged  ends 
of  the  shackle.  This  forelock  pin  is  sometimes  of  wood — pre- 
ferably hickory — well  coated  with  white  lead  and  driven  home 
tightly.  For  unshackling,  these  pins  are  either  backed  out,  or 
sheared  by  a  smart  tap  of  a  hammer  on  the  end  of  a  bolt.  A 
better  practice  is  to  use  a  forelock  pin  of  steel,  which  should  be- 
tinned  to  prevent  corrosion.  A  common  practice  for  securing 
the  forelock  pin  is  to  jam  it  at  each  end  by  a  pellet  of  soft  lead 
upset  into  the  hole  in  the  shackle. 

The  practice  in  the  United  States  Navy  is  to  use  a  forelock 
pin  made  of  steel,  tinned,  and  held  in  place  by  a  keying  ring  of 
lead,  which  is  upset,  by  a  special  tool,  into  a  groove  around  the 
end  of  the  forelock  pin,  the  other  end  of  this  pin  having  a 
countersunk  head.  Plate  90  shows  the  details  of  the  bolt  and 
pin.  In  unshackling,  the  key  ring  is  sheared.  To  admit  of 
slipping  the  shackle  into  place,  the  end  link  of  each  shot  of 
chain  is  made  without  studs. 

Shackles  should  go  to  the  capstan  flat,  so  that  the  strain  is 
taken  equally  on  the  two  sides  with  no  tendency  to  open  the 


244 


FIG.1.  CONNECTING  SHACKLE 


FIG.  2. 
CONNECTING  SHACKLE 


flG.3.    BENDING' SHACKLE 


FIG. 4.  BENDING  SHACKLE 


DETAILS  OF  GROUND  TACKLE. 


Plate  No.   87. 


245 


FIG.1.  ASSEMBLED 


H 


FIG.  2.  PARTIALLY  ASSEMBLED 


FIG.3.   DIS-ASSEMBLED 


NAVY  STANDARD  KENTER  SHACKLE. 


246 


GROUND    TACKLE. 


shackle.  The  eye  of  the  shackle  has  been  designed  so  that  it  is 
stronger  than  the  round. 

NEW  TYPE  NAVY  SHACKLE.  It  is  desirable  for  many  reasons 
to  have  a  shackle  which  shall  correspond  in  external  shape  and 
size  with  the  links  of  the  chain  to  which  it  belongs.  Plate  87 
shows  the  new  "  Navy  Standard  Kenter  Shackle  "  which  fulfils 
these  conditions,  and  has  been  adopted  for  use  in  the  United 
States  Navy.  With  this  shackle  all  difficulties  resulting  from  an 
imperfect  fit  on  the  wildcat  will  disappear,  and  the  cables  of  a 
ship  can  be  made  up  of  uniform  shots  of  any  length  desired. 
The  frequent  accidents  to  bending  shackles,  due  to  fracture  or  to 
the  opening  of  the  sides  as  they  pass  over  the  lip  of  the  housing 
hawse-pipe  will  be  much  reduced  if  not  entirely  eliminated.  It  is 
found  that  the  new  shackle  can  be  assembled  and  disassembled  as 
quickly  and  conveniently  as  the  older  type,  and  can  be  given  the 
full  strength  of  the  standard  links. 

A  very  interesting  suggestion  has  recently  been  made,  which, 
if  it  proves  practicable,  will  revolutionize  the  manufacture  and 
character  of  chain-cables.  It  is  proposed  to  build  up  every  alter- 
nate link  into  a  construction  closely  imitating  the  new  shackle 
which  has  been  described;  the  remaining  links  to  be  dropped 
forged  of  the  same  grade  of  steel  that  is  used  for  the  shackles 
and  swivels.  In  this  construction  every  second  link  would  be 
in  effect  a  shackle,  and  the  links  would  be  connected  up  exactly 
as  the  shots  are  now  connected.  Here  again  we  should  get 
away  from  the  limitations  of  welding  (as  in  wrought  iron  chain) 
and  of  casting  (as  in  cast  steel  chain)  and  could  secure  prac- 
tically any  desired  combination  of  strength,  ductility  and  other 
characteristics.  In  the  absence  of  service  tests,  which  would 
necessarily  be  prolonged  and  should  be  widely  varied,  there  is 
some  doubt  as  to  the  trustworthiness  of  'a  chain  in  which  half  of 
the  links  are  built  up  of  several  parts  connected  by  mechanical 
methods.  If  this  doubt  is  ultimately  removed,  it  will  be  possible 
to  manufacture  chain  of  at  least  double  the  strength  of  the 
wrought-iron  cable  which  has  heretofore  been  the  standard  of 
the  seafaring  world. 

BENDING  SHACKLES.  The  cable  is  bent  to  the  ring  of  the 
anchor  by  a  bending  shackle,  similar  to  the  connecting  shackles 
used  between  the  lengths  of  chain,  but  somewhat  larger  and 
differing  in  the  method  of  securing  the  bolt.  (Plate  86.)  It 


Plate  No.   88. 


SWIVEL. 


248 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


will  be  noted,  by  reference  to  the  official  drawing  of  chain  cables, 
Plate  91,  that  whereas  all  connecting  shackles  are  placed  with  the 
bowed  end  forward,  the  bending  shackle  is  placed  with  the  bowed 
end  aft.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  bending  shackle  never 
comes  to  the  wildcat  and  that  it  is  never  in  danger  of  catching 
on  anything  as  it  runs  out.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  subjected  to 
its  greatest  stress  in  passing  over  the  lip  of  the  hawse-pipe  as  it 
is  hauled  inside  for  housing,  and  it  will  pass  over  more  smoothly 
if  its  bowed  end  is  aft.  It  is  found,  also,  that  the  tendency  of 
the  shackle  to  open  as  it  passes  over  the  lip  is  much  less  with  the 
bowed  end  aft. 

The  new  "Navy  Standard  Renter  Shackle"  (Plate  87),  has 
been  authorized  for  Bending  Shackles  as  well  as  for  Connecting 
Shackles. 

SWIVELS.  To  prevent  the  accumulation  of  turns  as  the  ship 
swings  about  her  anchor,  swivels  are  used  (Plate  88).  For- 
merly there  was  one  of  these  in  every  length  of  chain,  but  they 
gave  much  trouble  in  passing  around  the  capstan  (being  too  large 
to  take  the  sprockets),  and  their  number  has  been  gradually  re- 
duced until  now  not  more  than  three  or  four  are  used  in  the  cable, 
and  in  United  States  Naval  practice  only  one  is  used,  this  being 
placed  in  the  first  (5-fathom)  shot. 

LENGTH  OF  A  CABLE.1  The  total  length  of  a  cable  may  be 
anywhere  from  90  to  200  fathoms.  In  the  United  States  Navy 
the  standard  length  has  long  been  120  fathoms,  but  this  has 
recently  been  increased  for  battleships  and  large  cruisers  to  150 
fathoms,  and  for  the  bower  cables  of  the  latest  Dreadnaughts  to 
180  fathoms. 

STOWAGE.  The  cables  are  stowed  in  "  chain  lockers "  which 
are  usually  in  the  hold,  below  the  windlass.  The  inner,  or 
"  bitter  "  end  of  the  cable  is  first  of  all  rove  through  a  ring  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  locker  and  brought  up  and  shackled  to  a  beam 
or  other  accessible  place  by  a  sliphook  or  some  other  arrange- 
ment which,  while  holding  securely,  shall  admit  of  easy  slipping, 
or  of  bending  on  an  additional  length. 

The  chain  is  stowed,  as  it  is  paid  below,  by  "tierers,"  with  the 
aid  of  chain-hooks,  hook-ropes  and,  in  the  case  of  heavy  chains, 
of  tackles  hooked  in  eye  bolts  in  the  deck  above  the  chain-locker. 

1  A  "  Cable's  Length  "  as  a  unit  of  measurement  is  always  100  fathoms, 
this  being  8  shots  of  12^  fathoms  each,  the  standard  length  of  a  shot  in 
the  British  Navy. 


GROUND   TACKLE. 

Plate  No.   89. 


249 


250  GROUND   TACKLE. 

This  operation  of  "tiering"  the  cable  is  of  very  great  impor- 
tance as  the  cable  if  paid  down  rapidly,  and  stowed  carelessly  is 
likely  to  kink  in  running  out  and  may  jam  in  the  chain  pipe,  with 
very  disastrous  results.  It  should  be  stowed  regularly  and  sym- 
metrically in  long  flakes  fore  and  aft,  without  kinks. 

Watchfulness  must  be  observed  to  make  sure  that  no  one  is  in 
the  locker  when  the  anchor  is  let  go  or  the  chain  veered,  and  that 
no  gear  of  any  kind  is  in  the  way. 

The  cables  of  the  largest  men-of-war  are  too  heavy  and  cum- 
bersome to  be  handled  by  tierers.  They  are  accordingly  stowed 
in  deep  and  very  narrow  lockers,  where  there  is  little  chance  of 
kinking,  and  tierers  may  be  dispensed  with.  (Plate  89.)  A  re- 
liable man  should,  however,  be  stationed  at  the  locker  both  in 
heaving  in  and  in  letting  go,  to  make  sure  that  all  goes  clear. 

STOPPERS  (Plate  90),  of  which  there  are  many  different  forms, 
are  used  to  hold  the  chains  when  the  anchor  is  down,  to  relieve 
the  strain  on  the  windlass,  and  for  securing  the  anchors  and 
cables  at  other  times.  For  the  largest  ships  they  are  of  chain, 
with  slip-hooks  for  holding  the  cable,  and  are  hooked  or  shackled 
to  heavy  ring-bolts  on  the  deck.  When  fitted  in  this  way  they  are 
known  as  "  slip-stoppers."  In  smaller  ships  they  are  sometimes 
of  rope,  usually  hemp,  with  a  "  stopper-knot "  or  an  iron  toggle 
in  the  outer  end  and  a  lanyard  for  lashing  to  the  cable. 

SLIP-STOPPERS,  in  addition  to  their  use  for  holding  the  cable 
when  riding  at  anchor,  are  used  with  "  housing  anchors "  for 
securing  the  anchors  in  their  housed  positions  in  the  hawse-pipe. 
When  used  in  this  way  the  stopper  usually  has  a  screw  turn- 
buckle  for  drawing  the  anchor  close  up  into  the  hawse-pipe.  In 
this  case  it  is  called  a  "  screw-stopper,"  or  "  housing-stopper." 

In  large  ships,  with  housing  anchors,  the  anchor  is  usually 
let  go  from  the  slip-stopper  by  knocking  off  the  link  of  the  slip- 
hook. 

MAKE-UP  OF  CABLE.  The  make-up  of  a  chain  cable  for  the 
United  States  Navy  is  as  follows  (Plate  91)  : 

Beginning  with  the  outboard,  or  anchor  end: 

(a)  Bending  shackle. 

(b)  First  shot  of  cable,  five  fathoms  in  length,  of  material  ^ 
inch  larger  than  that  used  in  other  lengths  of  the  cable,  with  a 
swivel  near  the  inner  end.     The  three  outer  links  of  this  length 


Plate  No.   90. 


251 


FIG.  1. 
DETAILS  OF  FORELOCK  PIN  AND  LEAD  KEYING  RING  FOR  SHACKLES 


FIG.2.    SLIP  STOPPER 


?%"Acme  Thread,  2% "Acme  Thread, 

Left  Hand  •    Right  Hand 


FIG.  3. 
HOUSING  CHAIN  STOPPER,  U.S.  NAVY. 


FIG.  4. 
DECK  STOPPER,  (ROPE) 


STOPPERS. 


252 


Plate  No..  91. 


COMMON   LINK  ENLARGED  LINK  LONG  END  LINK 


SHACKLE 


(TV! 


SHORTENDL1NK       ENLARGED  LINK  END  LINK 


EBAAABCD  E          BAA 


U-- Balcinceof Cable  ISFM.rioinShots-^          Y"40  FM.  Plain -- 
Bending  Shackle  G          F        A  A         B     Swivel 


MAKE-UP  OF  CABLES 


-Link- 


MOULD FOR  CAST- STEEL  CHAIN 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


253 


are  larger  than  the  others  by  an  amount  varying  with  the  size  of 
the  cable. 

(c)  Second  shot  of  cable,  of  forty  fathoms,  connected  with  (b) 
by  a  shackle. 

(d)  Other  shots  of  cable,  each  of  fifteen  fathoms,  in  number 
sufficient  to  make  up  a  total  length  of   120,   135,    150,  or   180 
fathoms,  and  connected  by  shackles. 

The  arrangement  of  the  first  two  shots,  of  five  and  forty 
fathoms  respectively,  prevents  danger  of  having  either  a  swivel  or 
a  shackle  on  the  windlass  during  the  heavy  heaving  connected 
with  breaking  ground. 

The  use  of  150  or  180  fathoms  on  each  of  the  bower  cables 
makes  it  practicable  to  moor  with  60  fathoms  on  each  cable,  and 
this  is  the  length  now  commonly  used  in  mooring. 

In  handling  the  anchors,  bending  and  unbending  chain,  etc., 
the  five- fathom  length  which  comes  next  to  the  anchor  is  usually 
not  unbent,  as  it  is  easier  to  work  with  the  end  of  this  than  with 
the  ring  of  the  anchor  direct. 

WEIGHT  OF  CHAIN. 


Diameter  of  Material 

Weight  per  Fathom 

Diameter  of  Material. 

Weight  per  Fathom. 

liuhcs 

Lbs. 

Indies 

Lbs 

1 

4 

Z\ 

2 

240 

\ 

15 

af 

300 

I 

34 

2? 

360 

I 

58 

2\ 

440 

I  j 

90 

3 

500 

i£ 

130 

3^ 

680 

if 

180 

MARKING  CABLES.  Cables  are  marked  by  turns  of  wire  on  the 
studs  of  certain  links,  the  number  of  the  link,  counting  studded 
links  only,  from  the  shackle  on  each  side,  indicating  the  length. 
Thus  at  the  end  of  the  first  length  from  the  anchor  there  is  one 
turn  of  wire  on  the  stud  of  the  first  studded  link  from  the 
shackle  on  each  side ;  at  the  end  of  the  second  length,  two  turns 
on  the  second  studded  link,  etc. 

In  United  States  Naval  practice,  the  turns  of  wire  as  above 
described  are  usually  supplemented  by  painting  one  or  more  links 
with  some  light  color,  usually  white.  The  paint  shows  up  well 
at  night  and  can  often  be  seen  at  some  distance  below  water. 
While  the  practice  varies  on  different  ships,  the  following  is  a 
common  and  convenient  system : 


254 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


At  15  fms.     (No  shackle),  I   white  link. 
"  30      "  "  2      "      links. 

"    45      "       3rd    studded   link    each    side   of    shackle,    white 

Studs  of  painted  links  wrapped  with  3  turns  of 

wire. 
"    60      "       4th    studded    link    each    side   of    shackle,    white 

Studs  of  painted  links  wrapped  with  4  turns  oi 

wire. 
"    75      "       5tn    studded    link    each    side    of    shackle,    white 

Studs  of  painted  links  wrapped  with  5  turns  of 

wire,  etc. 

In  weighing,  as  the  chain  is  hove  in,  the  painted  links  are 
wiped  dry  and  re-painted. 

OVERHAULING  A  CABLE.  Cables  should  be  overhauled  fre- 
quently, the  chain  being  roused  up  on  deck,  and  each  shackle, 
link,  and  swivel  carefully  examined.  Flaws  may  be  detected  by 
the  ring  of  the  metal  when  struck  with  a  hammer.  A  defective 
shackle  may  be  easily  replaced  by  a  spare  one,  but  a  bad  link  con- 
demns the  whole  length  of  chain  in  which  it  occurs — except  that 
a  missing  stud  may  be  replaced  without  much  difficulty.  Every 
length  should  be  unshackled,  and  shackle  bolts  and  pins  cleaned 
and  coated  with  white  lead  and  tallow.  If  a  pin  is  found  rusted 
in,  the  rust  may  be  cut  with  turpentine,  or  the  pin  broken. 
Swivels  should  be  well  oiled,  and  worked  until  they  turn  freely 
and  without  grinding.  All  marks  should  be  verified,  and  re- 
newed if  necessary. 

Perhaps  the  most  favorable  of  all  opportunities  for  overhaul- 
ing the  cables  is  when  a  ship  is  in  drydock.  Here  the  anchor  and 
cables  may  be  lowered  into  the  dock,  where  they  can  be  handled 
much  more  easily  than  on  the  forecastle. 

The  cable  having  been  thoroughly  overhauled  and  the  chain- 
lockers  cleaned  and  painted,  the  bitter  end  is  made  fast,  and 
the  chain  is  paid  below  and  carefully  stowed, 


EXTRACT  FROM  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  REGULATIONS. 

"  On  all  vessels  the  Commanding  Officer  will  have  made  at  least  once 
a  year  a  careful  examination  of  the  bower  and  sheet  chains  throughout 
their  entire  length.  They  will  be  ranged  on  deck  by  shots,  cleaned, 


GROUND  TACKLE.  255 

scaled  .and  inspected  for  defects,  shackle  and  forelock  pins  refitted 
and  greased  or  white  leaded,  and  identification  marks  restored  if 
necessary. 

The  chain  will  then  be  carefully  painted.  As  the  shots  nearest  the 
lockers  are  the  least  used,  one  of  them,  or  two  in  the  case  of  battleships 
and  cruisers,  providing  the  shots  are  in  good  condition,  should  be  shifted 
at  these  times  to  a  position  inboard  of  the  40  fathom  shot,  in  order  to 
distribute  the  wear  more  uniformly  along  the  entire  length  of  the  chain. 
If  serious  defects  are  discovered  they  should  be  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  and  if  it  is  not  practicable  to 
make  immediate  replacement,  the  defective  shots  should  be  shifted  to 
the  bitter  end  of  the  cable.  A  note  of  this  examination  should  be  entered 
on  the  next  following  quarterly  report." 

Not  all  officers  are  aware  that  every  shot  of  navy  chain  bears 
upon  the  side  of  its  forward  link  a  serial  identifying  number 
and  the  year  of  manufacture. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  and  serious  accidents  to  which  cables  are  sub- 
ject is  the  springing  of  a  shackle  by  a  strain  tending  to  open  out  the  end. 

Such  a  strain  may  come  from  a  bad  fit  on  the  windlass  in  heavy  heaving, 
or  from  the  accident  of  the  shackle  being  subjected  to  a  heavy  stress  while 
lying  across  the  outer  lip  of  the  hawse-pipe.  A  pin  may  be  broken  in  some 
such  way  as  this,  and  the  bolt  loosened,  without  the  injury  becoming  ap- 
parent on  casual  inspection. 

It  is  a  good  rule  to  have  not  only  every  shackle  but  every  link  examined 
each  time  the  anchor  is  weighed.  If  time  does  not  admit  of  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  individual  links,  these  may  be  struck  with  a  hammer.  The  sound 
will  tell  if  any  flaw  exists.  Time  can  always  be  found  to  look  carefully  over 
the  shackles. 

§  III.    HANDLING  GROUND  TACKLE. 

WINDLASSES.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  windlasses  used 
for  handling  anchors  and  cables  in  modern  steamers,  almost  every 
firm  of  shipbuilders  having  a  type  of  its  own.  Certain  general 
features,  however,  are  common  to  them  all.  A  steam-engine  or 
electric  motor  turns  a  shaft,  either  horizontal  or  vertical,  on 
which  is  mounted  a  "  wildcat,"  or  "  chain-grab,"  over  which  the 
chain  passes  and  by  which  its  links  are  engaged.  The  wildcat 
turns  loosely  on  the  shaft,  but  may  be  rigidly  secured  to  it  by 
some  form  of  connection,  and  much  of  the  individuality  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  windlasses  lies  in  the  nature  of  this  connection. 
The  wildcat  is  secured  to  the  shaft  for  heaving  the  chain  in  or 
out,  but  is  disconnected  in  veering  chain  and  in  riding  by  the 


256 


GROUND    TACKLF. 


windlass;  being  controlled,  when  so  disconnected,  by  a  friction 
brake. 

Plate  92  shows  the  electric  windlass  to  be  installed  in  the  new 
battleships  and  battle  cruisers  of  the  North  Carolina  and  Lexing- 
ton classes,  and  Plate  93  the  steam  windlass  for  the  latest  type 
of  Destroyers.  Plate  94  shows  an  earlier  type  of  windlass 
(horizontal)  carried  by  some  of  the  older  battleships  which  are 
still  in  service.  The  drawings  have  been  prepared  with  a  view 
to  illustrating  the  details  of  interior  mechanism,  especially  the 
arangements  for  locking  and  unlocking  the  wildcats. 

Directions  for  Keeping   Windlass  in  Order. 

Keep  all  the  bearings  well  oiled.  Oil  holes  and  automatic  lubricators 
are  provided  for  all  the  bearings.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt 
and  regularly  inspected.  Use  none  but  the  best  sperm  oil  for  bearings. 
A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  black  lead  and  tallow  makes  the  best 
preparation  for  the  worm-wheel  and  worm  to  prevent  cutting  and 
wear. 

The  windlass  should  never  be  run  without  the  gear  teeth  and  worm 
being  well  slushed  with  black  lead  and  tallow,  a  can  of  which  is  sent 
with  every  machine,  and  which  should  be  replaced  with  more  of  the 
same  material. 

When  the  windlass  is  not  in  use,  the  cylinders  and  steam-chest  drips 
should  be  left  open,  so  as  to  drain  all  the  condensed  steam  from  the 
engines. 

When  starting  a  windlass  for  the  first  time  it  should  be  handled 
carefully  and  under  the  direction  of  an  experienced  person.  Run  it  at 
first  without  any  load  till  the  bearings  and  worm  and  worm-gear  teeth 
are  perfectly  lubricated. 

LETTING  Go.  In  modern  ships  with  heavy  ground  tackle,  the 
anchors  are  commonly  housed  in  the  hawse  pipe  and  secured  by 
slip-stoppers  which  engage  the  chain  by  a  slip  or  "  Pelican  "  hook. 
(Plate  90.)  In  preparing  to  let  go,  all  but  one  of  these  stoppers 
are  cast  off  and  the  windlass  brake  slacked,  leaving  the  anchor 
hanging  by  one  slip-stopper  immediately  abaft  the  hawse-pipe. 

If  the  drift  between  the  hawse-pipe  and  the  chain-locker  is 
considerable,  it  is  well  to  rouse  up  a  few  links  of  chain,  lighting 
the  slack  forward  to  a  point  just  abaft  the  stopper. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  all  is  clear  below  decks  and  in  the 
chain-locker.  A  reliable  man  should  be  stationed  near  the  locker 
and  made  responsible  for  this. 

To  let  go,  the  link  of  the  slip-stopper  is  knocked  loose  with 
a  sledge. 


Plate  No.    92. 


257 


k  ..*tf 
^k^ 

C:s:  ^ 


si| 

o  t:  ^ 

1-^ 

^-S 


Hill 

BE  -*l 

S^St^ 

go<^^ 
^z-J^ 


~  ) 


:^^  fe^ 

!«•  ' 

.&  ^ 


^^'^^ 

8| 

^>  ts 


•H^S 

r^l  ss> 


•*.*.§§ 


Mt«W«« 

•£  ^  ^^  | 

^S*1    ^    ^.^    (A    f\J    "    V)'-^    ^"^l 

^rhllill^ 


^ti 


sig 


BS^igs-?5-e 
^a^ltll^ 


OfeS 


is 


« 


•sK^'Sl 

lllil'vl 

*5l4S|t 

Illilll 

^ 


«fc 


258 


Plate   No.    93. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR 

OPERATING 

Joggle  A  -  locks  gypsy  to  shaft 
Joggle  B- locks  wildcat  to  shaft 
Toggle  C- locks  engine  to  shaft 
Pawls  D-  hold 'load  on  wildcat 


Jo  operate  wildcat ''by  engine,  toggles 

'  B  and  C  must  be  inserted. 

Jo  operate  wildcat  by hand 'power,  toggles 
A  and  B  must  be  inserted  and  toggle  C  re- 
moved. Pawls  D  should  be  dropped  in  place 
SO  as  to  hold  load  when  heaving. 

Jo  operate  gypsy  by  hand,  see  that  toggfe  A 
is  removed. 

To  operate  gypsy  by  engine,  toggles  A  andC 
should  be  jnserted. 


DESTROYER'S    WINDLASS. 


Plate  No.    94. 


259 


Friction  Band  Brake, 


Wheel  for 

Operating 
Friction  Brake^ 


Worm  Shaft^  ^ 


Locking  Ring 
Block  Key 


Friction  Band  Brake 


Eccentric  Rib  on  Locking  Ping 


Locking  Ping 
Block  Key       *:"" 


FIG.  3 

FIG.  2  LOCKING  GEAR 

HORIZONTAL  WINDLASS 
(EARLY  TYPE) 


VERTICAL  WINDLASS 
(EARLY  TYPE) 


WINDLASS   ON   OLDER   BATTLESHIPS. 


26O  GROUND   TACKLE. 

As  the  anchor  may  hang  in  spite  of  the  slack  links  above 
mentioned,  it  is  well  to  have  an  anchor-bar  at  hand  for  shaking 
up  the  chain,  especially  if  anchoring  in  formation  when  a  delay 
of  a  few  seconds  may  be  serious. 

Where  the  anchor  is  carried  on  a  bill-board,  as  in  Plate  84, 
the  lashings  used  in  securing  the  anchor  for  sea  must  first  of 
all  be  cast  off,  leaving  the  anchor  hanging  by  two  chains,  each 
secured  at  one  end  by  a  lashing  and  at  the  other  by  a  link  which 
engages  a  trigger-bar,  by  tripping  which  both  chains  are  released 
simultaneously. 

In  some  cases  anchors  carried  on  a  bill-board  are  lifted  by  a 
"fish-tackle"  hooked  to  a  swinging  davit  and  lowered  until  they 
hang  by  the  cable  from  the  hawse-pipe,  from  which  position  they 
are  let  go  from  a  slip-stopper  exactly  like  the  housing  anchors 
already  described. 

The  anchor  should  always  be  let  go  with  the  ship  moving 
slowly,  either  ahead  or  astern,  to  avoid  paying  the  cable  down  on 
top  of  the  anchor. 

With  the  old-fashioned  anchor,  it  is  generally  better  to  be 
going  astern,  at  least  when  anchoring  head  to  tide  or  wind,  as 
otherwise  the  bight  of  the  chain  is  likely  to  foul  the  anchor  as 
the  ship  drops  back.  If  conditions  are  not  such  that  she  will 
drop  back  over  the  anchor,  this  point  is  of  no  consequence;  and 
with  a  patent  anchor  (which  has  no  projecting  fluke  to  be 
fouled)  it  is  not  important  in  any  case.  There  are  some  advan- 
tages about  letting  go  with  headway  on,  especially  when  it  is 
desired  to  anchor  at  a  definite  point — standing  in,  for  example, 
on  a  given  bearing  and  anchoring  when  another  bearing  is  on. 
It  is  much  easier  to  do  this  With  the  ship  going  ahead  and  thus 
under  control ;  and  no  other  way  is  practicable  if  it  happens  that 
the  line  on  which  we  run  in  is  more  or  less  across  the  wind  or 
tide. 

In  case  of  a  number  of  vessels  anchoring  together  in  forma- 
tion, it  is  essential  that  all  should  let  go  while  going  ahead  with 
some  speed,  and  it  becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  interest  to 
know  what  speed  is  safe  under  these  conditions.  It  will  be  found 
that  almost  any  ship  with  reciprocating  engines  or  electric  drive, 
running  at  a  speed  of  four  or  five  knots  with  steam  available  for 
twelve  knots,  and  backing  with  full  power  as  the  anchor  is  let 
go,  can  be  brought  up  at  45  fathoms  without  undue  strain  on 
the  cable.  With  turbine  engines  even  this  speed  is  too  high  be- 


GROUND   TACKLE.  26l 

cause  of  the  limited  power  available  for  backing.  Here  the 
maximum  permissible  speed  is  believed  to  be  not  in  excess  of 
three  knots. 

If  obliged  to  let  go  at  a  higher  speed,  or  if  for  any  reason  it 
does  not  seem  safe  to  check  her  with  so  short  a  scope,  the  chain 
should  be  allowed  to  run  until  she  loses  her  way  sufficiently  to 
make  it  safe  to  snub  her.  There  is  no  great  harm  in  running  out 
75  or  even  90  fathoms  of  chain  and  afterward  heaving  in  to  a 
shorter  scope;  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  even  in  cases 
where  the  headway  has  to  be  checked  by  bringing  up  on  the  chain, 
the  danger  is  less  with  a  long  scope  than  with  a  short  one,  for 
the  same  reason  that  makes  a  long  scope  safer  in  riding  to  the 
anchor. 

The  danger  connected  with  letting  go  while  under  con- 
siderable headway  is  often  overlooked,  for  the  reason  that 
the  damage  resulting  from  it  does  not  necessarily  show  itself 
at  once.  The  excessive  strain  may  distort  and  weaken  the 
links  of  the  cable,  without  actually  parting  them.  The  result 
is  that  the  cables  may  give  way  at  some  future  time  under 
a  comparatively  moderate  stress.  In  the  British  Navy  it  was 
long  the  custom  to  let  go  with  considerable  headway,  espe- 
cially in  mooring ;  but  in  October,  1908,  an  order  was  issued 
by  the  Admiralty  forbidding  this  practice  and  stating  thai- 
experience  has  shown  that  the  parting  of  cables  in  H.  M. 
ships  has  been  clue  mainly  to  the  gradual  weakening  to  which 
they  are  subjected  by  anchoring  and  mooring  with  too  much 
way  on. 

It  is  a  general  practice  for  ships  approaching  an  anchorage  to 
slow  to  half  or  two-thirds  speed  when  some  distance  from  the 
point  for  letting  go  and  later  to  stop  their  engines  and  let  the  speed 
drop  as  it  may,  the  actual  speed  at  which  the  ship  is  moving  when 
the  anchor  is  let  go  being  a  matter  of  guess-work  within  rather 
wide  limits.  It  would  seem  more  reasonable  to  slow  to  the 
speed  which  is  considered  safe  for  letting  go,  while  far  enough 
from  the  anchorage  to  be  sure  of  settling  down  to  this  speed  (as 
definitely  fixed  by  the  number  of  revolutions)  by  the  time  the 
anchorage  is  reached,  and  to  stop  the  engines  as  the  anchor  is  let 
go.  This  is  especially  advisable  where  ships  in  squadron  are 
anchoring  together,  as  it  not  only  fixes  definitely  the  conditions 


262  GROUND   TACKLE. 

for  anchoring  but  makes  it  far  easier  for  the  ships  to  keep  their 
distance  from  eagh  other.  (See  Chapter  on  "Keeping  Station 
and  Manoeuvring  in  Squadron.") 

Where  it  becomes  necessary  to  anchor  in  very  deep  water,  it  is 
absolutely  essential  that  the  ship  should  be  going  dead  slow.  If 
several  ships  are  anchoring  in  formation,  they  should  anchor  in 
succession,  not  simultaneously.  As  the  anchorage  is  approached, 
at  very  slow  speed,  the  anchor  may  be  lowered  gradually  until  it 
is  within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  bottom,  and  then  let  go,  only 
enough  headway  being  maintained  to  avoid  paying  the  chain 
down  on  top  of  the  anchor.  The  details  of  handling  the  windlass 
for  anchoring  in  this  way  will  vary  with  the  type  of  windlass 
used,  but  it  will  be  found  that  even  where  the  ship  is  dead  in  the 
water,  and  where  the  anchor  is  let  go  with  only  a  few  fathoms 
of  drop,  the  weight  of  the  chain  alone  will  cause  it  to  run  out  very 
violently.  In  extreme  cases,  where  the  depths  run,  as  in  Puget 
Sound  ports  for  example,  up  to  40  and  50  fathoms,  it  is  advisable 
not  to  "let  go"  at  all,  but  to  "back  out"  the  chain  by  the  wind- 
lass engine,  until  the  anchor  is  on  the  bottom  and  the  necessary 
scope  of  chain  out. 

While  the  danger  of  fouling  the  anchor  by  paying  the  chain 
down  on  top  of  it  is  not  as  serious  in  the  case  of  a  patent  anchor 
as  in  one  of  the  old  type,  it  is  much  better  to  avoid  this  if  prac- 
ticable, by  having  a  little  way  on  the  ship  at  the  instant  of  actually 
placing  the  anchor.  The  sooner  the  way  can  be  checked  after 
this  instant,  the  better. 

WEIGHING.  In  heaving  in,  the  windlass  and  the  cable  may  be 
relieved  by  a  judicious  use  of  engines  and  the  helm,  and  the 
officer  on  the  bridge  should  be  kept  informed  of  the  direction  in 
which  the  chain  "tends"  or  "grows"  on  the  bow,  and  whether 
it  is  taut  or  slack.  Report  is  also  made  when  the  chain  is  "  up 
and  down  "  from  the  ring  of  the  anchor  to  the  hawse-pipe  and 
when  the  anchor  is  "  a-weigh  " ;  that  is  to  say,  when  it  has  been 
broken  out  from  the  bottom. 

In  a  ship  with  a  ram  bow,  the  chain  will  sometimes  get  across 
the  ram.  It  may  be  cleared  by  stopping  the  windlass  and  going 
astern  a  few  turns  with  the  proper  engine. 

If  there  is  much  tension  on  the  chain  when  a  shackle  or  swivel 
comes  to  the  wildcat,  there  will  be  trouble  from  the  slipping  of 
the  chain,  as  swivels  and  shackles  are  necessarily  larger  and 


GROUND   TACKLE.  263 

longer  than  the  links,  and  cannot  take  the  lugs  of  the  chain-grab 
so  securely.  This  trouble  may  always  be  expected  when  the 
depth  of  water  is  such  that  a  swivel  or  a  shackle  is  on  the  wildcat 
in  breaking  ground  or  after  the  anchor  is  aweigh.  It  may  be 
met  by  clapping  a  "hook-rope"  on  the  cable  at  once  and  taking 
this  to  the  "gypsey"  or  the  capstan.  If  neither  of  these  is  con- 
venient, a  deck  tackle  may  be  hooked  on  and  well  manned.  If 
the  drift  between  the  windlass  and  the  locker  admits  of  such  a 
thing,  a  tackle  abaft  and  below  the  wildcat  is  very  helpful,  tend- 
ing not  so  much  to  relieve  the  stress  as  to  jam  the  chain  down 
into  its  place  on  the  wildcat,  and  so  to  prevent  slipping.  In  ships 
where  this  difficulty  is  to  be  anticipated,  it  should  be  prepared  for 
as  part  of  the  regular  preparations  for  getting  underway. 

Shackles  and  swivels,  with  the  links  adjoining  them,  are,  in 
cables  of  standard  mai?  ufacture,  made  of  lengths  and  sizes  care- 
fully proportioned  to  tli  i  rest  of  the  chain  and  to  the  cable-holders 
with  which  they  are  td  be  used.  Improvements  in  this  direction 
and  in  the  design  of  1  le  cable-holders  have  greatly  reduced  the 
difficulties  described  above.  In  cables  like  the  latest  ones  for  the 
United  States  Navy,  where  there  is  neither  a  shackle  nor  a  swivel 
between  five  fathoms  and  forty-five,  it  is  unusual  for  either  of 
them  to  come  to  the  windlass  in  breaking  ground. 

The  new  type  of  shackle  adopted  for  the  Navy  (Plate  87), 
will  do  away  with  difficulties  of  this  kind,  as  the  shackle,  in  its 
external  size  and  shape,  will  be  a  duplicate  of  the  links. 

FOUL  ANCHOR.  The  old-fashioned  anchor  often  comes  up 
with  one  or  more  turns  of  the  cable  around  the  stock,  the  shank, 
or  the  flukes. 

The  conditions  here  may  vary  so  widely  that  only  very  general 
rules  can  be  laid  down  for  dealing  with  them.  The  anchor  is 
usually  hoisted  to  the  davit-head  and  cleared  by  dipping  the 
chain,  unshackling  if  necessary.  Slack  chain  is  of  course  paid 
out,  and  the  bight  is  hung  by  slip-ropes  to  take  the  weight.  If 
the  tackle  cannot  be  hooked  in  its  proper  place,  it  must  be  hooked 
to  a  strap.  Slew-ropes  on  the  stock  are  helpful  in  clearing  the 
turns. 

If  the  anchor  comes  up  crown  first,  a  strap  is  used  around  the 
arms  and  shank,  and  the  crown  is  run  up  to  the  davit  head.  It 
may  be  hung  there  by  a  hawser,  the  tackle  shifted  to  the  balancing 
link,  and  the  anchor  capsized  by  slacking  the  hawser  and  hauling 
on  the  tackle. 


264  GROUND   TACKLE. 

Sometimes  a  turn  around  the  stock  can  be  cleared  by  hooking 
the  tackle  with  a  turn  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the 
chain,  while  the  anchor  is  at  the  hawse-pipe.  As  the  chain  is 
surged  and  the  tackle  run  up,  the  anchor  slews  and  the  chain  falls 
clear. 

In  all  cases  of  unshackling,  a  hawser  should  be  secured  to  the 
ring  of  the  anchor,  as  something  may  give  way  when  least  ex- 
pected. Much  labor  in  lifting  and  dipping  the  chain  may  be 
saved  by  the  use  of  two  pendants,  the  anchor  hanging  by  one,  as 
usual,  the  bight  of  the  chain  by  the  other.  The  bight  being  thus 
held,  the  anchor  is  lowered,  slewed  clear  of  the  cable,  and  again 
run  up.  By  this  method,  the  anchor  is  dipped,  instead  of  the 
chain,  and  the  heavy  work  of  clearing  is  all  done  by  the  winch 
instead  of  by  hand. 

Whenever  possible,  the  anchor  should  be  landed  in  its  place 
and  secured  before  the  work  of  clearing  begins.  Where  circum- 
stances do  not  admit  of  this,  it  should  at  least  be  run  well  up  to 
the  bow  and  above  the  rail,  where  it  can  be  reached  conveniently. 
An  anchor  bar  or  small  "crowbar"  is  very  handy  in  opening 
out  the  parts  of  the  chain  when  jammed  one  upon  another. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  case  of  fouling  that  can  arise  is 
one  in  which  the  chain  is  found  hitched  around  the  stock  or  the 
arm,  with  the  hauling  part  coming  out  from  the  inside  of  a  round 
turn,  and  with  this  turn  jambed  .hard  upon  it.  Here  it  is  par- 
ticularly important  to  get  the  anchor  close  in  to  the  forecastle. 
The  parts  may  be  pried  apart  a  little  at  a  time  by  means  of  a 
small,  flat-pointed  iron  bar,  and  the  hauling  part  dragged  through 
the  bight  by  a  jigger  on  the  end  of  the  stock,  the  amount  gained 
at  each  fleet  of  the  jigger  being  lashed  before  the  strap  is  shifted 
for  a  new  pull.  In  this  way,  inch  by  inch,  enough  slack  is 
accumulated  on  the  bight  to  admit  of  lowering  it  over  the  end  of 
the  stock  or  fluke,  where  it  will  fall  clear. 

While  modern  double-fluke  anchors  are  much  less  likely  to 
foul  than  the  old  type,  they  occasionally  give  much  trouble  in  this 
way  and  a  ship  whose  anchors  house  in  the  hawse-pipes  may  be 
greatly  embarrassed  by  the  lack  of  facilities  for  lifting  the  anchor 
to  a  point  where  it  can  be  hung  securely  and  where  the  chain  can 
be  handled  conveniently. 

As  a  rule,  the  best  that  can  be  done  in  such  a  case  is  to  hang 
the  anchor  by  straps  and  stoppers,  and  send  men  over  the  bow  to 
clear  the  chain  as  best  they  may,  assisting  them  from  the  fore- 


Plate  No.   95. 


265 


266  GROUND   TACKLE. 

castle  by  lines  and  tackles  to  take  the  weight  of  the  bight.  A  davit 
which  can  be  shipped  above  the  hawse-pipe,  plumbing  the  anchor 
as  it  hangs  outside,  is  very  helpful  here. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  unshackle  the  cable,  ample  precau- 
tions must  of  course  be  taken  to  secure  the  anchor. 

Under  conditions  such  that  the  anchor  may  be  expected  to 
foul,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  "  sight "  it  frequently ;  and  indeed  this 
is  advisable  tinder  any  conditions  when  a  ship  remains  at  single 
anchor  for  a  long  time.  It  is  especially  important  if,  after  lying 
for  some  time  under  circumstances  which  makes  it  probable  that 
the  anchor  may  be  foul,  bad  weather  is  found  to  be  approaching. 

For  sighting,  the  anchor  may  be  lifted  just  far  enough  to  be 
seen,  or,  what  is  usually  more  convenient,  it  may  be  weighed  com- 
pletely and  another  anchor  let  go  when  the  cable  of  the  first  one 
is  "  up  and  down  " ;  that  is  to  say,  just  before  the  first  anchor  is 
broken  out  from  the  bottom. 

ANCHORING    BY    THE    STERN. 

It  is  often  convenient  and  sometimes  necessary  for  a  small 
vessel  to  anchor  by  the  stern.  For  this  an  anchor  of  moderate 
size  is  usually  sufficient,  and  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  carry  such 
an  anchor  at  the  stern  ready  for  letting  go  in  a  hurry.  If  a 
shackle  is  kept  at  hand,  and  if  a  thimble  is  turned  into  the  end 
of  the  best  wire  hawser,  this  hawser  can  be  shackled  up  to  the 
anchor  and  all  made  ready  for  letting  go  in  a  very  short  time. 
The  ability  to  anchor  in  this  way  is  so  valuable  under  many 
circumstances,  that  it  is  surprising  how  rarely  it  is  thought  of  or 
prepared  for.  In  coming  to,  in  a  narrow  or  crowded  anchorage 
with  a  fair  tide — where  perhaps  difficulties  are  found  which  had 
not  been  anticipated — it  might  be  of  the  greatest  possible  value. 
So,  too,  in  going  alongside  a  dock  or  into  a  slip,  with  a  fair 
wind  or  tide,  as  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  do,  a  stern  anchor 
such  as  has  been  described  (not  a  mere  kedge)  might  make  a 
perfectly  simple  situation  out  of  one  which  would  otherwise  be 
very  difficult.  A  stern  anchor  of  about  one  fourth  the  weight 
of  the  bowers  is  issued  to  men-of-war. 

A  6000  pound  anchor  at  the  stern  would  not  be  of  much  value 
to  a  Lexington  (874  feet  long).  And  yet  a  ship  of  this  length  is 
more  likely  than  a  short  one  to  need  a  stern  anchor, — not  only 
for  manoeuvring  in  restricted  waters  but  for  lying  at  anchor 
where  the  space  for  swinging  is  restricted ;  as,  for  example,  in  the 


GROUND    TACKLE.  267 

North  River  (New  York  Harbor).  The  latest  ships  designed 
exceed  900  feet  in  length.  Such  a  ship,  moored  in  the  North 
River,  or  in  almost  any  other  harbor  that  could  be  named,  would 
sweep  practically  the  whole  width  of  the  navigable  channel  if  al- 
lowed to  swing.  And  she  could  be,  kept  from  swinging  only  if 
moored  head  and  stern. 

In  some  harbors  permanent  buoys  are  planted  to  which  ships 
can  tie  up,  head  and  stern,  but  such  buoys  are  themselves  a  serious 
obstacle  to  navigation  and  they  are  rarely  used  except  in  harbors 
controlled  by  naval  authorities.  In  commercial  harbors  docks 
and  slips  are  provided  for  merchant  vessels,  but  men-of-war  must 
usually  lie  at  anchor  in  whatever  berths  may  be  considered 
available  by  the  authorities  of  the  port. 

If  we  imagine  a  division  of  Lexingtons  seeking  an  anchorage 
in  New  York  Harbor,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  enormously 
the  problem  would  be  simplified  if  each  ship  could  lay  out  anchors 
from  bow  and  stern  and  hold  herself  practically  parallel  with 
the  axis  of  the  River. 

This  would  call  for  the  equivalent  of  a  bower  anchor  at  the 
stern  (and  the  bowers  of  the  latest  ships  may  weigh  as  much  as 
30,000  pounds),  with  all  facilities  for  handling  it,  including  a 
cable  standard  as  to  weight  and  length,  a  hawse-pipe,  windlass, 
and  chain  locker. 

It  is  clear  that  there  are  very  serious  objections  to  this,  not  the 
least  of  these  being  the  proximity  of  the  propellers.  But  it  is 
not  clear  that  something  of  this  sort  is  not  an  inevitable  devel- 
opment of  the  future.  The  problems  of  construction  involved, 
although  embarrassing,  are  not  difficult.  The  problems  of  seaman- 
ship, such  as  those  connected  with  a  gale  on  the  beam,  making  it 
necessary,  perhaps,  to  bend  a  wire  line  to  the  stern  cable  and  veer 
away,  do  not  differ  in  principle  from  those  connected  with  other 
emergencies  which  seamen  are  necessarily  prepared  to  meet. 

The  matter  is  at  least  deserving  of  consideration. 

In  the  event  of  stranding,  such  an  anchor  can  be  laid  out  very 
quickly,  and  while  it  probably  would  not  serve  to  heave  the  ship 
off,  it  might  very  well  hold  her  from  driving  farther  on  with  a 
rising  tide  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  her  from  swinging 
around,  broadside  on,  to  the  beach. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  a  bower  anchor  over  the  stern, 
the  simplest  way  to  deal  with  the  situation  is  to  ease  the  anchor 


268  GROUND   TACKLE. 

down  until  it  hangs  outside  the  hawse-pipe  with  its  ring  just 
clear,  at  the  same  time  making  preparations  for  unshackling  at 
the  5-fathom  shackle,  and  holding  the  chain — outside  of  this 
shackle — by  a  good  slip-stopper.  Pass  the  end  of  the  best  wire 
line  out  through  the  stern  chock,  take  it  forward  and  shackle 
securely  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor.  In  this  as  in  all  other  cases 
where  the  anchor  is  to  be  used  without  its  own  cable,  it  is  very 
important  to  use  a  "weighing-line"  and  buoy-rope  on  the  crown 
of  the  anchor.  (Chapter  XII,  Sec.  2.) 

Let  go  when  ready  by  knocking  off  the  link  of  the  slip-stopper. 

If  it  is  desired  to  ride  by  the  bower  cable  rather  than  by  the 
wire-line,  pass  the  line  forward  from  the  stern-chock  as  before 
and  stand  by  to  shackle  it  to  the  chain  when  ready.  Run  in  at 
slow  speed  to  the  point  where  the  anchor  is  to  be  placed,  keeping 
the  ship  under  control ;  let  go,  and  veer  to  60  or  90  fathoms  as 
desired,  bringing-to  with  the  shackle  well  inside.  Pass  the  end 
of  the  wire  line  inside  the  hawse-pipe.  Stopper  the  chain  well, 
and  bend  on  an  easing-out  line  just  forward  of  the  shackle. 
Take  the  easing-out  line  to  the  capstan  and  take  the  strain  on  it. 
Shackle  the  wire  line  to  the  shackle  of  the  chain.  Unshackle 
the  chain.  Take  the  after  end  of  the  wire  line  to  the  after 
windlass.  Ease  out  forward,  heave  in  aft.  Let  the  easing-out 
line  go  with  the  chain,  standing  clear  of  the  end.  Heave  the 
line  and  cable  in  aft,  and  secure. 

In  many  harbors,  a  swell  sets  in  on  the  beam  of  vessels  riding 
to  the  wind,  causing  them  to  roll  incessantly.  In  such  cases,  a 
stream  anchor  planted  off  the  bow,  with  a  line  from  the  quarter, 
admits  of  springing  around,  head  to  the  swell.  In  the  tropics,  a 
similar  plan  adds  much  to  the  coolness  of  the  ship  by  bringing 
the  wind  abeam. 

When  anchoring  in  a  narrow  river  or  harbor  where  there  is 
little  room  for  turning  and  where  occasion  may  arise  for  leaving 
hurriedly,  it  is  well  to  keep  a  hawser  triced  up  along  the  outside 
from  the  warping  chock  on  the  quarter  to  the  hawse,  ready  for 
clapping  on  the  chain.  If  an  emergency  arises  while  the  ship  is 
heading  in,  the  spring  is  bent  to  the  cable,  and  the  cable  un- 
shackled. The  ship  then  swings,  the  line  is  buoyed  and  cast  off 
and  all  is  clear  for  standing  out. 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


269 


Plate  No.   96. 


270 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


§  IV.    RIDING  AT  SINGLE  ANCHOR. 

Modern  ships  usually  ride  by  one  or  more  slip-stoppers  on  the 
chain,  and  with  the  wildcat  of  the  windlass  unlocked  and  the 
brake  set  up.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  veer,  the  stoppers  are 
cast  off  and  the  chain  veered  by  slacking  the  brake.  It  is  well 
to  give  plenty  of  chain  in  the  beginning  rather  than  to  take  a 
chance  of  dragging. 

The  advantages  of  a  long  scope  of  chain  are  universally  recog- 
nized, but  probably  few  seamen  realize  in  just  what  ways  such  a 
scope  contributes  to  the  safety  of  the  ship  and  the  ease  with 
which  she  rides. 

Perhaps  the  most  obvious  gain  is  in  the  angle  at  which  the 
pull  of  the  cable  comes  upon  the  anchor.  The  longer  the  scope, 
the  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  bottom  this  pull  will  be ;  and  the 
smaller,  therefore,  will  be  the  tendency  to  break  the  anchor  out. 
If  the  length  and  weight  of  the  chain  are  such  that  any  part  of  it 
rests  upon  the  bottom,  then  the  weight  of  that  part  is  added  to 
the  weight  of  the  anchor,  and  helps  in  this  way  to  hold  the  ship. 
It  has  been  found,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  a  ship  riding  to  a 
moderate  gale  in  ten  fathoms  of  water  and  with  100  fathoms  of 
chain,  not  a  single  link  of  the  chain  rests  undisturbed  upon  the 
bottom.  It  is  therefore  clear  that  this  point  is  not  of  as  great 
importance  as  is  commonly  supposed.  It  is  only  in  the  two 
ways  above  described  that  a  long  scope  is  of  value  to  a  ship 
which  is  pulling  steadily  at  her  cable;  but  the  moment  she  begins 
to  sheer  about,  or  to  rise  and  fall  in  a  seaway — alternately  rang- 
ing up  toward  her  anchor,  then  driving  heavily  back  upon  her 
cable — the  value  of  a  long  scope  makes  itself  felt  in  the  elasticity 
of  the  bight,  which  prevents  the  rapidly  varying  tensions  from 
being  thrown  upon  the  cable  and  the  anchor  in  a  succession  of 
violent  shocks.  The  cable  never  leads  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  hawse-pipe  to  the  anchor,  but  dips  downward  in  a  curve,  the 
degree  of  curvature  depending  upon  the  depth  of  water,  the 
length  and  weight  of  the  cable,  and  the  tension  to  which  it  is 
subjected.  With  a  long  scope  of  chain,  under  a  moderate  ten- 
sion, the  curvature  is  very  marked.  If,  now,  a  ship  riding  in  this 
way  begins  to  drive  astern  before  a  heavy  squall,  she  must  lift  the 
bight  of  her  cable  as  she  moves ;  and  the  longer  and  heavier  the 
bight,  the  more  work  will  be  involved  in  lifting  it,  the  more 
slowly  the  ship  will  move  astern,  and  the  more  gradually  the  ten- 


GROUND   TACKLE.  271 

sion  on  the  anchor  and  the  chain  will  reach  its  maximum.  It 
is  one  of  the  commonplaces  of  mechanics  that  a  force  has  far  less 
destructive  effect  when  exerted  gradually,  than  when  exerted 
suddenly ;  and  all  experience  confirms  this  principle  in  its  appli- 
cation to  a  vessel  riding  at  anchor  as  above  described. 

It  is  a  common  rule  to  give,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a 
length  of  cable  equal  to  six  times  the  depth  of  the  water.  This 
is  perhaps  enough  for  a  ship  riding  steadily  and  without  any  great 
tension  on  her  cable,  but  it  should  be  promptly  increased  if  for 
any  reason  she  begins  to  jump  or  to  sheer  about ;  for  it  is  always 
easier  to  prevent  an  anchor  from  dragging  than  to  make  it  hold 
after  it  has  once  begun  to  drag. 

A  vessel  at  single  anchor  in  a  strong  tide-way  is  likely  to  sheer 
considerably,  bringing  the  current  first  on  one  side  and  then  on 
the  other,  and  driving  across  the  stream  until  brought  up  by  her 
chain,  often  with  a  violent  shock.  This  may  be  prevented  in  a 
great  measure  by  holding  her  with  a  steady  sheer  away  from  her 
anchor.  This  is  accomplished  by  putting  the  rudder  over  as  far 
as  may  be  necessary,  and  keeping  it  there.  The  stern  is  driven 
over  to  one  side  and  she  is  canted  across  the  current  and  held 
there.  She  is  thus  in  more  "  stable  equilibrium "  than  when 
riding  with  the  tide  nearly  or  quite  ahead;  and  while  she  puts 
a  heavier  tension  on  her  cable,  it  is  a  steady  tension,  which,  as 
already  explained,  is  not  a  dangerous  one. 

The  tendency  to  sheer  rankly  from  side  to  side  under  the  influ- 
ence of  wind  or  tide  is  especially  marked  and  especially  danger- 
ous in  destroyers  and  other  small  craft.  A  number  of  plans 
have  recently  been  devised  for  providing  methods  of  handling 
the  cables  of  these  vessels  in  such  a  way  that  the  cable  shall  lead 
directly  from  the  stem  instead  of  from  a  hawse-pipe  some  dis- 
tance abaft  the  stem.  (Plates  97  and  98).  Reports  of  experi- 
ments with  the  new  arrangement  are  very  favorable. 

A  similar  arrangement  applied  to  the  latest  battleships  is  shown 
in  Plate  85,  a  mid-ship  hawse-p'pe  being  fitted  in  the  stem. 

Plate  97  also  shows  a  new  construction  recently  approved  for 
the  bows  of  destroyers,  by  which  the  anchor  will  be  completely 
housed  inside  the  hawse-pipe. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  keep  a  shackle  where  it  can  be  gotten 
at  conveniently  for  slipping  suddenly  if  an  emergency  arises,  and 
to  be  sure  that  the  pins  can  be  driven  out  without  difficulty. 
Tools  for  unshackling  should  be  kept  in  a  convenient  place  and 


272 


Plate  No.   97. 


Plate  No.    98. 


273 


Lead  to  Winch- 


'  When  ready  to  ride  from  bull  nose 
slip  messenger  hook  over  cable 
and  haul  in  on  lead  from  davit 
head  until  cable  is  over  chock. 
Press  cable  into-  opening  and 
lock  gate. 


1-Davit-- 
Socket,  Port&Starb'd-^rt 


T-6"W.L 


EAGLE   BOAT. 
ARRANGEMENT   FOR   RIDING   FROM   STERN, 


274 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


never  removed.  A  buoy  and  a  buoy-rope  at  hand  complete  the 
preparations  for  slipping  at  short  notice.  In  an  exposed  an- 
chorage, subject  to  sudden  gales,  these  precautions  are  of  course 
especially  important. 

If,  when  lying  at  anchor  in  a  tide-way,  a  vessel  or  other  danger 
is  seen  drifting  down  upon  you,  you  may,  by  giving  the  ship  a 
cant  with  the  helm,  bringing  the  current  on  the  bow,  and  veering 
away  roundly,  sheer  well  over  across  the  tide  and  probably  clear 
of  danger. 

If  an  anchor  is  known  to  have  dragged,  in  a  clayey  bottom,  it 
should  be  picked  up  as  quickly  as  possible ;  for  it  is  certain  to  be 
"shod,"  and  to  have  lost  much  of  its  proper  holding  power.  In 
letting  go  where  the  bottom  is  of  this  kind,  it  is  important  to  give 
a  good  scope  in  the  very  beginning,  to  prevent  even  the  little 
dragging  that  is  commonly  to  be  expected  as  the  anchor  digs 
down  to  gets  its  hold. 

In  riding  out  a  gale,  it  may  often  be  necessary  to  let  go 
second  anchor,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that  where  unlimitec 
space  is  available,  a  ship  is  safer  and  easier  with  a  single  anchoi 
and  a  long  scope  of  chain;  and  by  a  "long  scope"  is  not  meant 
45  or  60  fathoms,  but  twice  that  length,  or  even  more.  Two 
cables  will  hold  a  ship  longer  if  bent  together  and  veered  out  to 
the  double  length  on  a  single  anchor,  than  if  used  separately 
each  with  its  own  anchor  down.  It  must  not  be  overlooked 
however,  that  a  defective  link  or  shackle  may  result  in  disaster 
where  a  single  cable  is  in  use;  and  this  may  make  it  wise,  apart 
from  other  considerations,  to  let  go  a  second  anchor  in  cases 
where  no  chances  can  be  taken.  Some  seamen  veer  to  a  long  scope 
and  drop  a  second  anchor  under  the  forefoot,  leaving  the  brake 
fairly  slack.  If  the  riding-chain  parts  or  the  anchor  drags,  the 
slack  chain  on  the  other  anchor  will  run  out,  giving  warning  of 
the  danger  and  affording  a  means  of  bringing  the  ship  up  with- 
out the  delay  necessary  for  letting  go  the  second  anchor.  If 
the  ship  swings,  the  anchor  with  the  short  scope  of  chain  can 
be  hove  up  before  the  chains  foul. 

A  ship  is  never  in  greater  danger  of  dragging  her  anchor  or 
parting  her  cable  than  when  driving  down  with  a  slack  chain, 
broadside  ori,  or  partially  so,  to  wind  or  tide.  Such  a  situation 
may  of  necessity  arise  in  anchoring,  or  may  come  about  in  sheer- 
ing, as  above  described.  It  not  infrequently  happens  in  squally 
weather,  where  a  ship  swings  in  one  direction  during  a  lull,  just 


GROUND   TACKLE.  275 


in  time  to  be  caught  by  a  strong  squall  on  the  beam  and  driven 
bodily  off,  to  bring  up,  it  may  be,  with  the  chain  taut  across  the 
stem.1 

In  lying  at  an  achorage  where  such  situations  may  arise,  the 
greatest  watchfulness  should  be  exercised,  steam  being  kept  on 
the  steering  engine,  and  a  man  at  the  wheel,2  an  ample  scope 
of  chain  veered,  and  a  second  anchor  ready  for  letting  go  at  a 
moment's  notice.  The  last-named  precaution  should  in  fact  be 
always  taken ;  that  is  to  say,  a  second  anchor  should  always  be 
ready,  even  though  there  seems  no  chance  of  its  being  needed. 

When  the  conditions  are  such  that  there  is  a  possibility  of 
starting  the  anchor,  a  lookout  should  be  kept  which  will  insure 
instant  notice  if  she  begins  to  drag.  The  drift  lead  is  useful, 
though  not  always  to  be  trusted.  This  is  a  heavy  lead,  kept  on 
the  bottom,  with  its  line  made  fast  to  some  place  convenient  for 
observation  and  left  hanging  with  considerable  slack.  If  the 
ship  drags,  the  line  tautens  and  tends  ahead. 

So  long  as  a  ship  is  fairly  steady,  a  drift  lead  will  usually  give 
notice  in  case  of  dragging,  but  if  she  sheers  about  considerably, 
it  cannot  be  relied  upon.  The  farther  forward  it  is  used  the 
better,  as  the  bow  moves  much  less  than  the  stern  in  sheering. 

Good  bearings  of  objects  on  shore  are  more  reliable  than  the 
drift  lead,  and  a  range  is  best  of  all ;  but  these,  also,  are  less  trust- 
worthy when  the  ship  is  sheering  about  than  when  she  is  steady; 
for  a  range  will  open  out  when  the  ship  swings,  and  may  seem  to 
indicate  that  she  is  dragging.  Its  indications  may  be  checked  by 
watching  the  heading. 

Where  no  range  can  be  picked  out  on  shore,  two  single  marks 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  ship  answer  well,  if  the  observer  takes  his 
stand  at  some  spot  to  which  he  can  return  from  time  to  time,  and 
notes  a  point  on  the  ship  itself  in  line  with  each  of  the  points  on 
shore. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  from  a  certain  point-  on  the  bridge  or  deck, 
a  shore  mark  to  starboard  is  in  range  with  a  swifter  of  the  rigging,  an  awning 
stanchion,  or  some  other  conspicuous  point  of  the  ship;  while  another  object 

1  A  cable  or  a  hawser  is  greatly  weakened  by  a  bend  or  "nip,"  such  as  will 
exist  at  the  hawse-pipe  if  the  cable  leads  off  at  a  sharp  angle  from  the  pipe. 

2  If  a  ship  parts  her  cable  and  starts  unexpectedly  on  a  cruise,  she  may 
be  in  a  measure  controlled  by  the  helm  if  actually  moving  through  the  water, 
and  so  saved,  perhaps,  from  going  ashore  or  fouling  other  vessels,  until  she 
can  be  brought  up  by  another  anchor. 


2/6  GROUND  TACKLE. 

to  port  is  similarly  in  line  with  something  on  the  ship  along  the  port  side. 
As  the  ship  swings,  one  object  will  draw  ahead  and  the  other  will  draw  aft. 
If  she  drags,  both  will  draw  ahead. 

If  the  compass  is  conveniently  placed  for  observation,  a  single 
bearing  upon  an  object  near  the  beam  and  at  a  reasonable  dis- 
tance, will  give  all  that  is  needed,  although  here,  also,  allowance 
.must  be  made  for  swinging. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  ship  can  be  felt  to  start,  by  a 
slight  jar  due  to  the  sudden  slacking  of  the  chain  as  the  anchor 
lets  go  its  hold;  and  if  she  drags  for  any  distance,  there  will 
almost  always  be  a  tremor  in  the  chain,  perfectly  perceptible 
to  the  hand,  due  to  the  variation  in  resistance  which  the  anchor 
meets  as  it  moves  along  the  bottom.  This  is  a  good  thing  to 
know  in  cases  where  no  other  indications  are  available. 

§  V.  MOORING 

A  vessel  is  moored  when  she  has  two  anchors  down  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  apart  and  with  such  a  scope  of  chain  on  each 
that  she  is  held  with  tier  bow  approximately  stationary  on  the 
line  between  them. 

A  vessel  so  placed  may  head  in  any  direction,  but  will  swing, 
roughly  speaking,  about  her  own  stem  as  a  pivot;  the  amount 
by  which  she  deviates  from  this  depending  upon  the  tautness 
with  which  she  is  moored. 

The  advantages  of  mooring  are  that  a  vessel  takes  up  com- 
paratively little  space  in  swinging  and  that  she  cannot  foul 
her  anchors  by  dragging  the  bight  of  the  chain  over  them. 
The  disadvantages  are  that  she  must  often  ride  to  a  span,  and 
must  either  be  hampered  by  a  mooring  swivel  or  have  constant 
difficulty  and  annoyance  from  a  foul  hawse.  So  long  as  she 
rides  to  a  wind  or  current  setting  along  the  line  on  which  her 
anchors  are  laid  out,  she  is  practically  at  single  anchor,  though 
she  may  of  course  drop  down  beyond  the  leeward  anchor  and 
hold  on  with  both  cables  taut  ahead.  But  if  a  gale  comes  up 
from  any  direction  athwart  the  line  between  her  anchors,  she 
rides  to  a  span,  and  the  tension  on  the  cables  will  be  alto- 
gether out  of  proportion  to  that  utilized  in  holding  the  ship.  In 
Fig.  i,  Plate  99,  suppose  A  riding  to  a  gale  from  the  east,  her 
anchors  being  laid  out  on  a  north  and  south  line  and  the  cables 
making  an  angle  of  10°  with  this  line.  If  the  force  acting  on  the 


Plate  No.  99. 


277 


FIG.  1. 
OPEN  HAWSE 


FIG.  Z. 
OPEN  HAWSE 


FIG.  3. 
A  CROSS  IN  THE  HAWSE 


FIG.  4. 
A  CROSS  IN  THE  HAWSE 


A 


FIG.  5. 
AN  ELBOW 


FIG.  6. 
A  ROUND  TURN 


SHIPS    MOORED. 


278  GROUND   TACKLE. 

ship  along  A  c  is  20  tons,  the  tension  on  each  cable  will  be 
tons. 

Thus,  under  conditions  such  that  a  single  anchor  and  cable 
ahead  would  have  to  bear  a  tension  of  only  20  tons,  two  cables 
in  a  span  are  subject  to  a  total  tension  of  115  tons.  If  the  angle 
N  A  s  is  more  obtuse,  the  tension  is  increased.  If  the  ship  veers 
and  drops  to  leeward,  bringing  the  cables  more  nearly  ahead, 
the  demand  upon  them  becomes  less;  and  when  the  angle  N  s  A 
is  30°,  the  two  cables  together  have  exactly  the  holding  power 
that  one  would  have  if  laid  out  singly  ahead.  As  the  ship  con- 
tinues to  drop  down,  the  cables  act  more  and  more  efficiently, 
and  if  a  long  enough  scope  is  given,  their  holding  power  becomes 
nearly  double  that  of  either  one  alone. 

It  will  be  clear  from  this  that  in  riding  out  a  gale  with  open 
hawse  it  is  even  more  important  than  with  a  single  anchor,  to 
veer  as  long  a  scope  as  may  be  possible.  If  such  a  situation  is 
anticipated  at  the  time  of  mooring,  the  anchors  should  be  laid  out 
closer  together  than  they  otherwise  would  be;  indeed,  there  is 
always  an  advantage  in  mooring  with  rather  a  short  scope  on  each 
chain  (provided  such  a  length  is  used  that  she  cannot  swing  over 
her  anchors)  ;  for  if  a  gale  comes  up  along  the  line  of  the  anchors 
it  is  easy  to  veer  the  riding  cable  and  drop  down  to  leeward, 
bringing  both  anchors  ahead,  where  they  will  act  better  the  closer 
they  are  together ;  and  in  riding  with  open  hawse,  the  same  point 
gives  the  advantages  which  has  been  illustrated  above. 

If  a  mooring  swivel  is  to  be  used,  these  remarks  as  to  the  advantage 
of  a  short  scope  do  not  apply,  since  it  is  impracticable  to  veer  away 
on  both  cables  as  above  recommended. 

There  are  many  situations  in  crowded  harbors  where  mooring 
is  a  necessity,  especially  if  a  number  of  ships  are  together  in 
squadron.  When  this  is  not  actually  necessary,  it  is  safer  and 
more  convenient  and  therefore  more  seamanlike,  to  use  one 
anchor,  with  a  good  scope  of  chain  which  can  be  practically  indefi- 
nitely increased  if  necessity  arises,  and  with  the  second  anchor 
ready  to  be  let  go  on  the  line  where  it  will  be  most  effective. 

TO  MOOR. 

In  mooring  in  a  tide-way,  where  it  is  desired  to  lay  out  the 
anchors  along  the  line  of  the  tidal  current,  as  is  usually  done,  the 
simplest  way  of  maneuvring  is  to  head  up  against  the  current, 


GROUND   TACKLE.  2/Q 

stopping  at  the  point  where  the  "weather"  anchor  is  to  be 
planted  and  letting  go  as  the  ship  begins  to  gather  sternboard, 
backing  the  engines  if  the  tide  is  not  strong  enough  to  insure 
laying  out  the  chain  properly.  It  is  better  not  to  use  the  engines 
unless  necessary,  because  to  do  so  is  almost  certain  to  cut  the 
ship  across  the  current  and  off  the  line  on  which  the  anchor 
should  be  laid  out. 

The  weather  chain  is  veered  away  as  the  ship  drops  down, 
care  being  taken  to  lay  it  out  fairly  taut,  until  the  point  is  reached 
where  the  leeward  anchor  is  to  be  placed.  If  we  are  to  moor  with 
45  fathoms  on  each  chain,  we  must  veer  to  a  little  less  than  90 
fathoms  before  letting  go  the  second  anchor,  keeping  the  90- 
fathom  shackle  inside  the  hawse  by  an  amount  which  will  depend 
very  largely  upon  the  method  which  is  to  be  used  for  putting  on 
the  swivel.  The  farther  inside  the  hawse  we  leave  the  shackle, 
the  slacker  will  be  the  moor,  and  as  the  putting  on  of  the  swivel 
in  itself  slacks  the  cables  materially,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
keep  the  shackle  farther  inside  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  No 
rule  can  be  given  here,  but  experience  has  indicated  that  if  the 
first  chain  is  laid  out  properly,  and  if  the  9O-fathom  shackle  is 
held  about  2  fathoms  inside  the  hawse  (counting  from  the  out- 
board face  of  the  pipe),  when  the  second  anchor  is  let  go,  the 
resulting  moor  will  be  about  right,  with  most  types  of  ships  and 
in  ordinary  depths  of  water. 

A   FLYING   MOOR. 

Iri  making  a  flying  moor,  the  first  anchor  is  let  go  with  the 
ship  going  ahead  at  considerable  speed,  and  the  first  chain  laid 
out  as  she  ranges  ahead.  This  calls  for  good  judgment  with 
regard  to  the  initial  speed,  and  with  regard  also  to  the  use  of 
the  chain  and  the  engines  for  checking  the  speed. 

It  has  been  already  stated  in  connection  with  "Anchoring" 
that  almost  any  ship,  except  one  with  turbine  engines,  running  at 
a  speed  of  from  4  to  5  knots,  with  steam  available  for  12  knots, 
and  backing  with  full  power  as^the  anchor  is  let  go,  can  be  brought 
up  at  45  fathoms  without  undue  strain.  Since  for  mooring  we 
wish  to  run  out  double  this  length  of  chain  (assuming  that  we 
want  45  fathoms  on  each  anchor),  we  may  back  with  half  power 
in  the  beginning  and  be  governed  by  conditions  as  to  using  more 
power  or  less,  as  the  chain  runs  out.  It  will  probably  be  found 


28O  GROUND   TACKLE. 

under  average  conditions  that  by  continuing  to  back  with  half 
power  and  gradually  snubbing  the  chain  toward  the  end  of  its 
scope  (never  in  the  beginning)  she  can  be  brought  up  with  about 
90  fathoms. 

It  is  very  important  not  to  begin  to  snub  her  with  the  chain 
until  at  least  45  to  60  fathoms  has  been  laid  out,  as  to  do  so  is 
almost  certain  to  start  the  anchor  or  part  the  chain,  or  at  least 
to  strain  it  injuriously.  After  laying  out  a  good  scope — 45 
fathoms  or  more — the  danger  of  this  is  greatly  reduced  and  a 
little  snubbing  helps  to  lay  the  chain  out  taut. 

As  a  very  rough  rule,  then,  to  be  modified  by  actual  experience 
for  each  ship,  we  may  say,  let  go  the  first  anchor  at  a  speed  of 
from  4  to  5  knots  and  at  once  back  the  engines  at  half  speed, 
letting  the  chain  run  out  freely.  After  about  60  fathoms  has 
gone  out,  snub  her  from  time  to  time  with  the  chain,  but  without 
putting  a  dangerous  strain  on  it,  and  regulate  the  engines  (stop- 
ping, backing  faster  or  slower,  or  if  need  be  going  slow  ahead) 
so  as  to  be  sure  of  bringing  her  up  in  the  end  (the  90- fathom 
shackle  inside)  with  a  moderately  taut  chain.  Then  let  go  the 
second  anchor,  heave  in  on  the  first  chain,  veer  away  on  the 
second,  and  drop  down  to  a  point  midway  between  the  two 
anchors,  when  both  shackles  should  be  somewhat  inside  the 
hawse,  giving  drift  enough  for  working  the  chain  as  described 
below  for  clearing  hawse  or  for  putting  on  the  swivel. 

For  a  ship  with  turbine  engines,  the  initial  speed  should  be 
lower  than  with  reciprocating  engines  or  electric  drive. 

Note  the  remarks  upon  the  method  of  governing  speed  in  approaching 
an  anchorage  in  the  section  of  this  chapter  on  "  Anchoring." 

CLEAR  AND  FOUL  HAWSE. 

A  vessel  moored  has  a  "  clear  hawse  "  when  her  cables  lead  off 
on  their  respective  sides,  clear  of  each  other.  She  has  a  "  foul 
hawse"  when  they  are  crossed  or  otherwise  foul  of  each  other. 

In  Fig.  i,  Plate  99,  A  rides  with  an  "open  hawse,"  heading 
west,  her  starboard  anchor  being  to  the  north  and  port  anchor  to 
the  south.  She  may  swing  through  eight  points  to  either  side 
without  crossing  her  cables  (Fig.  2)  ;  and  so  long  as  she  swings 
backward  and  forward,  her  stern  going  each  time  to  the  eastivard, 
the  hawse  will  remain  clear.  The  moment  her  stern  swings  to 
the  westward  of  the  north  and  south  line,  however,  the  chains 


GROUND   TACKLE.  28 1 

begin  to  cross  (Fig.  3).  Here  she  has  swung  through  half  a 
circle  from  an  open  hawse,  and  has  now  a  "  cross  "  in  the  hawse. 
If  before  swinging  to  the  westward  she  was  riding  to  the  star- 
board anchor,  the  starboard  chain  will  now  be  on  top ;  and  to 
swing  clear,  her  stern  should  go  back  to  starboard.  It  is  a  rule 
easily  remembered,  that  to  clear  the  hawse  by  swinging,  the  stern 
must  always  go  toward  the  side  of  the  cable  that  is  on  top. 

If,  having  swung  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  a  cross  in  the  hawse, 
she  continues  swinging  in  the  same  direction,  she  puts  in,  suc- 
cessively, an  "elbow"  (Fig.  5),  a  "round  turn"  (Fig.  6),  a 
"  round  turn  and  an  elbow,"  and  so  on. 

It  is  evident  that  a  foul  hawse  will  be  cleared  if  the  ship  can 
be  made  to  swing  back  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which 
she  has  swung  in  fouling ;  and  with  a  little  watchfulness  this  may 
often  be  done,  by  giving  her  a  cant  with  the  rudder  on  the  last 
of  a  tide.  The  hawse  may  often  be  kept  clear  in  this  way  when  it 
would  otherwise  foul ;  and  the  situations  are  frequent  when  a 
cross  or  an  elbow  can  be  swung  out.  In  the  case  of  anything 
more  than  this,  it  is  better  to  proceed  at  once  to  "clear  hawse," 
as  follows; 

TO   CLEAR  HAWSE. 

This  should  be  done  if  possible  at  slack  water,  preferably  just 
after  the  ship  has  finished  swinging  and  before  the  new  tide 
begins  to  run  strongly.  The  lee  chain  is  always  the  one  to  be 
unshackled,  never  the  weather  one.  The  clear-hawse  gear  (Plates 
100,  101,  102)  consists  of: 

1.  The  clear-hawse  pendant,  of  open-link  chain,  6  fathoms  in 
length  and  of  metal  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  chain  with  which 
it  is  to  be  used.    The  outer  end  of  the  chain  is  fitted  with  a  slip, 
or  pelican  hook.    The  inner  end  is  fitted  with  a  shackle  having  a 
round  bolt  and  a  solid  thimble  into  which  is  spliced  a  tail  of  wire- 
rope  about  30  fathoms  long. 

2.  The  dip-rope,  of  open-link  chain  or,  still  better,  of  3-inch 
circumference  wire,  about  6  fathoms  in  length,  the  outer  end  of 
which  is  fitted  with  an  eye  carrying  a  shackle  large  enough  to 
engage  a  link  of  the  cable.    To  the  other  end  is  fitted  a  tail  of 
7-inch  manila  about  30  fathoms  in  length.     The  outer  end,  of 
chain  or  wire,  takes  the  chafe  in  the  hawse-pipe,  and  the  manila. 
tail  goes  to  the  wild-cat,  where  it  is  found  to  work  more  smoothly 
than  if  made  of  wire  as  was  formerly  the  practice. 

3.  A  hawser  to  be  bent  to  the  chain  above  or  below  the  slip- 


282 


Plate  No.    100. 


CLEARING  HAWSE. 


Plate  No.    101. 


283 


DIP  ROPE 

r/2-inch,14fms. 


MOORING 
SWIVEL 


CLEAR-HAWSE  PENDANT 


CLEAR  HAWSE  GEAR. 


284  GROUND   TACKLE. 

hook  of  the  clear-hawse  pendant,  as  a  preventer,  in  the  event  of 
parting  the  pendant. 

4.  A  line  on  the  chain  from  the  inside,  for  easing  out  after 
unshackling.    This  is  not  always  used,  but  is  convenient  and  may 
be  necessary  with  a  heavy  chain. 

5.  Deck  tackles,  hook  ropes,  chain  hooks,  straps,  rope  for  lash- 
ing, tools  for  unshackling  and  shackling,  etc. 

If  the  turns  in  the  cables  are  below  water,  they  must  be  brought 
above  by  heaving  in  the  riding  cable.  If  they  are  inclined  to 
slip  down — as  may  be  the  case  if  the  chains  are  slack — they  must 
be  lashed;  and  many  officers  prefer  to  lash  them  in  all  cases. 
There  is  no  question  that  this  reduces  the  chance  of  accident, 
both  to  the  cables,  and,  what  is  more  important,  to  the  men  work- 
ing them. 

A  ship  with  a  ram-bow,  having  a  foul  hawse,  will  sometimes 
forge  ahead,  bringing  the  turns  below  the  ram  so  that  the  cables 
lead  up  and  down  and  seem  to  be  clear ;  and  in  any  type  of  ship, 
if  the  moor  is  rather  slack,  there  are  chances  that  the  hawse  will 
look  clear,  when  it  is  in  fact  very  badly  foul.  If  proper  entry  has 
been  made  in  the  log  of  the  swinging  of  the  ship,  this  should 
not  lead  to  misunderstanding,  but  it  may  cause  considerable 
difficulty.  If  steam  is  available,  a  few  turns  of  the  screw  astern 
will  bring  the  turns  up  where  they  can  be  gotten  at.  In  other 
cases,  it  will  usually  suffice  to  heave  in  on  the  riding  cable  and 
veer  on  the  lee  one.  Much  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  ram 
and  the  position  of  the  hawse-pipes,  but  there  is  always  some 
way  of  handling  the  chains  to  meet  this  and  other  difficulties 
which  arise  in  working  ground-tackle. 

The  turns  being  above  water,  the  clear-hawse  pendant  is  passed 
out  the  sheet  hawse-pipe  or  through  a  warping  chock,  and  secured 
to  the  lee  cable  below  the  turns,  after  which  it  is  taken  to  the 
capstan  or  a  winch,  hove  taut  and  secured. 

In  a  ship  with  a  ram-bow,  the  turns  usually  come  up  on  one 
side  of  the  ram; — the  side  of  the  riding  cable  (Plate  102).  In 
this  case,  the  clear-hawse  pendant,  although  still  used  on  the 
lee  cable,  is  passed  out  on  the  side  of  the  riding  cable. 

The  preventer  hawser  is  also  passed  out,  bent  to  the  cable, 
hauled  taut  and  secured.1  If  the  turns  are  to  be  lashed,  this 
is  done  now. 

1  This  supposes  that  the  preventer  hawser  is  to  hold  the  chain  in  case  the 
pendant  fails.  If  it  is  intended  only  for  weighing  the  chain,  it  is  left  slack 
but  the  end  is  made  fast.  The  latter  is  the  better  plan. 


Plate  No.    102. 


285 


Note: — The  starboard  anchor  lies  to  starboard  of  the  ship. 

CLEARING  HAWSE. 
BOTH  CHAINS  ON  WEATHER  SIDE  OF  RAM. 


286  GROUND   TACKLE. 

The  dip-rope  is  passed  out  of  the  hawse-pipe  alongside  the  lee 
cable,  taken  around  the  riding  cable  in  a  direction  opposite  that 
of  the  turns  to  be  taken  out,  and  brought  back  inside,  where  it 
is  secured  to  the  cable  forward  of  the  shackle;  preferably  to 
the  end  link. 

The  dip-rope  is  often  made  fast  to  the  second  or  third  link  forward  of  the 
shackle,  to  leave  slack  on  the  end  for  convenience  in  shackling  and  unshack- 
ling; but  this  makes  trouble  when  it  conies  to  hauling  the  end  in  through 
the  hawse-pipe;  and  the  better  way  is  to  bend  it  to  the  end.  Then,  after 
the  turns  have  been  cleared  and  the  end  hauled  in  again  ready  for  shackling, 
the  chain  is  secured  with  a  stopper,  leaving  plenty  of  slack  end  for  working, 
and  the  dip-rope  is  cast  off  altogether. 

The  lee  chain  is  secured  by  a  stopper  and  the  end  of  the 
"easing-out"  rope  made  fast  a  few  links  forward  of  the  shackle 
and  stopped  to  the  end  link.  The  cable  is  then  slacked  up  and 
unshackled,  the  controller  released,  and  the  chain  hauled  out  by 
the  dip-rope,  the  end  of  which  is  taken  to  a  winch. 

The  lead  of  the  dip-rope  is  unfavorable  for  hauling  out,  and  with  a  heavy 
chain  it  may  be  necessary  to  lead  a  line  out  on  the  side  of  the  riding  cable, 
and  take  it  in  through  the  lee  hawse-pipe  to  assist  in  hauling  out  the  end 
of  the  cable  (Plate  102).  Chain-hooks,  hook-ropes,  etc.,  are  used  inside  for 
lighting  the  chain  forward. 

The  dip-rope,  assisted  as  before  described  if  necessary,  takes 
out  the  turns  and  brings  the  end  inside  the  hawse-pipe,  where  it 
is  secured  by  a  stopper  and  shackled.  The  chain  (lee)  is  then 
hove  moderately  taut,  the  controller  released,  the  preventer 
hawser  cast  off,  and  the  clear-hawse  pendant  tripped  by  means 
of  the  lanyard  on  the  link. 

On  large  ships  the  chains  usually  cross  below  the  water-line, 
even  although  they  are  hove  taut;  and  to  put  on  the  heavy 
clear  hawse-pendant  and  secure  a  preventer  hawser  over  the 
bow  is  very  difficult.  This  difficulty  is  overcome  by  securing  the 
lee  chain  on  deck,  by  stoppers,  rousing  out  sufficient  chain  to 
reach  around  the  riding  chain  as  many  times  as  there  are  turns 
in  the  foul  hawse  and  back  on  deck,  and  unshackling.  The  dip- 
rope  is  rove  around  the  riding  chain  in  the  proper  direction  for 
clearing  the  hawse,  hooked  to  the  end  link  of  the  outboard  part 
of  the  lee  chain  and  hauled  taut.  An  easing-off  line  is  secured 
to  the  bight  to  be  eased  out,  and  a  heavy  hook-rope  and  a  line 
for  hanging  the  bight  are  put  over  the  bow.  When  the  lee 
chain  is  eased  out,  it  is  lighted  around  the  riding  chain  by  means 
of  the  hook-rope  and  hanging  line,  while  at  the  same  time  the 


GROUND   TACKLE.  28/ 

dip-rope  takes  in  the  slack.  When  enough  slack  is  on  deck  to 
shackle  up,  the  lee  chain  is  again  connected,  the  clearing  gear 
gotten  out  of  the  way,  and  the  lee  chain  hove  in  by  the  windlass 
until  it  is  clear  of  the  riding  chain. 

In  small  ships  the  hawse  is  often  cleared  from  a  boat  under 
the  bow,  the  shackle  being  veered  out  into  the  boat  and  there 
unshackled,  dipped,  and  shackled  again.  It  is  well  in  this  case 
to  lash  the  turns  and  to  take  the  weight  of  the  chain  by  slip-ropes 
from  the  bowsprit  or  forecastle. 

Some  ships  have  a  light  davit  which  can  be  stepped  at  the  stem 
when  needed  for  working  chains.  This  is  a  great  convenience 
and  in  many  ships  almost  a  necessity. 

A  cross  in  the  hawse  cannot  be  cleared,  as  the  chains  lead  off 
on  the  wrong  sides,  the  starboard  anchor  being  on  the  port  hand 
and  the  port  anchor  on  the  starboard  hand.  The  chains  may  be 
unshackled  and  shifted,  the  former  starboard  chain  becoming  the 
port  one  and  the  port  becoming  the  starboard,  provided  this  does 
not  interfere  with  stowing  the  anchors. 

As  modern  ships  carry  three  anchors*  all  of  which  are  in 
effect  bowers,  two  of  these  must  necessarily  be  carried  on  the 
same  bow,  except  that  in  the  latest  ships,  one  is  carried  at  the 
stem  (Plate  85).  The  difficulties  of  clearing  hawse  are  much 
reduced  by  mooring  with  the  two  anchors  on  the  same  bow,  or 
one  on  the  bow  and  one  on  the  stem. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  weigh  when  there  is  a  cross,  the 
anchor  belonging  to  the  cable  underneath  must  be  picked  up 
first;  as  the  upper  one,  if  picked  up,  would  foul  the  other  chain. 

It  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said  about  the  hawse,  that  it  is 
not  a  matter  of  indifference  in  what  way  the  anchors  are  laid 
out.  In  Fig.  2,  Plate  99,  for  example,  they  are  properly  placed 
provided  the  probability  is  that  the  wind,  in  the  event  of  bad 
weather,  will  haul  to  the  westward,  thus  keeping  the  hawse  open. 
If  the  wind  is  more  likely  to  haul  the  other  wa}',  the  starboard 
anchor  should  be  to  the  southward. 


THE  MOORING  SWIVEL. 

A  vessel  moored  may  avoid  the  necessity  for  clearing  hawse 
by  using  a  mooring  swivel  (Plate  101).  This  is  much  like 
an  ordinary  swivel,  but  larger  and  heavier  and  with  two  links 
and  shackles  attached  to  each  of  its  parts.  It  is  shackled  upon 
the  cables  just  forward  of  the  stem  in  such  a  way  that  the  parts 


288  GROUND   TACKLE. 

of  the  cables  leading  from  the  hawse-pipes  are  connected  to  the 
inner  shackles,  and  the  parts  leading  off  to  the  anchors,  to  the 
outer  shackles.  As  the  ship  swings,  the  swivel  turns  and  keeps 
the  cable  clear.  It  should  be  put  on  with  the  cup  up. 

There  are  some  disadvantages  connected  with  the  use  of  the 
swivel.  It  is  very  inconvenient  in  veering,  and  still  more  so  in 
weighing,  as  it  must  be  taken  off  before  either  anchor  can  be 
picked  up.  In  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  it  is  almost  invari- 
ably used  by  men-of-war. 

In  view  of  the  difficulty  in  veering  where  the  swivel  is  used,  a 
vessel  proposing  to  use  it  should  moor  with  a  good  scope  on  each 
chain  in  the  beginning.  The  conditions  here  are  quite  different 
from  those  where  a  ship  is  moored  without  a  swivel  and  free  to 
veer  at  any  moment.  Under  the  last-named  conditions,  as  has 
been  explained,  there  is  a  certain  advantage  in  having  the  anchors 
not  too  far  apart,  but  this  reasoning  does  not  apply  if  the  swivel 
is  to  be  used. 

As  both  clearing  hawse  and  putting  on  the  mooring  swivel 
involve  unshackling,  the  scope  on  each  cable  in  mooring  must 
be  made  such  as  will  bring  a  shackle  near  the  hawse.  Where 
the  cables  are  made  up  of  15  fathom  shots,  we  may  use  30,  45,  60 
or  75  fathoms  on  each.  In  the  United  States  Navy,  the  latest 
•Cables  issued  to  ships  have  no  shackle  between  five  fathoms  and 
forty-five,  so  that  nothing  less  than  forty-five  fathoms  can  be 
used  on  either  cable  (in  mooring). 

It  is  usual  in  laying  out  the  cables  to  bring  the  shackles  a  little 
inside,  but  not  so  far  as  in  cases  where  the  swivel  is  not  to  be 
used.  This  is  because  the  insertion  of  the  swivel  slacks  the  cables 
considerably,  and  with  a  slack  moor  there  is  danger  that  the 
swivel  will  not  turn.  The  exact  position  for  the  shackles  will 
depend  upon  the  depth  of  water  and  the  construction  of  the  ship. 

It  is  a  common  and  convenient  practice  in  using  the  swivel 
to  connect  only  one  cable  from  the  hawse,  the  end  of  the  other 
being  kept  inboard.  This  does  not  involve  any  loss  of  holding 
power,  for  the  reason  that,  so  long  as  the  ship  rides  to  one  cable 
only,  the  single  part  leading  inboard  is  as  strong  as  that  from 
the  anchor;  and  when  she  rides  with  an  open  hawse,  the  parts 
beyond  the  swivel  form  a  span,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  has 
actually  less  holding  power  than  a  single  part  acting  along  the 
line  on  which  the  ship  is  pulling. 

Some  ships  shackle  both  chains  from  inboard  to  the  swivel, 


GROUND   TACKLE. 

Plate  No.    103. 


289 


29O  GROUND   TACKLE. 

and  to  prevent  them  from  sawing  across  the  stem  leave  one  of 
them  slack  and  dip  the  bight  of  it  down  under  the  forefoot. 
They  thus  ride  to  a  single  part,  but  have  the  other  to  rely  upon 
in  case  of  accident  and  can  heave  the  swivel  up  to  either  hawse- 
pipe  for  taking  it  off. 

PUTTING  THE  SWIVEL  ON. 

It  was  formerly  the  rule  to  put  the  swivel  on  the  lee  chain  first, 
then  to  wait  for  the  ship  to  swing  before  putting  it  on  the  other 
one.  This  is  still  the  rule  in  cases  where  the  swivel  is  put  on 
outside  the  hawse.  But  many  modern  ships  have  hawse-pipes 
large  enough  to  let  the  swivel  and  several  parts  of  chain  pass 
freely;  and  in  such  ships  it  is  put  on  inside,  and  on  the  riding 
cable  first,  the  lee  cable  being  afterward  secured  by  the  clear- 
hawse  pendant  as  in  clearing  hawse,  unshackled,  and  the  end  com- 
ing from  the  anchor  hauled  around  the  stem  and  inside  the  riding 
hawse-pipe,  where  it  is  shackled  in  its  place  on  the  swivel. 

First  Method.  The  details  of  this  method  are  shown  in  Plate 
103. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  heave  in  on  the  riding  cable 
until  the  shackle  is  inside  and  at  a  convenient  point  for  working, 
when  the  chain  is  secured  by  one  or  more  stoppers,  all  of  course 
forward  of  the  shackle.  The  riding  cable  is  then  slacked  abaft 
the  stoppers  and  unshackled,  and  the  swivel  shackled  in  place. 
In  the  meantime,  the  clear-hawse  pendant  has  been  put  on  the  lee 
cable  and  hove  taut,  and  a  preventer  hawser  made  fast,  as  in 
clearing  hawse.  The  dip-rope  is  passed  out  through  the  riding 
hawse  pipe,  brought  in  the  lee  hawse  pipe,  and  made  fast  to  the 
lee  cable  just  forward  of  the  shackle. 

The  lee  chain  is  next  unshackled  inside,  and  the  end  of  it 
leading  from  the  anchor  is  hauled  out  by  the  dip-rope,  across 
the  stem  and  in  through  the  riding  hawse-pipe,  where  it  is 
shackled  to  the  forward  end  of  the  mooring  swivel.  The  riding 
chain  is  then  veered  away  until  the  swivel  is  outside. 

If,  now,  it  is  proposed  to  connect  the  other  part  of  the  lee  cable 
(from  inboard),  this  part  is  hauled  out  by  the  dip-rope  and 
shackled  in  its  proper  place  on  the  swivel, 

Second  Method.  If  the  hawse-pipe  is  large  enough  to  take  the 
swivel,  but  not  large  enough  to  take  the  two  cables  alongside  each 
other,  the  swivel  is  put  on  the  riding  cable  as  just  described  and 


Plate  No.    104. 


291 


QJ 

Q 
CO 


UJ 

> 


CO 


cr 
O 


ID 
CL 


292  GROUND  TACKLE. 

then  veered  outside,  before  connecting  up  the  anchor  end  of  the 
lee  cable;  the  clear-hawse  pendant,  dip-rope,  etc.,  being  used  as 
before,  except  that  the  dip-rope  in  this  case  would  be  rove  a  little 
differently ;  perhaps  through  a  link  of  the  riding  cable  just  below 
the  swivel,  or  even  through  the  swivel  itself ;  the  idea  being  to  get 
the  end  of  the  chain  to  the  point  where  it  is  wanted,  by  whatever 
means  is  most  convenient  (Plate  104).  In  this  case  also  it  is 
necessary  to  bend  the  dip-rope  to  the  lee  cable  several  links  for- 
ward of  the  end,  to  give  the  slack  required  for  shackling.  The 
men  handling  the  chain  work  either  in  a  boat  under  the  bow  or  on 
a  stage  slung  over  from  the  forecastle,  such  lifting  as  is  required 
being  done  by  slip-ropes,  and  all  shackles,  mauls,  etc.,  being  slung 
by  lines  to  avoid  danger  of  their  being  lost.  This  method  gives 
a  tauter  moor  than  either  of  the  methods,  already  described,  in 
which  both  chains  are  shackled  to  the  swivel  inside  the  hawse. 

Third  Method.1  Plate  105.  This  resembles  the  First  Method 
above,  but  with  several  important  points  of  difference,  the  most 
important  being  the  following:  all  gear  is  kept  inside  and  no  one 
is  sent  over  the  bow  at  any  stage  of  the  operation;  wire- rope 
pendants  are  substituted  for  chain  as  being  more  reliable,  and 
two-fold  purchases  are  used  with  the  pendants,  giving  a  gain  not 
only  in  power  but  in  smoothness  of  working;  work  proceeds  on 
both  chains  simultaneously,  giving  a  marked  gain  in  time;  the 
chains  are  under  perfect  control  at  all  times,  all  violent  "surg- 
ing" being  avoided. 

The  gear  consists  of:  a  clear-hawse  pendant,  two  preventers, 
a  dip-rope,  an  easing-away  line,  and  deck-stoppers  as  required. 

The  clear-hawse  pendant  and  both  preventers  are  of  3^2 -inch 
wire,  with  a  pelican-hook  at  one  end  for  engaging  the  chain  and  an 
eye  in  the  other  end,  to  which  is  shackled  the  block  of  a  heavy 
two-fold  purchase.  The  dip-rope  is  in  two  parts  connected  by  a 
swivel  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  turns  as  the  chain  is  hauled 
around,  the  outer  part,  of  3-inch  flexible  wire,  about  seven 
fathoms  in  length,  shackling  to  the  lee  chain ;  the  inner  part,  of 
7-inch  manila,  leading  to  the  winch.  The  size  of  gear  required 
will'  of  course  vary  for  different  ships.  The  dimensions  given 
are  suitable  for  ground-tackle  such  as  is  used  by  the  "Rhode 
Island"  class  of  battleships. 

This  method  was  worked  out  by  chief  boatswain  J.  P.  O'Neill,  U.  S. 
'Navy,  and  used  with  excellent  results  on  the  U.  S.  S.  "  Rhode  Island." 


Plate   3STo.    105. 


293 


294 


GROUND    TACKLE. 


The  dip-rope  is  rove  off  as  the  anchorage  is  approached,  out 
through  the  forward  hawse-pipe  and  in  through  the  after  one 
(assuming  that  the  after  anchor  is  to  be  the  first  let  go).  The 
dip-rope  is  made  fast  at  some  convenient  place  on  deck  and 
hauled  taut  to  keep  it  clear  as  the  chains  run  out  when  the 
anchors  are  let  go. 

All  gear  is  broken  out  and  each  part  is  placed  as  nearly  as  prac- 
ticable where  it  is  to  be  used ;  the  blocks  of  the  clear-hawse  pend- 
ant and  the  two  preventers  being  hooked  to  their  respective  pad- 
eyes  or  straps,  and  the  falls  overhauled  to  the  proper  length,  but 
all  placed  carefully  where  they  will  be  clear  of  the  cables.  If  a 
bitt  is  conveniently  placed  for  the  purpose,  it  is  well  to  take  a 
turn  around  it  with  the  clear-hawse  pendant,  as  shown. 

One  great  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  both  cables  may  be 
handled  at  practically  the  same  time;  and  all  preparations,  in- 
cluding the  assignment  of  men  to  the  various  duties,  should  be 
planned  with  this  in  mind. 

The  lee  anchor  having  been  let  go,  the  riding  chain  is  hove  in 
until  the  shackle  is  at  the  proper  point,  which  on  the  "Rhode 
Island"  is  found  to  be  just  forward  of  the  bitt. 

Both  cables  are  now  secured  as  shown  in  the  plate ;  the  riding 
cable  by  the  deck-stopper  and  the  preventer,  and  the  lee  one  by 
the  clear-hawse  pendant  and  preventer,  the  purchases  of  the 
clear-hawse  pendant  and  both  preventers  being  hauled  taut  and 
belayed. 

In  securing  the  riding  chain,  about  three  links  are  left  between 
the  deck-stopper  and  the  preventer.  The  point  for  the  clear- 
hawse  pendant  and  preventer  on  the  lee  chain  is  determined  by 
the  consideration  that  this  point  must  be  far  enough  outside  the 
shackle  to  give  a  length  of  chain  sufficient  to  lead  out  through  its 
own  hawse-pipe  and  in  through  the  other  pipe  to  the  point  where 
it  is  to  be  shackled  to  the  swivel,  which  will  be  a  short  distance 
inside  the  other  hawse-pipe.  Both  chains  are  now  broken  at  the 
shackles  and  the  riding  chain  is  connected  up  to  the  swivel.  At 
the  same  time,  the  lee  chain  is  hauled  around  by  the  dip-rope,  the 
bight  of  the  chain  being  eased  out  by  the  bight  of  the  hook- rope, 
as  shown.  The  chain  is  thus  kept  under  control  and  the  heavy 
surge  on  the  clear-hawse  pendant  which  would  result  from  letting 
the  bight  go  out  by  the  run,  is  avoided. 

As  soon  as  the  riding  chain  is  shackled  up  to  the  swivel,  the 
strain  of  the  chain  is  taken  with  the  anchor-engine.  The  slip- 


GROUND  TACKLE.  295 

hooks  of  the  deck-stopper  and  the  preventer  are  knocked  clear, 
and  the  chain  is  eased  out  until  the  swivel  is  just  inside  the  hawse. 
This  reduces  the  length  required  on  the  lee  chain  to  reach  the 
swivel,  and  so  gives  a  tauter  moor.  The  lee  chain  having  been 
hauled  inside  is  shackled  to  the  swivel. 

The  slip-hooks  of  the  clear-hawse  pendant  and  the  preventer 
are  now  knocked  clear  of  the  lee  chain,  allowing  the  bight  to  run 
out,  after  which  the  swivel  is  veered  outside. 

Fourth  Method.  Plate  106.  This  method  was  developed  by 
Chief  Boatswain  M.  H.  Eldridge,  and  used  by  him  on  the  U.  S.  S. 
Wyoming.  It  goes  farther  than  either  of  the  preceding  methods 
in  reducing  the  amount  of  gear  that  must  be  used,  and,  what  is 
more  important,  provides  for  doing  most  of  the  work  required 
in  advance  of  the  time  of  actual  mooring  and  while  the  ship 
is  approaching  the  point  where  the  first  anchor  is  to  be  dropped. 

The  starboard  anchor  is  lowered  and  hung  by  one  slip-stopper, 
ready  for  letting  go.  The  port  anchor  is  lowered  and  hung  by 
two  slip-stoppers  and  the  port  chain  unshackled  at  five  fathoms, 
after  which  the  after-length  of  the  chain  is  dipped  outside  the 
port  riding-bitt  and  hauled  across  the  forecastle  to  a  point  near 
the  starboard  hawse-pipe.  The  dip-rope  is  rove  out  through  the 
port  hawse-pipe,  across  the  stem,  and  in  through  the  starboard 
hawse-pipe,  where  it  is  bent  to  the  free  end  of  the  port  chain. 
The  port  chain  is  next  hauled  by  means  of  the  dip-rope  out 
through  the  starboard  hawse-pipe,  across  the  stem  and  in  through 
the  port  hawse-pipe,  where  it  is  shackled  up  to  the  five-fathom 
length  which  has  remained  attached  to  the  anchor.  The  port 
anchor  is  then  eased  down  until  the  after-stoppers  take  the 
strain.  The  dip-rope  is  unbent  and  gotten  out  of  the  way,  and 
all  is  ready  to  moor  without  the  further  use  of  a  single  piece  of 
gear. 

When  in  position  for  dropping  the  first  anchor,  if  a  flying 
moor,  the  starboard  anchor  is  let  go  and  the  chain  laid  out. 
While  the  starboard  chain  is  running  out,  a  sufficient  length  of 
the  port  chain  is  roused  out  through  the  starboard  hawse-pipe 
to  insure  the  port  anchor  reaching  the  bottom  without  a  sudden 
jerk  of  the  chain.  The  forward  stopper  is  now  taken  off  the 
port  chain,  leaving  the  anchor  hanging  by  one  slip-stopper  ready 
for  letting  go. 

As  the  ninety-fathom  shackle  comes  to  the  proper  point  (de- 
pendent upon  the  depth  of  water  and  the  tautness  of  moor  de- 


296 


Plate  No.    106. 


fc> 


>*&* 

$8- 

it>§i^ 

ii  tit* 
6*1  el* 

,,S|5| 


*-a 


GROUND   TACKLE.  297 

sired)  the  port  anchor  is  dropped,  and  the  chains  are  adjusted 
to  forty-five  fathoms  on  deck.  Two  stoppers  are  now  put  on 
each  chain,  the  cables  are  unshackled,  and  the  two  forward 
lengths  shackled  to  the  forward  links  of  the  mooring  swivel. 
The  after-length  of  the  starboard  chain  is  shackled  to  one  of 
the  after-links  and  the  mooring  swivel  is  veered  outside. 

If,  instead  of  making  a  flying  moor,  the  ship  is  to  back  away 
from  the  first  anchor  dropped,  the  port  anchor  must  be  let  go 
first,  the  rule  being  that  the  anchor  let  go  "on  the  bight"  should 
always  be  the  one  to  tend  ahead. 

The  convenience  of  the  method  above  described  is  even  greater 
in  cases  where  the  two  anchors  to  be  used  are  on  the  same  side 
of  the  bow,  than  in  the  case  above  described  where  they  are  on 
opposite  sides,  for  the  reason  that  in  this  case  there  need  not 
be  any  large  bight  of  chain  hanging  over  the  bow  while  the  ship 
is  approaching  her  anchorage  and  while  she  runs  out  the  first 
chain.  Plate  107. 

A  trifling  inconvenience  connected  with  the  Eldridge  method 
is  the  fact  that  the  port  chain  lies  in  the  starboard  hawse-pipe, 
alongside  the  starboard  chain,  during  the  time  that  the  starboard 
chain  is  running  out.  This  is  not  at  all  a  serious  matter,  but  a 
hawse-pipe  has  been  designed  and  is  under  consideration  for 
installation  in  future  ships,  which  includes  a  lip  on  the  inside 
of  the  hawse-pipe  by  which  the  chains  can  be  held  clear  of 
each  other.  The  details  of  this  design  are  shown  on  Plate  107. 

If  the  swivel  cannot  be  put  on  either  cable  inside,  it  must  be 
put  on  the  lee  cable  first,  the  shackle  being  veered  outside,  the 
cable  secured  by  the  clear  hawse-pendant  and  a  hawser,  and  the 
swivel  lowered  over  the  bow  and  put  on  by  men  working  in  a 
boat  or  on  a  stage.  When  the  ship  has  swung,  bringing  the 
other  cable  to  leeward,  this  is  handled  exactly  as  has  been 
described  for  connecting  the  lee  cable  in  the  case  where  the  swivel 
was  put  on  the  riding  cable  inside  and  veered  outside. 

TAKING  OFF  THE  SWIVEL  INSIDE. — This  is  practically  the  re- 
verse of  putting  on.  In  most  cases  the  operation  is  simplified  by 
first  unshackling  the  inner  part  of  the  lee  cable  from  the  swivel, 
outside,  and  heaving  the  end  inside  its  own  hawse-pipe.  The  rid- 
ing cable  is  then  hove  in,  bringing  the  swivel  and  the  outer  parts 
of  both  chains  inside  the  hawse,  where  both  chains  are  well  stop- 
pered. The  clear-hawse  pendant  is  bent  to  the  lee  cable,  outside, 


298 


Plate  No.    107, 


GROUND    TACKLE. 

and  hauled  taut,  and  a  preventer  hawser  used  as  in  putting  the 
swivel  on.  (Plate  103.) 

The  two  parts  of  the  riding  cable  are  unshackled  from  the 
swivel  and  shackled  together.  The  dip-rope  is  rove  out  through 
the  lee  hawse-pipe,  in  through  the  riding  hawse-pipe  and  bent  to 
the  end  of  the  lee  cable  just  forward  of  the  swivel,  ready  to  haul 
the  end  around.  The  easing-out  rope  is  bent  to  the  same  end, 
hauled  taut  and  belayed.  The  lee  cable  is  then  unshackled  from 
the  swivel  and  the  end  hauled  around  and  in  through  its  own 
hawse-pipe  (being  eased  away  to  avoid  surging),  and  shackled 
up  to  its  own  part. 

TAKING  OFF  THE  SWIVEL  OUTSIDE  (Plate  104). — Secure  the 
lee  chain  as  for  clearing  hawse ;  that  is  to  say,  put  the  clear- 
hawse  pendant  and  preventer  hawser  on  that  part  of  the  lee  chain 
leading  from  the  anchor  and  heave  in  on  the  clear-hawse  pendant 
until  there  is  slack  enough  between  it  and  the  swivel  for  unshack- 
ling. If  the  inboard  end  of  the  lee  chain  is  shackled  to  the  swivel, 
stick  out  slack  enough  for  unshackling  it  also.  If  this  end  is 
not  attached  to  the  swivel,  haul  it  out  by  the  dip-rope  leading 
from  the  weather  sheet  pipe.  Hang  both  parts  of  the  lee  chain 
by  good  lines  from  the  forecastle.  Unshackle  both  ends  from 
the  swivel  and  shackle  them  together.  Heave  the  lee  chain  taut, 
take  off  the  hawser  and  slip  the  clear-hawse  pendant.  Heave  in 
on  the  riding  chain  until  the  swivel  is  abaft  the  controller.  Secure 
the  chain  by  stoppers,  unshackle  the  ends  from  the  swivel  and 
shackle  them  together. 

If  the  swivel  will  not  go  through  the  hawse,  it  is  desirable  to 
wait  for  the  ship  to  swing  before  taking  it  off  the  second  chain. 
Thus  each  chain  is  a  lee  chain  when  it  is  disconnected. 

If  it  is  impracticable  to  wait  for  this,  handle  the  riding  cable 
as  already  described  for  the  lee  one,  but  with  extra  precautions. 
The  clear-hawse  pendant  may  still  be  used,  but  the  preventer 
hawser  must  be  a  good  one  and  must  be  hove  taut.  The  ship 
in  fact  rides  by  this  hawser  and  not  by  the  clear-hawse  pendant, 
while  the  chain  is  slacked  for  unshackling.  Steam  should  be 
ready,  and  an  officer  should  be  on  the  bridge  ready  to  work  the 
engines.  By  giving  a  turn  ahead  from  time  to  time  the  tension 
on  the  hawser  can  be  relieved  and  there  should  be  no  danger  in 
the  operation. 

All  working  of  chain  where  unshackling  is  necessary  should 
be  done  at  slack  water  or  as  near  it  as  possible. 


300 


GROUND   TACKLE. 


TENDING   SHIP. 


When  the  swivel  is  not  used,  it  is  very  important  to  "tend 
ship";  that  is,  to  watch  the  swinging  at  each  turn  of  the  tide, 
note  the  direction  in  which  the  stern  swings,  always  recording 
this  in  the  log,  and,  taking  advantage  of  any  conditions ,  which 
may  be  helpful,  try  to  make  the  ship  swing  to  that  side  which 
will  keep  the  hawse  clear,  or  clear  it  if  it  has  already  fouled. 

It  is  well  to  give  some  attention  to  "tending  ship"  even  when 
the  swivel  is  in  use.  The  purpose  of  the  swivel  is  to  prevent  the 
hawse  from  fouling,  but  unfortunately  it  does  not  always  work. 
It  is  especially  likely  to  fail  if  the  moor  is  slack,  and  in  this  case 
the  chains  may  foul  so  far  below  water  that  it  will  not  be  known 
that  they  are  foul  until  the  ship  starts  to  get  underway.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  find  cables  very  badly  fouled  when  every  confidence  is 
felt  that  they  are  perfectly  clear.  It  is  very  important  to  watch 
the  swivel  while  the  ship  is  swinging  and  to  note  zvhether  it  works 
or  not.  If  it  does  not,  it  may  be  practicable  to  heave  it  around 
by  a  purchase  hooked  to  that  part  of  the  chain  which  should  be 
lifted.  To  assist  in  keeping  track  of  the  working  of  the  chains, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  paint  a  few  shackles  of  each  chain  just  outside 
the  swivel,  using  red  for  the  port  and  white  for  the  starboard 
cable. 

If  there  is  any  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  cables  being  clear,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  underrun  the  riding  cable  for  some  distance 
ahead  of  the  swivel  with  the  bight  of  a  boat  chain. 


(30i) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CARRYING  OUT  ANCHORS. 

§1. 

Important  changes  have  been  introduced  into  all  problems  con- 
nected with  the  handling-  of  anchors,  by  changes  within  recent 
years  in  the  character  of  the  anchors  themselves  and  in  the  meth- 
ods of  stowing  and  handling  them. 

All  ships  of  recent  design  carry  double-fluked  anchors,  and  the 
bowers  and  sheets  of  this  type  are,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases, 
housed  in  the  hawse-pipes,  although  on  older  ships  one  sheet 
anchor  is  still  carried  on  an  anchor-shelf.  Plate  (83.)  Where  this 
last  arrangement  exists,  an  anchor-davit  is  necessarily  provided ; 
and  even  where  all  of  the  anchors  house  in  the  pipes,  a  davit  is 
sometimes  fitted,  for  general  convenience  in  the  handling  of 
ground-tackle. 

Anchors  which  stow  in  the  hawse-pipes  are  not  fitted  with 
balancing-links  and  must  be  handled  by  straps.  These  may  be 
placed  at  the  balancing  point,  thus  serving  the  same  purpose  as 
the  usual  link,  or  they  may  be  passed  around  the  crown,  where 
they  allow  the  anchor  to  hang  more  or  less  "  ring-heavy."  The 
last  arrangement  has  some  advantages,  as  will  be  explained  here- 
after. 

Most  men-of-war  carry  "stream"  and  "stern"  anchors,  of 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  the  weight  of  the  bowers.  These 
are  not  too  heavy  to  be  carried  out  by  a  single  boat,  and  the  prob- 
lem of  handling  them  presents  no  great  difficulty,  provided  the 
method  to  be  used  has  been  thought  out  beforehand  and  all  the 
fittings  prepared. 

It  is  quite  a  different  proposition  to  deal  with  a  bower  anchor, 
weighing  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  thousand  pounds,  and 
stowed  without  any  thought  of  the  possible  necessity  for  carrying 
it  out  by  boats. 

It  is  held  by  some  seamen  that  the  necessity  for  carrying  out  a 
bower  is  so  unlikely  to  arise  under  modern  conditions  that  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  prepare  for  it.  In  support  of  this  view,  it  is 
pointed  out  that  the  engines  of  modern  ships  are  so  powerful  in 
comparison  with  any  pull  which  could  be  put  upon  a  line  for  haul- 


3O2  CARRYING    OUT   ANCHORS. 

ing  off  a  stranded  vessel,  that  they  are,  and  must  be,  the  main 
reliance;  and  that  if  they  do  not  suffice  there  is  little  hope  of  ac- 
complishing anything  without  help  from  sources  outside  the  ship. 

It  is  true  that  the  main  reliance  of  a  ship  which  goes  aground 
will  be  upon  her  engines  and  upon  outside  assistance,  provided 
the  engines  can  be  used  and  that  outside  assistance  is  available. 
But  the  engines  can  only  be  used  while  the  stern  is  tailing  off  into 
deep  water ;  and  in  many,  perhaps  in  most,  cases,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  swing  around  broadside  on  to  the  beach,  when  the  en- 
gines immediately  become  worse  than  useless  and  the  problem  to 
be  dealt  with  by  outside  assistance,  if  at  hand,  is  of  enormously 
increased  difficulty. 

As  is  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "  Stranding,"  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  when  a  vessel  goes  aground  and  refuses  to  back  off  at 
once  is  to  hold  her  from  being  set  farther  up  by  a  rising  tide,  and 
to  hold  her  stern  off  from  the  beach  so  that  her  engines  may  con- 
tinue available  for  use.  Under  reasonably  good  conditions,  an 
anchor  of  medium  weight  may  suffice  for  this,  but  there  are  many 
conditions  where  nothing  short  of  the  bower  or  sheet  will  answer. 
It  is  not  here  a  question  of  hauling  off — the  winches  would 
hardly  furnish  power  enough  for  this — but  only  of  holding 
against  wind  and  tide ;  although  it  is  by  no  means  unusual  for  a 
ship  to  yield  to  the  steady  strain  of  a  taut  line  and  to  come  off 
altogether  unexpectedly. 

If  proper  preparations  have  been  made  beforehand  and  tested 
by  frequent  drills,  it  should  be  possible  to  carry  out  the  stream 
or  stern  anchor  within  ten  minutes,  and  to  follow  this  by  a  bower 
within  from  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes  more. 

§H. 

First  Method.  The  simplest  way  to  carry  out  an  anchor  is  to 
hang  it  from  the  stern  of  a  launch  as  in  Plates  108  and  109,  but 
this  utilizes  only  a  part  of  the  floating  power  of  the  boat  and  is  not 
practicable  with  a  very  heavy  anchor.  The  weight  which  can  be 
carried  in  this  way  may  be  much  increased  by  adding  weight  at 
kthe  bow,  thus  counterbalancing  the  weight  at  the  stern  and  bring- 
ing the  boat  more  nearly  onto  an  even  keel.  In  this  way  the  boat 
may  be  made  to  carry  at  the  stern  approximately  one-half  of  its 
total  floating  capacity,  whereas  it  would  not  carry  anything  like 
this  at  one  end  without  a  compensating  weight  at  the  other. 

A  convenient  way  of  hanging  the  anchor  and  letting  it  go  is  il- 
lustrated in  Plate  108,  where  one  end  of  the  wire  strap  is  shackled 


(303) 


Plate  No.    108. 


304  CARRYING    OUT   ANCHORS, 

to  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  while  an  eye  in  the  other  end  engages 
a  slip-hook  secured  to  a  ring-bolt  in  the  keel  of  the  boat. 

NOTE. — In  all  cases  where  an  eye  is  to  engage  a  slip-hook,  the  eye  must 
be  made  large  enough  to  allow  the  tongue  of  the  hook  to  run  through  it 
freely  when  released.  The  eye  is  better  without  a  thimble. 

For  a  light  anchor,  a  manila  strap  may  be  used  and  secured 
with  a  toggle  as  in  Plate  109. 

To  provide  for  weighing,  a  weighing-line,  usually  of  wire,  is 
bent  to  the  crown  of  the  anchor,  and  fitted  with  a  buoy-rope  and 
buoy. 

The  hauling  line,  of  manila  or  wire,  is  bent  to  the  ring  of  the 
anchor  and  leads  to  the  ship. 

Running  the  Line.  With  a  light  anchor  it  may  be  assumed  that 
a  manila  hawser  will  be  used  for  a  hauling  line.  In  this  case  the 
end  of  the  line  is  bent  to  the  ring  and  the  line  is  payed  out  from 
the  ship  as  the  boat  pulls  away ;  a  considerable  length  of  the  line, 
however,  being  coiled  in  the  stern-sheet  ready  to  be  thrown  out 
from  the  boat  as  the  point  is  approached  where  the  anchor  is  to 
be  planted.  The  throwing  over  of  this  part  of  the  line  at  the  last 
gives  freedom  of  control  to  the  boat  at  a  point  where  the  long 
bight  of  the  line,  dragging  astern,  would  otherwise  be  embar- 
rassing. 

In  some  cases,  with  a  manila  line,  it  is  better  to  coil  the  whole 
length  of  the  line  in  the  boat  and  carry  it  out  with  the  anchor, 
paying  it  out  as  the  boat  returns  to  the  ship  after  planting  the 
anchor.  This  is  especially  convenient  when  the  anchor  has  to  be 
carried  out  against  or  across  a  strong  wind  or  tide.  In  this  case 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  let  the  boat  hold  on  to  the  anchor  after  drop- 
ping it  and  to  send  out  another  boat  from  the  ship  with  the  end  of 
a  3-  or  4-inch  manila  line,  the  other  end  of  which  is  taken  to  the 
winch.  The  first  boat  can  then  be  hauled  back  to  the  ship  by  the 
small  line,  paying  out  the  hawser  from  the  anchor  as  she  comes. 

In  all  cases  where  any  part  of  the  line  is  carried  in  the  boat,  enough  of  it 
must  be  thrown  over  before  letting  go,  to  make  it  certain  that  the  anchor 
will  reach  the  bottom  with  plenty  of  slack  line  to  spare. 

Where  a  imre  line  is  to  be  run,  it  is  always  better  to  send  the 
end  away  with  the  anchor,  and  pay  out  the  line  from  the  ship, 
although  here,  as  in  all  other  cases,  a  few  fathoms  should  be 
coiled  in  the  boat.  The  difficulty  in  dealing  with  a  large  coil  of 
wire-rope  in  the  boat  is  connected  in  part  with  its  stiffness  and  its, 


Plate  No.    109. 


305 


CARRYING  A  KEDGE  WITH  A  CUTTER. 


306  CARRYING   OUT   ANCHORS. 

tendency  to  kink,  and  in  part  with  its  disposition  to  "  take  charge  " 
if  the  stops  by  which  it  is  being  towed  should  part. 

A  convenient  way  to  secure  the  line  to  the  boat  v/hen  paying 
out  from  the  ship  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  111.  The  stopper 
used  may  be  either  a  single  line  or  a  span  with  one  part  leading  to 
each  quarter  of  the  boat. 

It  is  sometimes  practicable  to  take  a  wire  line  in  a  boat,  on 
its  reel,  the  reel  being  lashed  very  securely  in  place  on  a  temporary 
platform.  The  line  can  then  be  payed  out  directly  from  .the  reel. 

It  is  important  in  running  a  line  to  head  well  up  against  any 
wind  or  current  which  may  be  setting  across,  and  to  remember 
that  the  boat  will  not  steer  if  her  stern  is  bound  by  a  taut  line. 

If  a  long  scope  of  line  is  to  be  run  out,  one  or  more  boats 
should  take  the  weight  of  the  bight,  holding  it  by  slip-ropes  from 
the  bow  and  stern  ring-bolts. 

In  all  cases  of  carrying  out  an  anchor  except  when  dealing  with 
a  light  kedge,  it  is  well  to  tow  the  boat  from  which  the  anchor  is 
hung,  even  though  the  latter  may  be  a  power-boat,  as  will  usually 
be  the  case.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  a  boat  carrying  an  anchor 
hung  over  the  stern  or  under  the  bottom  is  not  free  to  manoeuvre 
and  will  obey  her  rudder  sluggishly  or  not  at  all.  A  still  better 
plan  is  to  lay  out  a  kedge  some  distance  beyond  the  point  where 
the  anchor  is  to  be  planted  and  to  haul  out  by  a  manila  line  bent 
to  the  ring  of  the  kedge. 

Second  Method.  Plate  110.  This  is  a  very  convenient  method 
provided  preparations  have  been  made  for  it  in  advance.  In  the 
British  Navy  the  straps  and  other  fittings  are  issued  to  ships  and 
are  kept  ready  for  use  at  a  moment's  notice. 

A  "  spreader  "  is  called  for  here,  to  relieve  the  crushing  strain 
on  the  sides  of  the  boat.  This  may  rest  on  blocking,  as  in  Plate 
110,  or,  if  the  anchor  is  not  too  heavy,  on  the  gunwales  of  the 
boat.  It  is  well  to  lash  the  spreader  to  a  thwart  and  also  to  seize 
the  "  belly-strap  "  temporarily  to  the  spreader,  taking  care  to  cut 
the  seizings  before  letting  go. 

The  anchor  may  be  hung  by  the  balancing-link  if  one  is  fitted, 
or  better,  by  a  strap  around  the  shank  and  crown  as  shown  in  the 
plate.  With  this  strap  the  anchor  will  hang  more  or  less  "  ring- 
heavy,"  which  makes  the  strap  available  for  breaking  out  and 
weighing  the  anchor,  crown  first. 

It  is  often  practicable  to  break  out  the  anchor  and  drag  it  home,  crown 
first,  by  a  line  from  the  crown  to  the  ship.  (See  §  III  of  this  Chapter.) 


Plate  No.    110. 


307 


Steadying  Line  from 
Stern  Rina-Bolt  to  take 


CARRYING  OUT  ANCHOR    SECOND  METHOD. 


CARRYING   OUT    ANCHORS. 

The  hanging-pendant  must  be  long  enough  to  reach  from  the 
ring  under  the  keel  to  the  water's  edge,  where  it  is  shackled  to 
the  anchor-strap. 

The  use  of  the  lowering-rope  between  the  fish-pendant  and  the 
anchor-strap  admits  of  unhooking  the  fish-pendant  after  the 
anchor  is  lowered  into  place  under  the  boat. 

The  weighing-line  is  shackled  to  the  end  of  the  lowering-rope 
after  the  fish-pendant  is  unhooked,  or  sooner  if  the  eye  is  large 
enough. 

As  the  weighing-line  will,  in  most  cases,  be  of  wire,  a  buoy 
rope  is  needed  for  recovering  the  end. 

In  all  cases  like  the  present  one,  where  the  hanging-line  from 
the  boat  leads  off  at  an  angle  at  the  time  when  it  begins  to  take 
the  weight  of  the  anchor,  a  strong  pull  will  be  exerted  dragging 
the  boat  toward  the  anchor.  This  is  not  necessarily  a  matter  of 
great  importance,  but  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with.  As  its 
tendency  is  to  draw  the  boat  against  the  lowering-rope,  it  is  well 
to  use  a  chafing-spar  alongside  to  protect  the  bilge.  The  launch's 
mast  may  conveniently  be  used  for  this.  Plate  110. 

The  hauling-line  leads  from  the  ring  of  the  anchor  to  the  ship. 
It  is  usually  bent  to  the  ring  and  run  out  with  the  anchor  as  has 
been  described  in  connection  with  the  First  Method  above.  A 
better  way,  with  a  heavy  anchor,  is  to  use  a  hauling-pendant  on 
the  ring  of  the  anchor,  long  enough  to  reach  well  above  water 
when  the  anchor  is  let  go.  The  boat  holds  on  by  this  pendant 
(or  by  a  lighter  line  bent  to  the  eye),  and  the  real  hauling-line  is 
sent  out  by  another  boat  and  shackled  on.  By  thus  carrying  out 
the  anchor  and  the  line  separately  much  trouble  is  saved. 

Ten  fathoms  is  a  convenient  length  for  the  hauling-pendant, 
and  should  answer  for  all  ordinary  demands,  although  it  may, 
of  course,  become  necessary  to  lay  out  an  anchor  in  water  much 
deeper  than  this. 

If  it  is  preferred  not  to  let  the  anchor  hang  "  ring-down,"  a 
manila  line  may  be  bent  to  the  ring  and  brought  in  over  the  stern 
of  the  boat,  holding  the  ring  well  up  under  the  keel.  A  5-inch 
manila  line  should  be  large  enough  for  this,  even  with  a  heavy 
bower.  Or  the  hauling-line  may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  the 
bight  being  stopped  up  to  the  boat  and  holding  the  ring  up. 

Of  course,  if  the  anchor  has  a  balancing-link  it  may  be  handled 
altogether  by  this ;  in  which  case,  however,  the  weighing-line 


CARRYING   OUT   ANCHORS.  309 

must  be  bent  independently  to  the  crown  to  admit  of  breaking  out 
the  anchor  crown  first.  In  this  case  the  lowering-rope  and  hang- 
ing-pendant are  shackled  to  the  balancing-link. 

In  the  absence  of  a  balancing-link,  the  anchor  may  be  balanced 
perfectly  by  a  strap  passed  around  the  shank  at  the  balancing 
point — which  is  never  more  than  a  few  inches  from  the  crown — 
and  held  from  slipping  by  a  lashing  around  the  crown.  No  lash- 
ing from  the  ring  is  necessary  as  the  very  short  distance  which 
the  strap  could  slip  toward  the  crown  would  be  of  trifling  im- 
portance. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  however,  there  is  no  disadvantage 
in  allowing  the  anchor  to  hang  ring-heavy,  supporting  the  ring  if 
necessary  as  in  Plate  110;  and  the  arrangement  of  lines  and  straps 
there  shown  will  in  general  be  found  convenient. 

In  dealing  with  a  bower  or  sheet  anchor,  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide for  unbending  the  chain.  It  is  convenient  to  disconnect  at 
the  5-fathom  shackle,  and  to  bend  the  hauling-line  to  the  end  of 
the  length  of  chain  which  remains  on  the  anchor  instead  of  di- 
rectly to  the  ring. 

The  shackle  may  be  veered  outside  and  handled  there  or  we 
may  bend  a  wire  hawser  to  the  cable  inside,  just  forward  of  the 
shackle,  take  it  to  the  winch  and  haul  taut,  after  which  we  un- 
shackle and  veer  away  by  the  line. 

In  handling  the  chain  outside,  the  weight  is  taken  by  slip-ropes 
and  jiggers  from  the  forecastle. 

It  is  often  very  difficult  to  handle  a  boat  under  the  bow ;  as  for 
example,  when  there  is  a  heavy  sea  running,  or  a  strong  current. 
Under  such  circumstances  one  or  more  kedges  may  be  laid  out 
and  the  boat  controlled  by  lines  from  these,  and  from  the  ship. 

If  the  ship  is  not  fitted  with  an  anchor-davit,  or  if  for  any  rea- 
son the  anchor  cannot  be  handled  under  the  bow,  the  boat-crane 
must  be  used,  a  heavy  block  being  lashed  to  the  head  of  the  crane 
and  a  wire  line  led  through  this  and  taken  to  the  bow,  or  wher- 
ever else  the  anchor  is  stowed.  If  dealing  with  a  bower  or  sheet, 
the  line  is  bent  to  the  anchor-strap  on  the  crown,  and  the  anchor 
is  let  go  and  hove  up  to  the  crane,  crown  first,  where  it  is  handled  as 
may  be  desired.  Under  many  circumstances  this  plan  is  more  con- 
venient than  any  other,  even  though  an  anchor-davit  is  available. 

It  would  probably  be  practicable  under  favorable  circumstances 
— everything  being  quiet  under  the  bow —  to  take  the  anchor 


CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS. 


i  the 

rash. 


directly  from  the  hawse-pipe,  as  follows :  A  strap  is  put  on 
crown  and  the  anchor  is  eased  down  until  the  crown  is  awash. 
The  hanging-pendant  is  brought  around  the  bilge  of  the  boat 
and  shackled  to  the  strap.  A  large  kedge  is  planted  off  the  bow 
with  a  good  line  for  holding  the  boat  clear.  A  wire-hawser, 
technically  a  veering-line,  is  shackled  to  the  cable  just  forward 
of  the  5-fathom  shackle,  taken  to  the  winch  and  hauled  taut.  The 
chain  is  now  unshackled  and  the  anchor  is  eased  down  by  the 
wire  line  until  it  hangs  by  the  crown  under  the  boat. 

In  lowering  away  under  these  circumstances,  the  force  tending 
to  drag  the  boat  toward  the  anchor  and  against  the  chain  will  be 
very  strong,  and  a  good  chafing-spar  will  be  needed  to  protect  the 
bilge  of  the  boat. 

The  wire  line  may  be  left  shackled  to  the  chain  from  the  anchor 
and  be  sent  out  with  the  anchor  as  a  hauling-line,  or  it  may  be 
unbent  and  replaced  by  another  line.  The  length  of  cable  which 
remains  bent  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor  takes  the  place  of  the 
lowering-rope  and  gives  drift  enough  to  admit  of  unbending  the 
veering-line. 

Third  Method.  Plate  111.  This  resembles  the  Second  Method, 
but  with  the  difference  that  the  hanging-pendant  slips  on  the 
bight  of  the  belly-strap  and  may  thus  be  made  very  much  shorter, 
as  it  can  be  slipped  up  to  the  water's  edge,  or  above,  and  need 
only  be  long  enough  to  admit  of  convenient  handling  for  shack- 
ling to  the  eyes  of  the  anchor-strap. 

As  the  anchor  is  lowered  away,  the  eye  of  the  hanging-pendant 
slips  down  until  the  anchor  hangs  below  the  keel.  It  is  well  to 
leave  the  belly-strap  rather  slack  so  that  the  eye  may  slip  down 
freely. 

The  spreader  is  lashed  to  the  thwart  and  the  belly-strap  seized 
temporarily  to  the  spreader  as  in  the  Second  Method. 

To  make  sure  of  recovering  the  belly-strap — which  might  un- 
reeve  after  letting  go — a  light  manila  doubling-line  may  be  passed 
around  under  the  boat  and  bent  to  the  ends  of  the  belly-strap. 

Fourth  Method.  Plate  112.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to 
carry  out  a  very  heavy  anchor,  like  the  bower  or  sheet  of  a  battle- 
ship, the  only  practicable  method  is  to  put  two  launches  alongside 
and  hang  the  anchor  between  them  from  a  spar. 

Here  it  is  convenient  to  handle  the  anchor  (stockless)  by  the 
ring,  bending  the  weighing-line  independently  to  the  crown. 


Plate  No.    111. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 


CARRYING  OUT  ANCHORS;  THIRD  METHOD. 


312 


Plate  No.    112. 


CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS.  313 

Except  for  this  change,  the  anchor  is  handled  substantially  as  in 
the  methods  already  described. 

The  anchor  is  eased  outside  the  hawse-pipe  until  the  fish- 
pendant  or  lowering-rope  can  be  shackled,  to  the  ring.  The  strap 
is  put  on  the  crown  at  the  same  time,  and  the  weighing-line 
shackled  to  it.  The  chain  is  then  veered,  and  the  anchor  swings 
to  the  fish-pendant. 

In  the  meantime  the  boats  have  been  prepared  and  hauled  for- 
ward and  two  kedges  have  been  planted  where  they  will  give  the 
best  control,  with  a  line  from  each  to  the  bow  of  one  of  the  boats. 
A  line  from  the  stern  of  each  boat  to  the  ship  completes  the  ar- 
rangement for  holding  the  boats  stern-on  to  the  ship's  side;  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  conditions  make  it  desirable  to  hold  the  boats 
in  this  position.  In  any  case,  it  will  be  well  to  have  at  least  one 
good  kedge  for  holding  off,  as  the  drag  of  the  anchor  on  the  hang- 
ing-pendant while  being  lowered  into  place  will  be  very  strong. 

Assuming  that  the  boats  are  held  stern-on,  the  hanging-pen- 
dant is  passed  aft  between  them  and  shackled  to  the  ring  of  the 
anchor  at  the  water's  edge.  The  chain  is  then  unshackled,  as  has 
been  described  in  connection  with  the  Second  Method,  and  the 
anchor  is  eased  down  into  position,  the  fish-pendant  passing 
between  the  boats,  which  will  have  a  strong  tendency  to  surge 
aft  in  obedience  to  the  drag  on  the  pendant. 

The  anchor  may,  of  course,  be  handled  by  the  crown  instead 
of  by  the  ring,  without  changing  any  principle  of  this  method, 
and  it  will  be  convenient  to  adopt  this  plan  if  the  water  is  rather 
shallow. 

If  the  boats  cannot  be  held  stern-on,  the  hanging-pendant  must 
be  dipped  under  the  inner  boat,  as  in  the  Second  Method.  Here 
a  long  pendant  will  be  needed,  and  the  anchor  will  necessarily 
hang  rather  deep.  Assuming  10  feet  for  the  beam  of  the  boat, 
the  pendant  from  the  spar  to  the  crown  of  the  anchor  would  be 
approximately  16  feet,  and  allowing  4  feet  more  for  the  anchor 
we  have  a  total  depth  of  20  feet.  As  a  ship  carrying  a  boat  of 
10  feet  beam  would  draw  at  least  28  feet  normally,  this  would 
probably  be  all  right ;  but  if  not,  measures  must  be  taken  to  in- 
sure holding  the  boat  stern-on,  when  the  anchor,  if  handled  by 
the  crown,  can  be  hung  well  up  under  the  boats. 

In  an  extreme  case,  the  water  being  very  shallow,  the  hanging- 
spar  may  be  put  well  aft  on  the  boats  (sacrificing  something  in 


314  CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS. 

flotation),  and  the  boats  backed  in  against  chafing-mats  on  the 
ship's  side,  directly  over  the  anchor,  which  in  this  case  must  be 
well  below  water;  the  hanging-pendant  (not  yet  passed  around 
the  spar)  having  been  already  shackled  to  the  strap  on  the  crown. 

The  hanging-pendant  is  then  passed  around  the  spar,  shortened 
in  as  much  as  possible,  and  secured ;  after  which  the  anchor  is  low- 
ered into  position  where  it  will  hang  only  just  clear  of  the  boats. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  well  to  drop  the  anchor  from  the  bow 
and  pick  it  up  on  the  boat-crane,  where  it  can  be  held  in  any 
desired  position,  suitable  lines  for  weighing  by  the  crane  being 
bent  to  the  anchor  before  it  is  let  go,  or  eased  down,  from  the 
bow.  An  anchor  .hanging  from  the  boat  crane  can  be  controlled 
more  easily  than  by  means  of  any  device  available  at  the  bow. 

The  plan  shown  in  Plate  112  for  securing  the  hanging-pendant 
and  letting-  go  is  very  convenient,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
unless  a  turn  is  taken  with  the  pendant  around  the  spar,  the  strain 
on  the  spar  ivill  be  approximately  double  the  weight  of  the  anchor, 
as  the  spar  will  in  such  a  case  play  the  part  of  a  pulley.  By  tak- 
ing a  turn,  this  effect  is  practically  annulled. 

It  is  well  to  make  the  slipping  end  of  the  pendant  as  short  as 
possible,  to  avoid  the  dangerous  "  whip "  which  would  result 
from  a  long  end  when  released. 

Steadying-lines  may  be  used  from  .the  flukes  of  the  anchor,  but 
must  be  cast  off  before  letting  go. 

The  plan  described  in  connection  with  the  Second  Method  for 
taking  the  anchor  from  the  hawse-pipe  is  equally  applicable  with 
the  present  method,  subject  to  the  limitations  which  have  been 
pointed  out  with  regard  to  the  depth  of  water. 

The  boats  may  be  towed  out  by  a  steamer,  or  a  kedge  may  be 
planted  beyond  the  point  where  the  bower  is  wanted,  and  the 
boats  hauled  out  by  a  line  from  the  kedge.  Where  conditions 
are  unfavorable,  as  for  example  where  the  boats  must  be  hauled 
out  against  a  strong  wind  or  tide,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lash  a  large 
single  block  to  the  ring  of  the  kedge  and  reeve  through  this  a 
good  manila  line,  bringing  both  ends  of  the  line  back  to  the  ship. 
By  bending  one  end  to.  the  spar  across  the  bows  of  the  boats  or 
to  a  span  from  the  bows,  and  taking  the  other  end  on  board,  the 
boats  may  be  hauled  out  by  the  winch. 


CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS. 


315 


DIAMETER  IN  INCHES  OF  A  ROUND  SPAR  OF  A  GIVEN  SPAN,  TO  CARRY  A 
GIVEN  LOAD  AT  THE  MIDDLE  POINT. 


Span  in 

inches. 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

6  000           

G'  .8 

7    .4 

8"  0 

8'    3 

8"  8 

an  o 

8  000   

7'  .2 

7    .9 

8"  5 

9'    0 

9"  5 

Q"  Q 

10,000          

7'  .7 

8    .5 

9".l 

9'    7 

10"  2 

10"  7 

12,000  

8'  .2 

9    .0 

9".  7 

10'    3 

10"  9 

11'    4 

14,000    

8'  .6 

9    .5 

10".  2 

10'    9 

11"  5 

12'    0 

16,000.             

9".0 

9".  9 

10".  7 

11"  4 

12"  0 

12'    5 

18  000 

9".  4 

10"  3 

11"  1 

11"  8 

12"  5 

i  or    o 

20  000 

9"  7 

10"  7 

11"  5 

12"  2 

12"  9 

•tor    K 

A  square  beam  the  side  of  which  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  a  round 
spar  in  the  above  table  will  support  1.7  times  the  load  of  the  round  spar. 

Conversely,  a  square  beam  to  support  a  given  load  must  have  -Ar  the 
thickness  given  above  for  a  round  spar. 

The  preceding  table  shows  the  size  of  spar  required  to  carry  a 
given  weight,  with  a  given  distance  between  points  of  support. 
There  is  of  course  a  difference  in  the  strength  of  different  varie- 
ties of  wood,  but  the  spars  which  are  likely  to  be  available  on 
shipboard  are  of  about  the  same  general  character,  and  the  figures 
here  given,  which  are  for  good  sound  pine  or  spruce,  may  be 
used  with  confidence  for  all  ordinary  woods. 

The  weight  which  can  be  carried  varies  directly  with  the  cross- 
sectional  area  and  inversely  with  the  span;  that  is  to  say,  the 
distance  between  points  of  support.  A  given  spar  spanning  24 
inches  between  supports  will  carry  twice  as  much  as  if  the  span 
were  48  inches. 

Safe  Floating  Power  of  Navy  Boats  for  2d,  3d,  and  4th  Methods 

Preceding. 


Boat. 

Floating  power. 

Remaining  freeboard. 

50-fo 
40 
36 
33 
30 
30-fo 
28 
26 
24 

ot  lau 
ot  cu 

nch  

Lbs. 
24,000 
16,000 
12,000 
10,000 
7,500 
7.000 
6,000 
4,500 
4,100 

Inches. 
28      ) 
28 
24         Load  may  be  safely  increased 
23             in  smooth  water. 
21 
16 
14 
12 
12 

,       

ter  

CARRYING   OUT    ANCHORS. 


Safe    Floating    Power    at    Stern    with    Compensating 
Weight  at   Bow. 


Boat. 

Load  at 
stern  if  bow 
is  loaded. 

Load  at 
forward  end 
of  boat. 

Number  of 
men  required 
at  forward 
end. 

Approximate 
remaining 
freeboard  at 
stern. 

50-foot  launch  
40                 '       

Lbs. 
12,000 
8,000 

Lbs. 
12,000 
8,000 

90 
65 

Inches. 
24 
24 

36                ' 

6000 

6000 

45 

20 

33                 '       
30                 '                ... 

4,500 
3  000 

4,500 
3  000 

35 
22 

18 
16 

30-foot  cu  ter  

2500 

2,500 

18 

13 

28                '      

2,000 

2,500 

18 

11 

26                '      
24                '      

1,500 
1.000 

2,000 
1.500 

15 
12 

9 
9 

The  weights  in  the  bow  should,  if  possible,  be  men,  and  these 
should  be  grouped  as  far  forward  as  is  practicable.  When  the 
anchor  is  let  go,  the  men  must  be  prepared  to  move  quickly  aft, 
as  the  bow  will  dip  suddenly. 


8  III. 


To  Pick  Tip  an  Anchor. 


Where  an  anchor  has  been  carried  out  for  any  purpose,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  a  weighing-line  has  been  bent  to  the  crown 
either  as  described  in  the  preceding  section  or  in  some  other 
efficient  way.  ;  In  this  case  the  simplest  way  to  pick  up  the  anchor 
is  to  run  a  line  from  the  ship  to  the  end  of  the  weighing-line  and 
drag  the  anchor  home  crown  first  and  run  it  up  to  the  hawse- 
pipe.  This  plan  very  greatly  simplifies  the  matter  of  using  an 
anchor  for  such  temporary  purposes  as  hauling  the  stern  around 
for  bore-sighting,  for  sub-caliber  target  practice,  or  for  improv- 
ing ventilation  in  a  tropical  climate. 

If  conditions  are  such  that  the  anchor  cannot  be  hauled  home 
by  the  ship,  it  must  be  weighed  by  a  boat,  and  this  will  not  be 
very  difficult  if  the  anchor  is  of  moderate  size,  and  if  it  can  be 
broken  out  by  the  crown.  If  no  line  has  been  provided  from  the 
crown,  a  diver  should  be  sent  down  to  bend  one  on. 

To  Weigh  an  Anchor  by  a  Boat.  An  anchor  of  medium  size 
may  be  weighed  by  a  boat  by  bringing  the  line  in  over  the  stern 
roller  and  applying  a  purchase  of  any  convenient  kind;  a  luff 
upon  luff,  an  improvised  windlass,  or  any  other  device  which 
may  be  suggested  by  the  conditions.  The  flotation  of  the  boat 


CARRYING   OUT   ANCHORS.  317 

can  be  utilized  to  start  the  anchor,  a  convenient  way  being  to 
fill  the  stern-sheets  with  men  and  heave  the  line  well  taut,  then 
to  shift  the  men  forward  to  the  bow.  By  letting  them  "sally" 
forward  on  the  run,  the  anchor  may  sometimes  be  jumped  out. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  lift  the  anchor  far  enough  to  admit  of 
carrying  it  back  to  the  ship. 

If  there  is  no  weighing-line  from  the  crown  of  the  anchor,  and 
if  circumstances  do  not  admit  of  sending  down  a  diver  to  bend 
one  on,  the  anchor  must  be  broken  out  by  the  ring.  In  such 
a  case  it  is  especially  important  to  use  a  line  from  the  ship, 
although  a  small  anchor  can,  of  course,  be  handled,  even  in  this 
way,  by  a  good-sized  launch.  A  battleship's  launch,  for  example, 
should  be  able  to  deal  with  a  3OOO-pound  anchor  very  easily,  and 
in  some  cases — when  the  anchor  is  not  holding  very  strongly — 
with  one  of  double  this  size;  that  is  to  say,  with  the  "stream" 
anchor  which  is  now  supplied  to  all  battleships. 

In  cases  of  especial  difficulty  it  might  be  well  to  put  two 
launches  alongside,  connecting  them  with  a  spar  as  in  Plate  112, 
and  make  use  of  their  power  of  flotation  by  loading  them  deeply 
with  men,  hauling  taut  the  line  from  the  anchor  to  the  spar,  and 
then  removing  the  men.  Two  4O-foot  launches,  holding  100  men 
each  could  be  made  in  this  way  to  exert  a  pull  of  40,000  pounds. 

LOST  BOWER  OR  SHEET. 

Where  a  bower  or  sheet  anchor  has  been  lost  by  the  parting 
of  a  cable,  the  problem  is  quite  different  from  that  of  dealing 
with  a  lighter  anchor  such  as  might  have  been  carried  out  by 
the  ship's  boats. 

Here  it  will  usually  happen  that  a  certain  length  of  chain  is 
attached  to  the  anchor.  The  problem  is,  in  this  case,  for  the 
ship  to  get  hold  of  this  chain  and  weigh  the  anchor  with  her 
windlass.  This  means,  first  of  all,  that  the  ship  must  place  her- 
self near  the  anchor,  but  of  course  not  close  enough  to  interfere 
with  working  lines  from  a  boat.  If  the  anchor  is  buoyed,  it  is 
located  without  difficulty.  If  not,  it  must  be  found,  and  the 
easiest  way  to  find  it  is  to  drag  for  the  chain  across  the  line  on 
which  it  is  supposed  to  lie.  A  grapnel  may  be  used  for  dragging 
but  it  is  better  to  take  a  kedge  anchor,  to  the  stock  of  which  a 
capstan-bar  is  lashed  to  keep  the  fluke  down. 


318  CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS. 

The  chain  having  been  grappled,  it  may  be  possible  to  lift  the 
bight  or  the  end  and  bend  on  a  line  from  the  hawse-pipe,  by 
which  the  ship  can  haul  over  at  once  and  pick  up  the  anchor. 
For  this  the  boat  that  has  found  the  chain  would  lift  the  bight 
or  hold  on  by  the  grapnel  and  send  down  a  diver  to  bend  a 
6-inch  or  7-inch  manila  line  to  the  chain  near  the  end.  Such  a 
line  should  answer  for  lifting  the  chain  and  probably  for  hauling 
the  ship  into  position,  but  it  would  not  weigh  the  anchor.  If 
the  chain  is  not  long  enough  to  admit  of  bringing  the  end  inside 
the  hawse,  the  end  of  a  good  wire  line  is  sent  out  to  the  boat 
and  shackled  by  the  diver  to  a  link  near  the  end,  but  not  to  the 
end  link. 

Where  the  anchor  to  be  dealt  with  weighs  upward  of  ten  tons, 
as  do  the  bower  and  sheet  anchors  of  a  superdreadnaught,  it  is 
out  of  the  question  to  weigh  it  with  any  line  which  could  be 
handled  by  a  diver.  The  heaviest  manila  hawsers  supplied  to 
ships  are  10  inches  in  circumference  and  are  not  strong  enough 
to  break  out  the  anchors  in  question.  Nor  could  any  diver  hitch 
a  line  of  this  size  to  the  crown  of  an  anchor.  A  wire  hawser 
would  be  strong  enough,  but  wire  does  not  work  well  on  the 
nigger-head  of  a  winch. 

The  following  plan  combines  several  advantages.  It  provides 
a  perfectly  manageable  wire  line  to  be  shackled  (not  hitched) 
to  any  part  of  the  anchor  that  can  be  reached.  It  provides  a 
length  of  chain-cable  for  shackling  to  the  ship's  cable,  belonging, 
it  may  be,  to  the  lost  anchor,  and  it  provides  an  ample  length 
of  manila  hawser  for  weighing  the  cable  and  the  wire  and  for 
hauling  the  ship  into  place  over  the  anchor.  The  plan  is  as 
follows : 

A  5-fathom  shot  of  chain  is  shackled  at  one  end  to  a  pennant 
of  4l/2 -inch  wire  eight  or  nine  fathoms  long,  and  at  the  other 
end  to  a  6  or  7-inch  manila  hawser.  The  shot  of  chain  and  the 
wire  pennant  are  slung  outside  a  motor  sailing  launch,  the 
manila  line  is  coiled  in  the  stern  sheets,  and  the  boat  proceeds  to 
a  point  near  the  anchor.  Here  enough  of  the  manila  line  is 
thrown  over  to  reach  the  bottom,  the  chain  is  paid  down  on  top 
of  this,  and  lastly  the  wire  pennant  is  paid  down  on  top  of  all, 
where  it  is  easy  for  the  diver  to  handle  it ;  the  diving  boat  gets 
into  position,  and  the  diver  goes  down  and  shackles  the  wire 
pennant  to  any  part  of  the  anchor  that  he  can  reach  conveniently. 


CARRYING    OUT    ANCHORS.  319 

The  motor-sailer  takes  the  manila  line  back  to  the  ship  and  it  is 
hauled  in  through  the  hawse-pipe  and  taken  to  a  winch. 

The  ship  manoeuvres  into  a  position  as  nearly  over  the  anchor 
as  is  practicable,  and  heaves  in  the  line.  When  the  chain  comes 
in  it  is  shackled  to  the  free  end  of  the  cable  on  board  and  the 
anchor  is  hove  up  and  hung  by  a  stopper,  after  which  the  cable 
is  bent  to  the  anchor  in  place  of  the  wire  pennant. 

If  the  water  is  too  deep  for  diving,  and  if  the  chain  is  not  long 
enough  to  be  picked  up  by  grappling,  the  chances  of  recovering 
a  stockless  anchor  are  hardly  worth  considering. 

With  an  old-fashioned  anchor  the  case  is  quite  different.  Here 
we  may  hope  to  catch  the  upper  fluke  by  dragging  the  bight  of 
a  light  chain,  or  of  a  rope  weighted  at  two  or  more  points,  across 
the  place  where  the  anchor  is  known  to  lie.  When  the  fluke  is 
caught,  a  shackle  may  be  put  around  the  two  parts  of  the  drag- 
ging rope  and  allowed  to  slip  down,  binding  them  so  that  they 
cannot  become  disengaged. 

If  the  anchor  is  not  buoyed,  we  may  assume  that  its  position 
can  be  fixed  within  narrow  limits  by  bearings,  and  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  will  be  to  locate  it  exactly  and  to  mark  it  by  a  buoy. 

We  then  proceed  as  before,  utilizing  a  diver  if  practicable,  or 
dragging  for  the  bight  of  the  chain. 

NOTE. — In  all  cases  of  dragging  for  an  anchor  or  a  chain,  it  is  important 
to  mark  by  floats  the  area  covered  as  the  work  progresses. 


(320) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  STEERING  OF  STEAMERS. 
§1.    TERMINOLOGY. 

The  United  States  Navy  has  in  recent  years  adopted  a  new  ter- 
minology in  connection  with  the  steering  of  ships,  substituting 
"  Right  'Rudder  "  for  "  Port  Helm  "  and  "  Left  Rudder  "  for 
"  Starboard  Helm."  There  is  a  certain  inconvenience  resulting 
from  this  change,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  older  terms  continue  in 
use  in  other  Navies  and  in  the  Merchant  Service.  The  change 
is,  however,  logical  and  reasonable.  When  the  operation  of  steer- 
ing was  a  matter  of  actually  putting  the  helm  (tiller)  to  port  for 
swinging  the  ship's  head  to  starboard,  it  was  natural  and  reason- 
able that  the  command  should  coincide  with  the  act  to  be  per- 
formed, even  though  it  was  as  true  then  as  now  that  the  governing 
influence  in  the  movement  of  the  ship  was  the  starboard  rudder, 
not  the  port  helm.  But  in  a  modern  ship,  not  only  is  it  true  that 
the  rudder  and  the  ship's  head  both  go  to  starboard,  it  is  true  that 
the  steering  wheel  (or  lever)  also  goes  to  starboard.  And  it  is 
certain  that  the  helmsman  gives  no  thought  to  the  fact  that  (pos- 
sibly) somewhere  in  the  remote  recesses  of  the  ship,  his  action  in 
moving  the  wheel  to  starboard  has  caused  a  tiller  to  move  to  port. 

In  this  and  succeeding  chapters,  the  terms  "Right  Rudder" 
and  "Left  Rudder"  have  been  adopted,  with  a  footnote  indi- 
cating the  older  (and  commoner)  terminology  where  this  is  con- 
sidered necessary. 

§11.    SINGLE    SCREW. 

The  elements  which  enter  into  the  steering  of  a  screw  steamer 
are  so  many,  and  their  effects  are  so  varied  and  conflicting,  that 
any  attempt  at  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  them  would  be  alto- 
gether out  of  place  in  a  work  on  practical  seamanship.  It  is 
proposed  here  merely  to  name  and  briefly  discuss  the  most  im- 
portant of  them  and  to  explain  such  of  their  effects  as  enter  prac- 


THE    STEERING   OF 

tically  into  the  handling  of  a  ship.  In  this  discussion  it  will  be 
assumed,  where  not  otherwise  stated,  that  all  conditions  are  nor- 
mal and  average;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  ship  is  of  medium  size 
and  draft  and  loaded  to  her  mean  water-line;  that  she  has  no 
unusual  features  of  design;  that  she  draws  rather  more  water  aft 
than  forward;  that  her  rudder  is  of  the  ordinary  type  and  of 
medium  size,  and  fitted  to  a  rudder-post  immediately  abaft  the 
propeller-well.  It  will  be  assumed  also,  except  where  the  con- 
trary is  stated,  that  the  weather  is  calm. 

For  simplicity,  the  discussion  will  be  confined  to  a  right-handed 
screw,  so  that  all  which  is  said  of  the  effects  of  the  screw  upon  the 
steering  must  be  exactly  reversed  for  a  vessel  with  a  left-handed 
screw. 

Twin-screws  will  be  treated  in  a  separate  section.. 

The  factors  which  we  shall  consider  as  entering  into  the  steer- 
ing of  a  steamer  are  the  following: 

1.  The  ordinary  direct  influence  of  the  Rudder. 

2.  The  Screw  Current, — which  we  shall  find  to  be  made  up  of 
two  distinct  parts. 

3.  The  Force  exerted  by  the  revolving  blades  of  the  Screw  to 
drive  the  stern  to  one  side  or  the  other  by  their  direct  Sidewise 
Pressure  upon  the  water. 

4.  The  Wake  Current. 

1.  THE  RUDDER. — The  effect  of  this  is  simple  and  well  under- 
stood.    It  calls  for  no  explanation  here,  except  in  so  far  as  it  is 
complicated  by  the  screw  current,  in  connection  with  which  it 
will  be  fully  treated  below. 

2.  THE  SCREW  CURRENT. — As  the  screw  turns,  it  draws  in  a 
current  from  one  direction  and  forces  it  out  in  the  other.     In 
going  ahead,  the  current  is  drawn  in  from  forward  and  forced  out 
aft.     In  backing,  it  is  drawn  in  from  aft  and  forced  out  forward. 

It  is  found  that  the  in-rushing  "  suction  "  current  may  be  con- 
sidered as  flowing  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  shaft,  but  that  the 
current  driven  off  from  the  screw  partakes  to  an  important  de- 
gree of  the  rotary  motion  of  the  blades  and  moves  diagonally 
to  the  shaft  and  keel. 

(a)  If   the    screw   is   turning   ahead,   the   inflowing 


322 

suction  current  from  forward  moves  along  the  lines  of  the  run 
toward  the  screw  and  has  no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  steering. 

It  is  different  with  the  outflowing  current  thrown  off  and 
driven  aft  by  the  screw.  This  current,  by  reason  of  the  rotary 
motion  which  has  been  referred  to,  strikes  diagonally  upon  the 
rudder-post  and  the  rudder  (which  we  will  for  the  moment  sup- 
pose to  be  amidships)  and  exerts  a  distinct  force  tending  to  throw 
the  stern  to  one  side.  We  must  recognize  here,  however,  two 
factors  opposing  each  other.  The  upper  blades  of  our  right- 
handed  screw  move  over  from  port  to  starboard  and  drive  their 
current  against  the  port  upper  side  of  the  rudder-post  and  rudder. 
At  the  same  time,  the  lower  blades  drive  in  their  current  upon 
the  starboard  lower  side.  As  the  lower  part  of  the  rudder  is 
commonly  larger  than  the  upper  part,  it  is  natural  that  the  cur- 
rent from  the  .lower  blades,  tending  to  drive  the  stern  off  to  port, 
should  more  than  overcome  that  from  the  upper  blades,  and  that 
the  resultant  of  these  two  forces  should  tend,  upon  the  whole,  to 
move  the  stern  to  port  (in  going  ahead,  with  helm  amidships). 
The  conclusions  of  theory  in  this  matter  are  confirmed  by  an 
interesting  experiment  in  which  the  rudder  was  divided  into  two 
parts  by  cutting  it  horizontally.  With  the  two  parts  left  free  to 
move  and  the  screw  turning  ahead  (the  ship  being  at  rest),  the 
upper  part  took  up  a  position  at  an  inclination  of  nearly  10°  on 
one  side  of  the  keel,  while  the  lower  part  stood  at  an  equal  angle 
on  the  other  side.  In  other  experiments,  where  the  full  rudder 
was  left  free  to  move  under  the  influence  of  the  screw  current 
alone,  it  took  a  position  at  a  small  but  distinct  angle  with  the 
keel  on  the  side  toward  which  the  current  from  the  lower  blades 
tended  to  deflect  it. 

If  the  rudder,  instead  of  being  kept  amidships,  is  put  over  to 
one  side,  the  sternward  velocity  of  the  current  will,  have  its 
effect,  as  well  as  the  rotary  velocity. 

With  the  ship  and  screw  both  going  ahead,  this  part  of  the 
current  will  add  its  effect  to  the  ordinary  steering  effect  of  the 
rudder,  and  simply  produce  a  greater  turning  force  than  would 
otherwise  exist.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  the  screw  is  mov- 
ing ahead  and  sending  its  current  aft  against  the  forward  side  of 
a  hard-over  rudder,  while  the  ship  is  moving  astern  and  devel- 
oping its  ordinary  effect  upon  the  after  side.  This  is  the  case 
.when -a  ship,  while  moving  astern  with  some  velocity,  suddenly 


THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS.  323 

puts  her  helm  hard  over  and  throws  her  engines  full  speed  ahead. 
This  case,  which  is  one  of  special  importance,  will  be  treated  at 
considerable  length  in  a  later  section. 

(b)  If  the  screw  is  backing,  it  draws  in  a  current 
from  aft  and  forces  it  out  forward,  where  it  strikes  against  the 
sides  of  the  afterbody  with  the  diagonal  velocity  given  by  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  blades.  In  this  case,  the  "  suction  "  current, 
coming  from  aft,  will  have  no  effect  as  long  as  the  rudder  is  amid- 
ships, since  its  motion  is  parallel  to  the  keel;  but  if  the  helm  be 
put  over  to  either  side,  this  current  assumes  great  importance 
and  may  even  become  the  controlling  factor  in  the  steering  of 
the  ship.  So  long  as  the  ship  is  moving  astern,  this  factor  acts 
with  the  ordinary  resistance  of  the  water  and  simply  increases 
the  rudder's  turning  power.  But  in  the  case  where  the  engines 
are  suddenly  backed  while  the  ship  has  headway,  this  "  suction  " 
current  opposes  and  reduces  the  natural  steering  power  of  the 
rudder,  and  may  altogether  overcome  it  and  throw  the  ship's 
head  to  the  opposite  side  from  that  to  which  the  rudder  would 
throw  it  under  ordinary  conditions.  This  case  is  the  converse 
of  that  described  under  (a)  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
with  which  we  shall  have  to  deal  in  the  later  sections  of  this 
chapter. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  effect  of  that  part  of  the  screw 
current  which,  in  backing,  is  thrown  off  from  the  screw  and 
driven  forward  against  the  afterbody  of  the  ship.  Since  this 
current  partakes  of  the  rotary  motion  of  the  screw,  it  will  strike 
the  stern  at  a  considerable  angle  to  the  keel  line  and  will  pro- 
duce a  pressure  tending  to  force  the  stern  off  toward  the  side 
to  which  the  blades  are  moving.  It  is  clear  that  the  upper  blades 
of  our  right-handed  screw  will  be  moving  over  from  starboard  to 
port  and  sending  their  current  against  the  upper  starboard  side 
of  the  stern,  while  the  lower  ones  send  theirs  against  the  port 
side  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  keel.  We  have  thus  two  forces 
acting  against  each  other;  but  a  little  consideration  of  the  shape 
of  the  stern  and  the  position  of  the  screw  will  make  it  clear  that 
the  upper  blades  are  much  more  favorably  situated  than  the 
lower  ones,  so  far  as  this  effect  is  concerned,  and  that  we  may 
fairly  expect  their  current  to  prevail  over  that  from  the  lower 
ones.  Not  only  are  they  closer  to  the  body  of  the  stern,  but  they 
drive  their  current  against  it  at  a  much  more  effective  angle, 


324  THE    STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 

owing  to  the  fullness  of  the  upper,  as  compared  with  the  lowe 
run.  We  might  then  expect  that  the  effect  of  this  part  of  th 
screw  current  would  be,  upon  the  whole,  to  force  the  stern  t 
port;  and  this  is  found  to  be  the  case  in  practice. 

If  the  helm  be  kept  amidships,  so  that  the  effect  of  the  rudder 
is  eliminated,  the  stern  of  a  right-handed  screw  steamer,,  in  back- 
ing, works  off  to  port.  It  does  not  follow  that  this  is  entirely  due 
to  the  screw  current,  for  we  shall  find  that  the  factor  we  are  next 
to  consider — the  sidewise  pressure  of  the  blades — may  have  much 
to  do  with  it;  but  experiments  show  that  the  screw  current  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  matter  and  that  its  action  is  as  above 
described. 


3.  THE  SIDEWISE  PRESSURE  OF  THE  SCREW  BLADES. — As  the 
blades  revolve,  they  exert  a  force  tending  to  drive  the  stern  off 
to  the  side  opposite  that  toward  which  they  are  moving.     Since 
the  upper  and  lower  blades  move  toward  opposite  sides,  we  have 
here  two  forces  acting  against  each  other  which  would  exactly 
balance  but  for  the  fact  that  the  lower  blades,  moving  under 
greater  pressure  than  the  upper  ones,  meet  with  greater  re- 
sistance   and    exert    a    greater   force.     The    result   is   that   the 
pressure  of  the  lower  blades  preponderates;  and  in  any  given 
case,  the  stern  tends,  so  far  as  this  element  is  concerned,  to  work 
off  to  the  side  from  which  the  lower  blades  are  moving.     In 
going  ahead,  then,  the  tendency  of  the  stern  is  to  starboard, 
whereas  in  backing,  it  is  to  port. 

It  is  found  that  this  factor  is  not  of  great  practical  importance 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  that  it  becomes  so  whenever, 
from  imperfect  immersion  or  from  any  other  cause,  the  upper 
blades  "  churn  "  the  surface  water.  It  is  a  fact  of  every  day  ob- 
servation that  when  a  steamer  is  starting  from  rest,  either  going 
ahead  or  backing,  the  screw,  even  though  well  immersed,  usually 
"  churns  "  more  or  less  until  the  ship  has  gathered  way.  Under 
these  circumstances,  therefore,  this  factor  has  maximum  effect. 
Its  effect  is  also  important  even  when  the  ship  has  way,  if  the 
upper  blades  are  only  partially  immersed.  The  fact  that  it  does 
not  count  when  the  ship  has  headway  and  when  the  screw  is  well 
immersed  is  due  to  the  factor  which  we  have  next  to  consider. 

4.  THE  WAKE  CURRENT. — This  is  a  current  which  the  ship 
carries  with  her  as  she  moves  ahead  through  the  water,  by  reason 


THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS.  325 

of  the  friction  between  the  water  and  the  hull.  The  body  of 
water  involved  in  it  extends  to  a  considerable  distance  on  either 
side,  but  attains  its  maximum  volume  and  velocity  immediately 
under  the  stern;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  screw  and 
the  rudder;  where  it  breaks  up  the  water,  and,  by  its  forward 
velocity,  materially  adds  to  the  pressure  on  the  upper  blades  of 
the  screw.  It  is  essentially  a  surface  current,  and  experiments 
show  thaUit  decreases  as  the  depth  of  water  increases  and  that, 
at  the  level  of  the  keel,  it  is  practically  imperceptible. 

It  is  difficult  to  assign  any  definite  value  to  the  velocity  of  this 
current,  but  it  has  been  assumed  in  certain  investigations  by 
Professor  Rankine  at  10  per  cent  of  the  speed  of  the  ship.  It 
enters  into  our  problem  only  in  cases  where  the  ship  is  moving 
ahead. 

The  effect  of  the  wake  current  upon  the  rudder  is  to  reduce 
the  steering  power.  Its  effect  upon  the  screw  is  to  increase  the 
resistance  to  be  overcome  by  the  upper  blades,  and  thus  to  offset 
the  advantage  of  the  lower  blades  in  direct  turning  effect  due  to 
the  greater  depth  in  which  these  blades  move. 

We  proceed  now  to  consider  the  effect  of  the  elements  which 
have  been  described,  upon  the  behavior  of  a  steamer  under  vari- 
ous conditions. 

This  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Ship  and  Screw  going  Ahead. 

2.  Ship  and  Screw  going  Astern. 

3.  Ship  going  Ahead,  Screw  Backing. 

4.  Ship  going  Astern,  Screw  going  Ahead. 


SHIP  AND  SCREW  GOING  AHEAD. 

Here  the  rudder  is  the  great  controlling  factor,  and  the  prob- 
lem of  manoeuvring  under  these  conditions  may  be  treated  prac- 
tically with  very  little  reference  to  the  effects  of  the  screw.  It 
would  not  be  exact  to  say  that  these  effects  are  wholly  inappreci- 
able, for  there  are  conditions  under  which  they  become  clearly 
apparent;  but  they  are  rarely  important  and  it  would  be  almost 
impossible  to  lay  down  satisfactory  rules  with  regard  to  them. 
All  that  need  be  said  of  them  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 


326  THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 

If  the  rudder  is  kept  amidships,  the  screw  has  a  slight  tendency 
to  throw  the  head  to  port  while  the  ship  is  gathering  way  and 
moving  slowly  ahead.  As  the  speed  increases,  this  tendency 
gradually  disappears  and  at  medium  speeds  the  screw  seems  to 
have  no  steering  effect  whatever.  Finally,  at  high  speeds,  there 
seems  to  be  with  some  ships  a  slight  tendency  of  the  head  to 
starboard. 

//  the  rudder  is  put  over  to  either  side  while  the  screw  is  turn- 
ing but  before  the  ship  has  gathered  way,  the  discharge  current 
from  the  screw  exerts  a  powerful  steering  effect,  driving  the  stern 
off  exactly  as  if  the  ship  were  moving  ahead ;  and  this  effect  con- 
tinues in  a  gradually  decreasing  degree  as  the  ship  gathers  way 
and  works  up  to  the  speed  which  is  properly  due  to  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  screw  at  the  time.  Thus,  if  the  rudder  is  put  to  the 
right,  and  the  screw  started  ahead  with  a  number  of  revolutions 
corresponding  normally  to  a  speed  of  ten  knots,  the  head  will  turn 
at  once  to  starboard,  as  if  the  ship  were  moving.  As  the  ship 
gathers  way,  the  steering  effect  of  the  screw  gradually  falls  off 
and  is  replaced  by  the  normal  steering  effect  of  the  rudder  for 
headway.  We  may  put  this  differently  by  saying  that  the  steering 
effect  of  screw  current  is  due  to  the  "  slip  "  of  the  screw. 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  steering  of  a  ship  when  steaming 
ahead,  as  affected  by  the  rudder  alone;  beginning  with  the  case 
in  which  the  ship,  while  running  at  fair  speed,  puts  the  helm 
suddenly  hard  over,  without  reversing  or  stopping  the  en- 
gines. This  case  presents  certain  points  the  examination  of 
which  will  be  helpful  in  dealing  with  other  cases  to  be  taken 
up  later. 

In  Plate  113  are  shown  the  curves  traced  out  in  this  way  by  a 
number  of  ships  of  widely  different  types.  Some  of  these  ships 
had  twin-screws,  but  it  is  found  that  so  long  as  both  screws  are 
kept  turning  ahead,  there  is  no  important  difference  between  the 
curve  of  a  single  screw  and  that  of  a  twin-screw  ship. 

It  will  be  noted  that,  the  helm  being  put  hard  over  as  rapidly 
as  possible  (position  A),  the  ship  begins  to  turn  at  once  and  turns 
with  increasing  rapidity  up  to  about  the  point  B,  from  which  point 
onward  she  turns  uniformly  in  a  path  which  is  practically  a 
circle.  As  she  swings  around  the  circle,  her  bow  points  steadily 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm. 
"Left  rudder"  is  starboard  helm. 


Plate  No.    113. 


327 


•6. 

I 


- 

o 


I 


1 

o    <5 


w    S 

QJ       «J 
>       W 


h/)    o 

.E  _J 
c   ^ 


C/) 
UJ 

C£ 

O 

O 

z 

z 
o: 

H 


328  THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS. 

inward  while  her  stern  sweeps  out  a  circle  considerably  larger 
than  that  traced  by  her  bow.  She  does  not,  that  is  to  say,  follow 
her  own  keel  line,  but  presents  her  bow  and  side  to  the  water 
through  which  she  moves. 

The  first  effect  of  putting  the  rudder  over  is  to  throw  the  whole 
mass  of  the  ship  off  to  leeward,  so  to  speak ;  that  is  to  say,  to  the 
side  opposite  that  toward  which  it  is  desired  to  gain  ground.  The 
stern  goes  off  most;  but  the  whole  ship,  except  the  extreme  bow, 
is  thrown  more  or  less  to  this  side,  and  some  experiments  have 
semed  to  show  that  even  the  bow  goes  off  at  first. 

The  ship  ranges  ahead  nearly  along  the  line  of  her  original 
course,  but  slightly  to  leeward  of  it,  for  a  distance  which  may  be 
roughly  stated  as  from  two  to  three  ship's  lengths,  before  she 
commences  to  gain  ground  in  the  desired  direction. 

The  momentum  of  the  ship  along  her  original  course  persists  for 
a  time  and  drives  her  on  along  this  line  in  spite  of  the  forces  which 
are  turning  her  head  away  from  it. 

The  stern  does  not  finally  clear  the  line  of  the  original  course 
until  it  has  covered  from  two  to  three  lengths  measured  along 
that  line.  In  the  meantime,  the  ship's  head  has  changed  by  more 
than  three  points. 

The  salient  features  of  the  turning  curve  are  the  following : 

The  Advance.  The  distance  gained  parallel  to  the  original 
course  at  that  point  of  the  curve  where  the  tangent  to  the 
curve  has  swung  through  90°  from  the  original  course. 

The  Transfer.  The  distance  gained  to  the  right  or  left  of 
the  original  course  at  that  point  of  the  curve  where  the  tan- 
gent to  the  curve  has  swung  through  90°  from  the  original 
course.  (In  British  nautical  literature,  the  tactical  diameter 
is  called  the  transfer.) 

The  Tactical  Diameter.  The  distance  gained  to  the  right 
or  left  of  the  original  course  at  that  point  of  the  curve  where 
the  tangent  to  the  curve  has  swung  through  180°  from  the 
original  course. 

The  Final  Diameter.  The  perpendicular  distance  between 
the  tangent  to  the  curve  at  the  point  where  it  has  swung 
through  1 80°  and  that  where  it  has  swung  through  360°. 

The  Drift  Angle.  The  angle  at  any  given  point  of  the 
curve,  between  the  tangent  to  the  curve  and  the  heading  of 
the  ship. 


THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS.  329 

The  Kick.  The  sweep  of  the  stern  toward  the  side  away 
from  the  rudder  when  the  rudder  is  put  over  to  begin  the 
turn. 

The  Pivoting  Point.  The  point  in  the  length  of  the  ship 
about  which  the  ship  swings  as  on  a  pivot  when  the  rudder 
is  put  over.  The  position  of  this  point  depends  upon  the  build 
of  the  ship  and  especially  upon  the  comparative  draft  for- 
ward and  aft,  and  upon  the  distribution  of  weights.  It  may 
be  assumed  for  the  average  ship  as  located  from  one-fourth 
to  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  ship  from  the  bow.  Where 
the  draft  forward  is  much  greater  than  aft  and  where  the 
rudder  is  large,  the  pivoting  point  is  farther  forward  and  in 
an  extreme  case  it  may  be  actually  at  the  bow  or  even  a  little 
ahead  and  outside  of  the  ship. 

All  of  the  above  features  are  brought  out  in  a  very  striking  way 
in  the  turning  curve  of  the  Yashima,  a  ship  of  very  exceptional 
manoeuvring  power,  built  many  years  ago  for  the  Japanese  Navy 
(Fig.  i,  Plate  114).  Although  the  Yashima  is  out  of  date  as  a 
fighting  ship,  the  characteristics  of  design  and  manoeuvring  power 
which  are  here  illustrated  are  as  interesting  and  instructive  as 
ever. 

The  features  which  have  been  noted  in  the  other  curves  are  all 
present  here  in  an  exaggerated  form.  It  will  be  seen  that  if  two 
Yashimas,  sighting  each  other  dead  ahead,  should  put  their  rud- 
ders hard  over  while  separated  by  a  distance  of  650  yards  (5 
ships'  lengths)  their  sterns  would  collide  (Fig.  2,  Plate  114). 

The  remarkable  manoeuvring  power  of  the  Yashima  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  her  after  deadwood  is  cut  away  to  a  very  unusual 
extent.  This  reduces  the  resistance  of  her  afterbody  to  lateral 
motion,  and  as  a  result  the  stern  is  thrown  off  much  more  rapidly 
and  to  a  greater  distance  than  would  ordinarily  be  the  case.  This 
illustrates  very  strikingly  the  fact  that  it  is  the  stern  and  not  the 
bow  of  the  ship  that  moves  In  turning. 

Plate  115  shows  the  curves  of  the  super-dreadnought  New 
Mexico,  recently  added  to  the  United  States  Navy. 

With  regard  to  the  speed  involved  in  these  curves,  this  begins 
to  fall  off,  as  might  be  expected,  the  moment  the  rudder  is  put 
over,  the  reduction  being  due  to  the  resistance  of  the  rudder  and 
the  sidewise  motion  of  the  ship.  It  continues  to  fall  off  until  the 
point  is  reached  where  the  turning  curve  becomes  uniform  and 


330 


Plate  No.    114. 


hfl    E 
u.    b 


§- 


THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS.  33! 

circular,  at  which  point  it  has  fallen  off  to  something  like  60  per 
cent  of  its  original  value.  From  this  time  on,  it  remains  con- 
stant as  long  as  the  turn  continues  with  the  same  rudder  angle. 

It  is  found  that  the  speed  at  which  a  ship  is  moving  when  her 
rudder  is  put  over  does  not  greatly  affect  the  space  in  which  she 
will  turn.  A  ship  running  at  ten  knots  speed,  putting  her  rudder 
over  suddenly,  follows  very  nearly  the  same  track  as  if  she  were 
running  at  twenty  knots.  This  is  a  result  which  would  perhaps 
hardly  have  been  anticipated,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  by 
too  many  experiments  to  be  called  in  question.  As  regards  the 
time  of  turning,  there  is,  of  course,  a  great  difference  in  favor  of 
high  speed. 

It  follows  that  if  a  ship  is  attempting  to  clear  a  stationary  object 
by  putting  her  rudder  hard  over,  it  makes  little  difference  with  re- 
gard to  her  success  whether  she  slows  or  continues  at  full  speed, 
though  it  will  make  much  difference  in  the  force  with  which  she 
strikes,  if  strike  she  must.  If  the  object  to  be  avoided  is  another 
ship  under  way,  there  will  be  an  advantage  in  gaining  time  by 
slowing,  as  this  will  give  an  opportunity  for  both  ships  to  recog- 
nize the  situation  clearly  and  to  act  accordingly.  It  is  important 
to  remember,  moreover,  that  during  the  time  actually  occupied  in 
putting  the  rudder  over,  a  steamer  running  at  high  speed  will 
cover  a  greater  distance  than  if  she  were  running  slow. 

We  do  not  here  deal  with  the  question  of  reversing  the  engines. 
This  will  be  considered  in  a  later  section. 

We  have  thus  far  confined  our  attention  to  the  effects  of  a  rud- 
der put  suddenly  hard  over.  This  is  an  exceptional  case,  but  it 
brings  out  very  clearly  the  points  that  are  involved  in  the  more 
common  case  in  which  a  small  angle  of  rudder  is  used — generally 
for  a  short  time  only — and  a  small  change  of  course  effected. 
In  this  case,  also,  the  stern  is  thrown  off,  and  for  some  time  the 
body  of  the  ship  moves  along  a  line  to  leeward  of  the  original 
course.  This  should  always  be  taken  into  account.  It  becomes 
of  great  importance  when  manoeuvring  in  crowded  waters,  and 
in  all  cases  where  the  danger  to  be  avoided  is  close  aboard.  The 
realisation  that  the  stern  moves  and  not  the  bow,  will  often  make 
all  the  difference  between  a  close  shave  and  an  Inevitable  disaster. 

We  have  seen  that  the  effect  of  speed  upon  the  space  in  which 
a  ship  will  turn  with  a  given  angle  of  rudder  is  not  great.  It 


332  THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 

should,  however,  be  remarked,  that  a  fair  speed  is  essential  for 
the  proper  handling  of  any  ship.  Not  only  is  a  ship  when  mov- 
ing very  slowly  through  the  water  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind  and 
sea  and  tide,  which  under  such  circumstances  have  an  undue 
effect  upon  her,  but  all  the  varying  and  conflicting  elements  that 
have  been  described  in  §  I  are  liable  to  manifest  themselves  in 
unexpected  and  seemingly  erratic  ways.  It  is  therefore  important 
always  to  keep  up  a  reasonable  speed;  and  while  this  term  is 
hardly  susceptible  of  exact  definition,  it  will  probably  be  agreed 
that  such  a  ship  as  we  are  at  present  considering — of  average 
size  and  manoeuvring  powers — will  not  handle  with  certainty  at 
speeds  much  below  four  knots. 

We  shall  discuss  in  another  chapter  the  theory  held  by  many 
seamen,  that  it  is  safer  to  run  at  maximum  speed  through  a  fog 
than  to  slow  down. 

Although  it  is  found,  as  has  been  explained,  that  when  a  ship 
is  going  ahead,  the  rudder  so  far  outweighs  all  other  elements 
involved  in  the  steering  that  these  other  elements  may  in  general 
be  neglected,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  hardly  any  ship  turns 
with  exactly  the  same  readiness  to  port  and  to  starboard;  and 
it  appears  from  experiments  to  determine  the.  tactical  diameter 
of  men-of-war  that  the  circle  made  in  turning  to  starboard  may 
differ  from  that  in  turning  to  port,  by  as  much  as  ten  per  cent. 

Although  we  are  dealing  at  present  with  the  turning  of  ships, 
it  may  be  well  to  add  a  word  with  regard  to  the  power  of  stopping. 

It  is  found  that  a  ship  with  reciprocating  engines  steaming 
ahead  with  the  rudder  amidships,  and  suddenly  reversing  her  en- 
gines without  moving  the  rudder,  will  stop  in  from  three  to  five 
times  her  own  length ;  and  that  this  distance  is  practically  inde- 
pendent of  the  size  and  speed  of  the  ship. 

This  supposes  the  same  power  used  m  backing  as  in  going  ahead. 
If  there  is  a  reserve  of  power  available  for  backing,  a  ship  should  be 
stopped  in  twice  her  length. 

The  space  in  which  a  ship  can  be  stopped,  as  compared  with 
that  in  which  she  can  be  turned,  becomes  important  when  danger 
is  suddenly  discovered  ahead  and  on  both  bows;  as,  for  example, 
when  a  ship  finds  herself  heading  for  a  coast  or  a  line  of  reefs, 
and  dangerously  close.  We  have  seen  that  she  may,  by  putting 
her  rudder  hard  over,  turn  through  eight  points  with  an  "ad- 
vance" in  the  direction  of  the  original  course,  of  about  four 
lengths.  This  would  seem  to  show  ihat  it  is  at  least  as  safe  for  a 


Plate  No.    115. 


333 


5 pee  of  21  Knots 
Rudder  Right  35 


-Advance  665  Yards- 
FIG.  1 


put  over 
erf  this 
point. 


Note: 

Dotted  Circfe  shows 
x      2 1- Knot  Circ/e  from 
V       Fig.  /,  compared 
\    with  10-Knot  Circle. 
\ 
\ 


Speed  fO  Knots 
Pucfcfer  Left  3S° 


Rudder  put .' ' 
over  a f  this 
point. 


•Advance  £35  fcr 
FI6.  2 


TURNING  CIRCLES,  U.  S.  S.   NEW  MEXICO. 


334  THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS. 

single-screw  steamer  to  try  to  clear  such  a  danger  by  means  of  the 
helm,  as  by  stopping  the  ship. 

This  was  the  conclusion  of  the  Committee  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation (see  Report  British  Association  1878,  page  422). 

It  will  be  shown  later  that  probably  the  safest  course  of  all  is 
to  combine  both  methods,  putting  the  helm  hard  over  (preferably 
to  port)-,  and  when  the  head  has  begun  to  swing  decidedly, 
reversing  full  speed  and  immediately  afterward  shifting  the  helm. 

The  time  and  space  in  which  a  ship  may  be  brought  to  rest  when 
moving  at  a  given  speed  are  matters  of  great  practical  importance. 
The  time  may  be  determined  by  the  very  simple  experiment  of  re- 
versing the  engines  and  noting  the  number  of  seconds  required  to 
come  to  rest.  Observations  upon  the  space  are  not  so  easily  made, 
but  experience  shows  that  the  space  may  be  determined  with  con- 
siderable accuracy  from  the  observed  time,  by  the  simple  formula: 

D  =  7/10  ST. 

Where  D  =  Distance  in   feet  required  to   stop. 
S  —  Speed  in  knots  and  tenths. 
T  =  Time  in  seconds  (observed). 

For  turbine  ships  the  distance  and  time  required  to  stop  by  backing  the 
engines  are  approximately  doubled. 

SHIP  AND  SCREW  GOING  ASTERN. 

(Plate  116.) 

This  case  is  more  complicated  than  the  preceding  one,  for  the 
reason  that  the  effects  of  the  screw,  which  in  going  ahead  are  so 
far  overpowered  by  those  of  the  rudder  that  they  may  usually  be 
neglected,  become,  in  backing,  quite  as  important  as  those  of 
the  rudder,  and  in  many  cases  much  more  important. 

The  forces  involved  in  the  steering  of  a  steamer  in  backing  are : 

1.  The  Sidewise  Pressure  of  the  Blades,  driving  the  stern  to 
port 

2.  The    "  Discharge "    current,   thrown   forward   and   inward 
from  the  screw,  against  the  sides  of  the  run,  and  tending  also 
to  drive  the  stern  to  port. 

3.  The  "  Suction  "  current,  drawn  in  from  aft  against  the  after 
side  of  the  rudder,  and  acting  to  throw  the  stern  to  starboard  or 
to  port  according  to  the  way  the  helm  is  put.     This  factor  does 
not  enter  into  the  problem  with  the  rudder  amidships. 

4.  The  ordinary  steering  effect  of  the  rudder,  tending  to  throw 


Plate  No.    116. 


335 


Ship  and  Screw  going  Astern.     Ship  beginning  to  back. 


Fig.  1 


Stern  usually  goes  to  Port,  Head  to  Starboard. 


Ship  and  Screw  going  Astern.     Ship  Moving  Astern, 
Fig.  2 


Stern  may  go  to  Starboard,  Head  to  Port. 


Ship  and  Screw  going  Astern.     Ship  Moving  Astern, 


2   T 


Stern  goes  rapidly  to  Port,  Head  to  Starboard. 


EFFECTS  OF  SCREW  UPON  STEERING 


336  THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS. 

the  stern  toward  the  side  to  which  the  rudder  is  put.    This  factor 
does  not  enter  into  the  problem  with  the  rudder  amidships. 

3  and  4  above  are  closely  related  and  act  together,  but  4  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  motion  of  the  ship  through  the  water,  while  J 
is  independent  of  this  motion  and  connected  only  with  the  action 
of  the  screw.  For  this  reason,  we  must  distinguish  between  the 
case  in  which  the  ship  is  just  starting  astern  from  rest,  and  that 
in  which  she  is  moving  astern  with  considerable  velocity.  In 
the  first  case  we  may  ignore  4,  while  in  the  other  we  must  con- 
sider it.  In  both  cases,  we  shall  find  an  inclination  for  the  stern 
to  back  to  port,  due  to  the  fact  that  1  and  2  always  act  in  thai 
direction,  while  3  and  4  act  with  or  against  them  according  as 
the  rudder  is  put  to  starboard  or  to  port. 

(a)  If    the    ship    is    just    beginning    to    back, 
may  be  neglected,  and  3  will  tend  to  drive  the  stern  to  the  side 
to  which  the  rudder  is  put.    If,  then,  the  rudder  is  to  the  left, 
will  act  with  1  and  2,  and  the  tendency  to  port  will  be  very  marked 
If  the  rudder  is  to  the  right,  3  will  oppose  1  and  2,  but  will  no' 
usually  overcome  them ;  and  the  tendency  of  the  stern  to  port 
though  very  much  reduced,  will  still  exist.     In  other  words,  a 
steamer  just  beginning  to  back  from  rest  will  in  general  throw 
her  stern  to  port  even  against  a  hard-over  right  rudder.1 

(b)  As    the    ship    gathers    speed    astern,    4,    the 
steering  effect  of  the  rudder,  becomes  of  greater  and  greater  im- 
portance.    It  always  acts  with  the  suction  current  (3)  upon  the 
after  side  of  the  rudder;  and  if  the  rudder  is  put  to  right,  these 
two  forces  (3  and  4)  may  ultimately  overcome  i  and  2  and  give 
the  stern  a  slight  tendency  to  starboard.     If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  rudder  is  put  to  left,  all  four  of  the  forces  involved  act  to- 
gether and  throw  the  stern  rapidly  to  port. 

It  results  from  the  above,  that  when  a  ship  with  a  single  right- 
hand  screw  is  beginning  to  back  but  has  not  yet  gathered  decided 
stern-board,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  prevent  her  stern 
from  working  off  to  port;  and  that  after  she  has  gathered  consid- 
erable speed  astern,  she  will  still  have  a  decided  inclination  to 
back  to  port,  but  may  usually  be  made  to  back  to  starboard  by 
hard-over  right  rudder. 

If  it  is  desired  to  back  as  nearly  straight  as  possible,  the  rudder 
must  be  put  hard  right. 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm. 
"  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS.  337 

The  effect  of  a  breeze  is  not  great  upon  a  vessel  moving  slowly 
astern,  but  becomes  important  as  the  speed  increases;  so  much  so 
that,  with  a  moderate  breeze,  a  vessel  going  astern  at  a  speed  of 
three  knots  or  more  will  back  up  into  the  wind  in  spite  of  all  that 
can  be  done  to  prevent  it.  It  follows  that,  in  spite  of  the  ten- 
dency to  port  which  has  been  insisted  upon  above,  a  ship  may  be 
backed  to  starboard,  if  the  breeze  is  from  that  side,  provided  that 
the  circumstances  admit  of  going  astern  for  some  time  and  at 
fair  speed.  It  follows,  also,  that  if  it  is  desired  to  back  to  port  while 
the  breeze  is  from  the  starboard  side,  the  more  slowly  we  go 
astern  the  better,  and  if  the  breeze  is  fresh,  it  will  probably  be 
impossible  to  avoid  backing  into  it. 

Generally  speaking,  a  ship  is  backed  only  when  working  along- 
side a  dock  or  into  a  slip, or  when  manoeuvring  in  crowded  waters; 
conditions  which  do  not  admit  of  backing  for  a  long  time  or  at 
any  considerable  speed;  and  under  these  circumstances,  it  is 
desirable  to  plan  all  manoeuvres  in  such  a  way  as  shall  involve 
the  throwing  of  the  stern  to  port  in  backing. 

SHIP   GOING   AHEAD.       SCREW    BACKING. 

This  is  in  some  respects  the  most  important  case  with  which 
we  have  to  deal,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  the  one  most  frequently 
connected  with  the  emergency  of  danger  suddenly  discovered  and 
close  aboard.  The  cause  of  many  collisions  can  be  traced  to  a 
widespread  ignorance  of  the  rules  which  govern  the  steering 
when  the  engines  are  suddenly  reversed  while  the  ship  is  going 
ahead.  Yet  these  rules  are  simple  and  have  been  stated 
many  times. 

It  is  assumed,  naturally  enough,  by  those  who  have  not  studied 
the  many  practical  experiments  which  have  been  made  in  con- 
nection with  this  matter,  that  so  long  as  the  ship  has  headway  she 
will  continue  to  obey  her  helm  in  the  usual  way,  even  though  the 
screw  is  backing  and  gradually  reducing  her  speed. 

This  is  so  far  from  being  the  case,  that  in  many  instances  ex- 
actly the  opposite  occurs ;  the  matter  being  complicated,  from  the 
instant  the  engines  are  reversed,  by  the  "  screw  current "  which 
has  been  described  in  §  I  as  being  drawn  in  against  the  after  side 
of  the  rudder  and  driven  forward  against  the  afterbody  of  the 
ship. 

"Right  rudder"  is  port  helm.  "Left  rudder"  is  starboard  helm. 


338  THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS. 

The  forces  involved  in  the  steering  under  these  conditions  are 
the  following: 

1.  The  direct  steering  effect  of  the  rudder,  tending,  as  in  all 
cases  of  headway,  to  throw  the  stern  away  from  the  side  to  which 
the  rudder  is  put. 

2.  The  "Suction"  current,  drawn  in  from  aft  by  the  screw, 
against  the  after  side  of  the  rudder,  and  forcing  the  stern  toward 
the  side  to  which  the  rudder  is  put. 

3.  The    "  Discharge "    current    driven     forward    and    inward 
against  the  stern,  forcing  the  stern  to  port,  without  reference  to 
the  rudder. 

4.  The  Sidewise  Pressure  of  the  blades,  also  forcing  the  stern 
to  port,  without  reference  to  the  rudder. 

(Plate  117.) 

We  have  here  a  number  of  conflicting  elements,  the  final  result 
of  whose  action  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  predict  from 
theoretical  considerations.  Since,  however,  there  are  two  of  them 
which  always  act  to  throw  the  head  to  starboard,  we  may  be  sure, 
at  least,  that  the  ship  will  turn  much  more  readily  to  that  side 
than  to  the  other. 

We  proceed  now  to  consider  the  matter  from  the  point  of  view 
of  practice,  and  we  are  fortunate  in  having  the  result  of  several 
very  complete  series  of  experiments,  from  which  to  draw  our  con- 
clusions. 

In  1875,  Professor  Osborne  Reynolds  communicated  to  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  the  results 
of  certain  experiments  made  with  models  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  effect  of  the  screw  upon  the  steering  of  steamers; 
and  for  several  years  after  this  time,  he  was  engaged,  as  Secretary 
of  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Association,  in  experiments  and 
investigations  upon  the  same  subject.  The  reports  of  this  Com- 
mittee are  to  be  found  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Association  for 
1876,  1877,  and  l878- 

Since  these  reports  were  made,  much  additional  evidence  has 
become  available,  and  it  is  now  possible  to  lay  down  fairly  definite 
laws  with  regard  to  the  behavior  of  ships  under  the  circumstances 
we  are  now  considering,  although  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that 
exceptional  conditions,  especially  of  weather  and  of  the  draft  and 
trim  of  a  ship,  may  modify  all  such  laws  in  ways  which  can  only 
be  foreseen  by  an  officer  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  peculiarities 
of  his  ship  and  her  temporary  condition  as  regards  draft  and 
trim. 


Plate  No.    117. 


339 


Ship  going  Ahead.     Screw  Backing. 


Fig.  1 


Head  goes  to  Starboard. 


Ship  going  Ahead.     Screw  Backing. 


Head  goes  to  Starboard  decidedly,  May  go  slightly  to  Port  at  first. 


Ship  going  Ahead.     Screw  Backing. 


Fig    3 


Forces  nearly  balance.  Head  will  usually  go  a  little  to  Port. 


OF  SP.RFW  UPON  STEERING 


340 


THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 


The  following  rules  will  usually  be  found  to  hold  for  our 
right-handed  single  screw  steamer,  of  average  characteristics, 
when  the  engines  are  suddenly  reversed  from  full  speed  ahead  to 
full  speed  astern. 

(a)  The  rudder  kept  amidships. 

The  head  will  fall  off  to  the  starboard,  and  the  ship  will  gain 
ground  to  the  right  before  losing  her  way.  The  stern  will,  in  the 
beginning,  go  off  slightly  to  the  left,  and  the  mass  of  the  ship 
will  range  along  the  line  of  the  original  course  or  a  little  to  the 
left  of  it  (Fig.  i,  Plate  117). 

(b)  The  rudder  put  hard  left  at  the  same  instant  that  the 
engines  are  reversed. 

The  head  will  usually  go  to  port  at  first,  but  neither  very  rapidly 
nor  very  far;  it  will  then  begin  to  swing  to  starboard  and  will 
fall  off  more  or  less  to  that  side.  The  ship  will  gain  ground  to 
the  right  of  her  original  course,  before  losing-  way  (Fig.  2, 
Plate  117). 

(c)  The  rudder  put  hard  right  at  the  same  instant  that  the 
engines  are  reversed. 

The  head  will  at  first  go  to  starboard  and  may  in  some  cases 
persist  in  swinging  to  that  side,  though  not  nearly  so  fast  or  so 
far  as  in  (b).  In  a  majority  of  cases,  after  swinging  somewhat  to 
starboard,  it  will  stop  and  swing  slowly  back  to  port,  and  the  ship 
wrill  come  to  rest  with  her  head  from  one  to  two  points  to  port  of 
her  original  course.  She  will  not  gain  ground  materially  to  either 
side  (Fig.  3,  Plate  117). 

The  more  slowly  the  ship  is  moving  ahead,  and  the  faster  the 
screw  is  backing,  the  more  confidently  may  we  expect  her  to 
behave  as  above  described.  The  rules  that  have  been  given,  and 
indeed  the  whole  preceding  analysis,  suppose  the  screw  to  be 
backed  at  full  speed  from  the  first  instant,  as  it  should  be  in  all 
cases  where  certainty  of  manoeuvring  is  important. 

If  the  ship  is  running  slowly,  but  with  a  reserve  of.  power  im- 
mediately available  for  backing  at  high  speed  (as  should  always 
be  the  case  in  a  fog),  the  rules  which  have  been  laid  down  may  be 
relied  upon  with  especial  confidence,  since  they  are  based  upon 
the  power  of  the  backing  screw  to  overcome  the  steering  effect 
of  the  rudder  due  to  the  speed  of  the  ship.  So  in  the  other  im- 
portant case  of  turning  or  manoeuvring  in  a  limited  space  01 
working  alongside  a  dock,  where  the  power  available  for  backing 
will  always  be  great  in  proportion  to  the  speed  of  the  ship. 
"Right  rudder"  is  port  helm.  "Left  rudder"  is  starboard  helm. 


THE   STEERING  OF   STEAMERS.  341 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  while  the  ship  is  moving  ahead  at  high 
speed,  the  engines  should  be  reversed  with  only  half  power,  the 
ship  would  unquestionably  obey  her  rudder  for  headway ;  a  right 
rudder  throwing  her  head  to  starboard  in  spite  of  the  slowly  back- 
ing screw. 

The  case  with  which  this  section  has  chiefly  dealt — that  in 
which  the  screw  is  backed  with  power  equal  to  or  greater  than 
that  corresponding  to  the  speed  of  the  ship — is  the  ordinary  case  of 
practical  seamanship,  covering  both  the  situation  where  the  screw 
is  backed  for  manoeuvring  a  ship  in  harbor,  and  that  where  it  is 
suddenly  reversed  when  going  ahead  at  some  speed,  to  avoid 
danger  suddenly  discovered. 

As  the  whole  question  herein  dealt  with  is  one  of  opposition 
between  the  steering  effect  of  the  rudder  due  to  the  speed  of 
the  ship  and  the  steering  effect  due  to  the  screw  current,  it  will 
be  easily  understood  that  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  balance 
of  these  forces  will  be  different  from  that  which  is  here  described 
for  "  average "  conditions,  and  in  which,  accordingly,  the  be- 
havior of  the  ship  will  differ  from  that  described.  But  while  we 
may  admit  that  in  some  cases  a  ship  backing  her  screw  with  full 
power  will  still  obey  her  rudder  for  headway,  it  must  be  insisted 
none  the  less  strongly  that  the  screw  current  will  have  a  powerful 
effect  in  the  direction  herein  described  and  that  if  the  ship  obeys 
her  rudder  for  headway  it  will  be  with  greatly  lessened  effect. 

The  time  of  putting  over  the  rudder  exercises  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  the  behavior  of  the  ship.  If  it  is  put  over  before 
reversing  the  engines,  the  ship's  head  will  of  course  commence  to 
swing  in  direct  obedience  to  it  (for  headway),  and  the  screw  can- 
not be  expected  to  overcome  this  and  to  produce  the  same  effect 
as  if  it  were  reversed  simultaneously  with  the  putting  over  of  the 
rudder. 

//  the  ship  has  actually  begun  to  swing  in  obedience  to  a  hard- 
over  rudder  before  the  screw  is  reversed,  she  will  in  most  cases 
continue  to  swing  the  same  way  in  spite  of  the  screw,  although 
much  less  rapidly  than  if  the  screw  were  not  reversed. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  engines  are  reversed  before  the  rud- 
der is  put  over,  then  the  rules  laid  down  above  are  emphasized; 
and  it  should  be  noted  that  the  rudder  can  be  put  over  more  rapidly 
after  the  screw  is  reversed  than  before.  This  may  be  a  very  im- 
portant point  with  ships  steering  by  hand-power. 

"Right  rudder"  is  port  helm.  "Left  rudder"  is  starboard  helm. 


342  THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS. 

It  is  probable  as  already  intimated  that  some  ships  will,  for 
a  very  short  time,  continue  to  obey  the  rudder  as  for  headway, 
even  though  the  rudder  is  put  over  at  the  same  time  that  the 
screw  is  reversed ;  but  as  they  will  shortly  begin  to  act  in  accord- 
ance with  the  above  rules,  there  are  very  few  cases  in  which  we 
can  run  into  any  danger  by  considering  the  rules  to  hold. 

We  may  usually  remove  all  question  with  regard  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  ship  by  putting  the  rudder  to  one  side  before  revers- 
ing the  screw,  thus  getting  a  swing  on  the  ship  in  the  desired 
direction,  then  reversing  the  screw,  and  following  this  up  by  re- 
versing the  rudder.  Suppose,  for  example,  we  wish  to  throw  the 
head  to  starboard.  We  stop  the  engines  and  put  the  rudder  hard 
right,  and  when  the  head  has  begun  to  swing  to  starboard,  re- 
verse the  engines  and  immediately  shift  the  rudder  to  hard  left. 
If  we  wish  to  turn  to  port,  we  stop,  put  the  rudder  to  right,  and 
wait  a  little  longer  than  in  the  preceding  case — (since  the  head 
does  not  turn  to  port  as  easily  as  to  starboard  with  engines  back- 
ing)— then  throw  the  engines  to  full  speed  astern  and  follow  this 
by  putting  the  rudder  hard  right.  By  this  means  we  shall  remove 
all  doubt  about  casting  to  port,  although  the  turn  to  that  side  will 
be  made  slowly,  even  under  these  conditions. 

The  rules  laid  down  above  are  summarized  in  the  statement 
that,  in  general,  a  ship  tends  to  obey  her  rudder  with  reference  to 
the  way  the  screw  is  moving,  not  with  reference  to  the  way  the 
ship  is  moving. 

SHIP  GOING  ASTERN.     SCRE.W  GOING  AHEAD. 

This  case  closely  resembles  the  preceding  one  and  is  subject 
to  the  same  general  law :  viz.,  the  ship  obeys  her  rudder  with 
reference  to  the  motion  of  the  screw,  not  the  motion  of  the  ship. 

The  forces  involved  in  the  steering  of  a  ship  with  a  single  right- 
hand  screw  are: 

1.  The  direct  Steering  effect  of  the  Rudder  due  to  sternboard, 
acting  to  starboard  or  to  port  according  to  the  way  the  rudder  is 
put. 

2.  The  Sidewise  Pressure  of  the  Blades,  acting  to  drive  the 
stern  to  starboard. 

3.  The  Discharge  Current  thrown  off  by  the  screw,  and  con- 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm.  "  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS.  343 

sisting  of  two  components;  (a)  acting  directly  astern,  and  (b) 
acting  inward  against  the  starboard  side  of  the  rudder  post  and 
tending  always  to  force  the  stern  to  port. 

If  the  rudder  is  amidships,  I  and  3  (a)  are  elimi- 
nated from  the  problem,  and  only  2  and  3  (b)  are  to  be  consid- 
ered. These  two  oppose  each  other,  and  it  is  impossible  to  fore- 
see, in  any  given  case,  which  one  will  prevail  (Fig.  i,  Plate  118). 

If  the  rudder  is  to  right,  we  shall  have  I  and  2  forcing 
the  stern  to  starboard,  and  opposed  by  both  components  of  3 
(Fig.  2,  Plate  118). 

It  is  found  in  practice  that,  under  these  conditions,  the  effect 
of  3  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the  other  factors,  and  that  the  stern 
goes  off  decidedly  to  port. 

If  the  rudder  is  to  left,  we  have  2  acting  as  before 
to  force  the  stern  to  starboard,  and  assisted  now  by  3  (a),  while 
3  (b)  acts  with  I,  to  force  it  to  port.  In  practice,  the  forces 
acting  to  starboard  commonly  prevail,  and  the  stern  goes  to  that 
side  (Fig.  3,  Plate  118). 

A  comparison  of  the  figures  illustrating  this  case  will  show  that 
i  and  3  (a)  are  in  every  instance  opposed  to  each  other,  as  are 
also  2  arid  3  (b).  Of  these  forces,  i  and  3  (a)  are  by  far  the 
most  important,  and  the  course  of  the  ship  is  usually  determined 
by  their  relative  values. 

It  is  found  in  practice  that,  as  a  general  rule,  3  (a)  (the  screw 
current  acting  against  the  forward  side  of  the  rudder),  over- 
powers i  (the  resistance  of  the  water  on  the  after  side),  and,  as 
already  stated,  the  ship  obeys  her  rudder  with  reference  to  the 
motion  of  the  screw,  not  of  the  ship.  This  assumes  that  the  stern- 
ward  velocity  of  the  ship  is  not  great,  and  that  the  screw  is  turn- 
ing ahead  full  speed — the  usual  conditions  when  manoeuvring  in 
this  way.  If  the  opposite  conditions  exist,  that  is  to  say,  if  the 
ship  is  moving  rapidly  astern  and  the  engines  are  turning  slowly 
ahead,  it  may  be  found  that  the  natural  steering  power  of  the 
rudder  will  overcome  the  feeble  screw  current,  and  that  the  ship 
will  obey  her  rudder  as  in  ordinary  cases  of  sternboard. 

While  the  resemblance  between  this  case  and  that  of  "  Ship 
Going  Ahead,  Screw  Backing "  is  very  close,  one  important 
difference  should  be  noted.  The  discharge  current  driven  aft 
when  the  screw  goes  ahead  is  more  directly  localized  in  its  effect 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm.  "  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


344 


Plate  No.    118. 


Ship  going  Astern.       Screw  going  Ahead. 
Fig.   1 


Stern  may  go  either  way. 


Ship  going  Astern.        Screw  going  Ahead. 
Fig.  2 


Steering 


Stern  goes   decidedly  to  port,  Head  to  Starboard: 


Ship  going  Astern.       Screw  going  Ahead. 


Component        /  \ 
of  Discharge  !     \ 


Inner  Component  ofTDischarge     '      ' 

Fig.  3*  I-/* 


Stern  usually  goes  to  Starboard,   Head  to   Port. 


EFFECTS  OF  SCREW  UPON  STEERING 


THE    STEERING   OF   STEAMERS.  345 

upon  the  rudder  than  is  the  suction  current  which  is  drawn  in 
from  aft  by  the  screw  when  backing.  While  the  suction  current 
comes  in  a  general  way  from  abaft  the  screw  and  the  rudder,  only 
a  part  of  it  moves  directly  in  line  of  the  shaft,  the  remainder  being 
sucked  in  from  all  sides  more  or  less  radially.  The  discharge 
current,  on  the  other  hand,  although  partaking  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent of  the  radial  motion  of  the  blades,  is  localized  upon  the 
rudder  as  a  distinct  and  powerful  stream. 

It  results  from  this  that  the  turning  effect  of  the  screw  when 
the  ship  is  going  astern  and  the  screw  going  ahead,  is  usually 
more  pronounced  than  the  corresponding  effect  when  the  ship  is 
going  ahead  and  the  screw  going  astern,. 

TO  TURN   IN  A  LIMITED   SPACE. 

For  reasons  which  have  been  already  explained,  it  is  difficult 
to  turn  a  right-handed  single  screw  steamer  to  port  under  any 
circumstances,  where  backing  is  necessary,  and  almost  impos- 
sible to  do  so  in  a  limited  space.  Under  these  conditions,  there- 
fore, the  turn  should,  if  possible,  always  be  made  to  starboard, 
even  if  a  little  preliminary  manoeuvring  is  needed  to  place  the 
ship  in  a  position  permitting  this. 

The  ship  being  at  rest,  proceed  as  follows: 

I  st.  Put  the  rudder  to  hard  right  and  go  ahead  with  the  en- 
gines. The  stern  will  swing  off  to  port  immediately.  As  she 
starts  ahead,  she  will  turn  more  and  more  rapidly.  Allow  her  to 
gather  as  much  way  as  is  safe,  and  to  forge  ahead  as  far  as  space 
permits ;  then — 

2nd.  Reverse  the  engines  full  speed,  and  at  the  same  time  shift 
the  rudder  to  hard  left.  The  suction  current  against  the  after 
side  of  the  rudder,  assisted  by  the  discharge  current  acting 
against  the  run,  and  by  the  pressure  of  the  blades,  will  keep  the 
stern  swinging  to  port;  and  as  she  gathers  sternboard  (if  allowed 
to  do  so),  the  direct  steering  action  of  the  rudder  will  help  in  the 
same  direction. 

Let  her  gather  such  sternboard  as  is  safe,  and  back  as  far  as 
space  permits  ;  then — 

3rd.  Go  full  speed  ahead  and  shift  the  rudder  to  hard  right. 

"Right  rudder"  is  port  helm.  "Left  rudder"  is  starboard  helm. 


346  THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  the  most  pronounced  turning  effect  is  to 
be  anticipated.  The  whole  power  of  the  screw  is  producing  a 
screw  current  and  driving  this  current  against  the  hard-over 
rudder. 

4th.  If  necessary,  continue  going  ahead  and  backing  as  above 
(Plate  119). 

If  more  convenient  to  make  a  sternboard  first,  begin  by  back- 
ing with  rudder  hard  left. 

If  there  is  a  fresh  breeze  on  the  starboard  hand,  avoid  gather- 
ing any  considerable  sternboard,  or  she  will  back  into  the  wind  in 
spite  of  all  that  can  be  done.  If  the  breeze  is  on  the  port  hand, 
there  will  be  an  advantage  in  going  astern  as  fast  and  as  far  as 
the  surrounding  dangers  permit. 

If  the  space,  although  limited,  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  going 
ahead  and  astern  for  a  considerable  distance  and  at  fair  speed,  it 
will  not  be  so  difficult  to  turn  to  port,  although  the  turn  to  star- 
board will  always  be  more  easily  and  rapidly  made.  Having 
decided  to  turn  to  port  under  these  circumstances,  stand  well 
over  to  the  right-hand  side  of  the  channel,  and  go  ahead  with 
hard-over  left  rudder.  Having  got  good  way  on  her,  stop  the 
engines  and  let  her  run.  So  long  as  she  holds  her  headway,  she 
will  turn  without  difficulty. 

Having  run  as  far  over  as  is  safe,  back  the  engines  at  full  speed 
and  put  the  rudder  hard  right.  As  she  is  starting  to  back  from 
rest,  or  nearly  so,  she  will  probably  throw  her  stern  the  wrong 
way.  Continue  backing  hard  in  spite  of  this,  and  as  she  gathers 
speed  astern  the  right  rudder  will  probably  stop  her  turning  the 
wrong  way,  and,  if  it  does  not  turn  her  the  right  way,  may  at 
least  hold  her  straight  until  you  can  afford  to  go  ahead  again. 
Then  start  the  engines  at  full  speed,  put  the  rudder  hard  left, 
and,  as  before,  run  as  far  as  space  permits.  If  necessary,  back 
again,  and  repeat  the  tactics  as  above. 

If  the  tide  is  running  out  strong  and  setting  you  down  toward 
danger,  you  should,  in  the  early  part  of  the  turn,  while  heading 
more  or  less  up  stream,  manage  to  gain  ground  against  the  tide 
while  going  ahead;  and  from  the  time  when  you  have  turned 
athwart  and  are  beginning  to  throw  the  stern  up  stream,  you 
should  take  on  more  sternboard  (through  the  water)  than  you 
otherwise  would,  to  hold  her  up  against  the  current. 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm.  "  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


Plate  No.    119. 


347 


Ship  stopped  N 
Screw  ahead 


Ship  stopped 
Screw  baching 


B 

Ship  ahead 
Screw  baching 
(Shift  helm) 


Shtp  stopped 
Screw  ahead 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


TURNING  A  STEAMER  IN  A  LIMITED  SPACE. 
(SINGLE,  RIGHT  HANDED  SCREW.) 


348  THE   STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 

A  vessel  drifting  in  a  current  and  making  no  way  through  the 
water  will  usually  fall  athwart  and  end  by  drifting  broadside  on. 
This  may  be  a  serious  danger.  In  going  through  Hell  Gate,  for 
example,  a  steamer  should  never  be  allowed  to  lose  headway, 
as  she  will  be  beyond  control  if  she  gets  athwart.  On  the  other 
hand  there  are  cases  in  which,  with  a  little  space  for  working 
ahead  and  astern,  this  tendency  might  be  utilized  to  make  a 
turn  which,  without  it,  would  be  impossible. 

A  similar  but  still  more  pronounced  tendency  to  fall  athwart 
exists  where  a  vessel  which  is  making  no  way  through  the  water 
is  subjected  to  a  breeze.  A  vessel  so  placed  will  almost  always 
fall  off  and  bring  the  wind  abaft  the  beam.  Advantage  may  often 
be  taken  of  this  fact  to  turn  a  ship  in  a  space  in  which  turning 
would  otherwise  be  almost  impossible.  In  Fig.  2,  Plate  119,  for 
example,  A,  wishing  to  get  underway  and  stand  out,  weighs  and 
cants  his  head  a  little  to  one  side — preferably  to  starboard — if  the 
screw  is  right-handed  (Position  2).  Then,  with  the  engine 
stopped,  he  waits  for  the  bow  to  fall  off,  under  the  influence  of 
the  wind,  to  Positions  3,  4,  5.  At  5,  the  engines  are  backed  and 
the  stern  swings  up  with  the  wind. 

This  manceuver  is  so  simple,  and  applies  to  so  many  situations 
of  turning  in  a  limited  space,  that  it  is  surprising  how  rarely  it 
is  used.  It  applies  to  twin-screw  steamers  as  well  as  to  those 
with  single  screw. 

It  often  happens,  where  a  current  runs  rapidly  through  a  more 
or  less  narrow  channel,  that  there  is  a  perfectly  marked  eddy 
along  the  shore  running  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  is  the 
case  in  the  East  River,  where,  from  the  old  Brooklyn  Bridge 
to  Corlear's  'Hook,  an  eddy  current  of  considerable  width  runs 
up  along  the  face  of  the  New  York  docks  while  the  ebb  tide  is 
running  out  with  full  force  in  mid-stream.  A  steamer  coming 
down  stream  and  having  to  turn  to  make  a  landing  may  run  well 
over  toward  the  Brooklyn  side,  then  turn  across  with  right  rud- 
der, ranging  over  and  putting  her  bow  in  the  eddy.  In  this  way, 
she  will  turn  with  great  ease.  A  similar  phenomenon  exists  in 
the  Mississippi  at  New  Orleans,  and  ships  may  be  turned  there 
in  the  same  way. 

It  is  always  worth  while  to  post  one's  self  upon  such  local 
peculiarities  when  likely  to  have  occasion  to  deal  with  them. 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm.  "  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS. 


349 


§  III.    TWI-N  SCREWS. 

Twin  screws  have  been  used  for  many  years,  but  did  not  come 
into  general  use,  either  for  men-of-war  or  for  merchant  steamers, 
until  about  1870,  since  which  date  they  have  been  steadily  grow- 
ing in  favor.  Their  advantages  are  to  a  great  extent  connected 
with  the  smaller  size  of  screws  required  for  a  given  power — this 
reduction  in  size  over  that  of  a  single  screw  permitting  large 
power  to  be  utilized  on  a  small  draft,  and  preventing  the  racing 
of  the  screw  as  the  ship  pitches  in  a  seaway.  Moreover,  the  divi- 
sion of  power  between  two  screws  and  two  sets  of  engines  per- 
mits the  use  of  smaller  parts  in  the  machinery,  and  especially  in 
the  shafts.  This  reduces  the  danger  of  flaws  and  of  breaking  in 
these  parts,  and  minimizes  the  disastrous  consequences  if  such 
breakage  occurs ;  since  a  twin-screw  ship  with  one  shaft  broken 
or  one  engine  disabled  is  still  perfectly  under  control  and  loses 
only  a  moderate  percentage  of  her  speed. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  certain  weakness,  which  becomes 
important  in  a  modern  steamship  with  a  fine  run,  in  the  great 
length  of  shafting,  which,  with  twin  screws,  must  project  outside 
the  ship,  supported  by  struts  from  the  hull.  There  is  also,  no 
doubt,  some  danger  of  damage  to  the  screws,  which  would  not 
exist  with  a  single  screw,  in  entering  and  leaving  docks. 

The  point  in  connection  with  twin  screws  with  which  seaman- 
ship is  principally  concerned,  is  the  remarkable  gain  in  ma- 
noeuvring power  which  results  from  their  use,  and  which  is  prin- 
cipally connected  with  the  turning-leverage  resulting  from  their 
position  off  of  the  midship  line.  It  is  clear  that  this  must  be 
very  great  in  almost  any  case,  though  it  will  differ  widely  with 
different  ships ;  being  dependent,  broadly  speaking,  upon  the 
distance. between  the  shafts  at  the  center  of  gravity  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  ship,  and  upon  the  angle  at  which  the  shafts 
are  placed  with  each  other. 

In  a  ship  of  small  beam  as  compared  with  her  length,  the  shafts 
necessarily  approach  each  other  at  a  rather  sharp  angle ;  whereas 
with  plenty  of  beam  they  can  be  kept  nearly  parallel  and  sepa- 
rated by  a  distance  which  gives  a  good  turning  moment. 

In  all  cases  where  twin  screws  are  used,  one  is  right-handed 
and  the  other  left-handed,  the  right-handed  screw  being  placed 
to  starboard  and  the  left-handed  screw  to  port,  with  the  result 


35O  THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS. 

that  in  going  ahead  the  upper  blades  of  each  screw  turn  outward. 

There  is  an  indirect,  but  very  important  gain  in  certainty  of  ma- 
noeuvring power,  where  twin  screws  are  used,  resulting  from  the 
more  or  less  complete  elimination  from  the  problem  of  the  rather 
baffling  steering  effects  of  a  single  screw.  We  must  still  take 
account  to  some  extent  of  the  current  which  is  driven  aft  by  each 
screw  in  going  ahead,  and  drawn  from  aft  in  backing;  but  the 
axes  of  these  currents  will  be  well  clear  of  the  keel-line  and  will 
not  materially  affect  the  steering  unless  the  helm  is  hard  over, 
or  nearly  so.  In  .the  case  in  which  the  ship  is  moving  rapidly  in 
one  direction  and  the  engines  are  suddenly  thrown  the  other  way, 
these  currents  will  greatly  reduce  the  steering  power  of  the  rud- 
der, but  will  not  reverse  it,  as  in  the  case  of  a  single-screw  ship. 
Similarly,  in  turning  with  one  screw  going  ahead  and  the  other 
backing  (the  ship  having  headway)  the  suction  current  from  the 
backing  screw  reduces  the  steering  power  of  the  rudder  but  does 
not  entirely  overcome  it. 

The  steering  effect  due  to  the  sidewise  pressure  of  the  blades, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  often  a  very  important  factor  in  the 
handling  of  a  single-screw  ship,  disappears  with  twin  screws 
when  both  screws  are  going  ahead  or  backing  together.  In  other 
cases  it  may  be  very  important,  and  the  more  so  because  it  acts 
with  and  is  added  to  the  turning  effect  arising  from  the  leverage 
of  the  screws.  Suppose  the  port  screw  going  ahead.  The  lever- 
age due  to  its  position  on  the  port  side  of  the  center-line  throws 
the  ship's  head  to  starboard.  At  the  same  time  the  sidewise  pres- 
sure of  the  lower  blades,  which,  as  has  been  explained,  greatly 
outweighs  that  of  the  upper  blades,  drags  the  stern  to  port,  thus 
acting  with  the  leverage  of  the  screw  to  throw  the  head  to  star- 
board. 

If,  now,  the  starboard  screw  is  backing,  its  leverage  and  the 
pressure  of  its  lower  blades  also  act  to  throw  the  stern  to  port, 
and  the  head  to  starboard.  Moreover,  the  discharge-current 
from  the  upper  blades  of  the  backing  screw  is  driven  in  against 
the  starboard  run  and  adds  its  effect  to  that  of  all  the  other 
forces  which  are  acting  to  turn  the  ship  to  starboard. 

It  is  evident  then,  that  all  the  factors  which  have  any  real 
moment,  act  together  toward  turning  the  ship,  in  the  one  impor- 
tant case  in  which  the  attempt  is  made  to  turn  by  going  ahead 
with  one  screw  and  backing  with  the  other. 


THE    STEERING   OF   STEAMERS.  35! 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  turning  of  twin-screw  ships  under 
various  conditions : 

We  shall  deal  with  the  following  cases : 

1.  Going  Ahead. 

2.  Backing. 

3.  One  screw  going  Ahead,  the  other  Backing. 

4.  Ship  going  Ahead,  both  screws  Backing. 

5.  Ship  going  Astern,  both  screws  going  Ahead. 

i.  GOING  AHEAD. — So  long  as  both  screws  are  making  the 
same  speed,  the  ship  should  steer  with  helm  amidships,  unless 
affected  by  wind  or  sea. 

If  one  screw  is  stopped,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  steer- 
ing a  straight  course  with  a  moderate  amount  of  helm. 

Tf  the  steering  gear  is  disabled,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in 
making  a  reasonably  good  course,  steering  by  the  screws,  unless 
.the  sea  is  heavy ;  but  this  supposes  good  and  rapid  communication 
between  the  bridge  and  the  engines.  In  a  seaway,  there  may 
be  some  difficulty  about  steering  in  this  way,  but  not  enough  to 
prevent  a  ship  from  proceeding  with  perfect  safety  as  long  as  she 
has  sea-room ;  but  we  must,  of  course,  recognize  the  fact  that 
even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  the  screw  can  never 
give  the  sensitiveness  of  control  that  comes  from  a  rudder  gov- 
erned by  steam-power.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  best  to  keep 
one  engine  turning  over  at  a  constant  rate,  somewhat  less  than 
the  maximum  available,  and  to  steer  the  ship  by  varying  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions  of  the  other  screw. 

If  the  rudder  be  put  hard  over  when  going  ahead  at  full  speed, 
the  result  will  be  practically  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a  single 
screw.  In  fact,  as  already  stated,  the  curves  of  Plate  113  have 
in  some  cases  been  derived  from  experiments  upon  twin-screw 
ships;  and  the  discussions  of  these  curves  already  given  are  entirely 
applicable  to  the  case  we  are  now  considering.  We  have  to 
recognize  the  same  sweep  of  the  stern  to  leeward,  the  same 
ranging  ahead,  along,  and  even  to  leeward  of,  the  original  course, 
before  beginning  to  gain  ground  in  the  desired  direction,  and 
the  same  loss  of  speed  while  turning. 

It  is  found  that  the  revolutions  of  the  inner  screw  are  somewhat 
reduced  in  turning,  the  change  amounting  to  perhaps  10  per  cent. 

From  causes  which  cannot  be  clearly  defined,  and  which  are 


352  THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS. 

probably  different  with  different  ships,  it  usually  happens  that  a 
twin-screw  ship  turns  somewhat  more  readily  to  one  side  than 
to  the  other;  but  the  difference  is  less  than  with  single  screws, 
and  is  of  practical  importance  only  in  the  case  where  a  full  turn 
is  to  be  made — as  in  the  tactical  manoeuvring  of  men-of-war. 

2.  BACKING. — A  twin-screw  ship,  starting  from  rest  with  both 
screws  backing,  should  be  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  rud- 
der, though  she  will  steer  with  much  less  ease  and  sensitiveness 
than  when  going  ahead.     If  necessary,  the  rudder  may  be  assisted 
by  a  variation  in  the  speed  of  one  or  other  of  the  two  screws. 

3.  ONE  SCREW  GOING  AHEAD,  THE  OTHER  BACKING. — (a)    I  f 
the    ship    is    just    starting    from    rest,    with    rudder 
amidships,  she  will  turn  rapidly  to  the  side  of  the  backing  screw. 

If  the  screws  revolve  at  equal  speed,  the  one  going  ahead  will 
gain  slightly  upon  the  other,  since  less  power  is  required  to  drive 
a  ship  ahead  than  to  drive  her  astern,  and  the  ship  will  turn  in  a 
circle  of  small  radius,  but  not  on  her  heel. 

If  it  is  desired  to  turn  her  as  nearly  as  possible  on  her  heel, 
the  screw  going  ahead  should  be  kept  at  somewhat  lower  speed 
than  the  other,  the  exact  relation  between  the  two  being  deter- 
mined experimentally  for  each  ship. 

The  time  of  turning  under  these  conditions  is  considerably 
greater  than  where  both  screws  are  kept  going  ahead  and  the  helm 
put  hard  over,  although  the  space  required  is  much  less. 

Many  ships  will  not  turn  from  rest  by  going  ahead  on  one 
screw  and  backing  on  the  other.  With  such  a  ship,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  gather  a  little  way  and  commence  turning  by  the  rudder 
before  backing  the  inner  screw. 

In  the  special  case  where  the  ship  is  to  be  turned  without  gath- 
ering headway,  the  rudder  should  be  kept  amidships.  To  make 
this  clear,  let  it  be  assumed  that  the  turn  is  to  be  made  to  star- 
board. The  starboard  screw  will  be  backing  and  the  port  screw 
going  ahead.  To  starboard  of  the  rudder,  then,  we  shall  have  a 
suction  current  moving  forward,  and,  to  port,  a  discharge  current 
moving  aft.  If,  now,  we  put  the  rudder  hard  right,  the  suction 
current  will  strike  against  the  after  side  and  tend  to  throw  the 
head  to  port;  while  if  we  put  the  rudder  to  left,  the  discharge 
current  will  act  against  the  forward  side  and  will  also  tend  to 
throw  the  head  to  port. 

(b)  If   the   ship   is   moving   ahead   at    fair   speed 


THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS.  353 

when  one  screw  is  backed  for  the  purpose  of  turning,  the  rudder 
should  be  put  hard  over  as  if  the  engines  were  both  continued 
ahead.  Wishing  to  turn  to  starboard,  we  put  the  rudder  hard 
right,  and  reverse  the  starboard  screw. 

In  this  case,  the  suction  current  of  the  backing  screw,  acting 
upon  the  after  side  of  the  rudder,  will  oppose  the  turning,  but 
not  sufficiently  to  deprive  the  rudder  of  all  steering  power,  as  it 
often  does  in  the  case  of  a  single  screw.  There  are  several  rea- 
sons for  the  difference.  In  the  first  place,  only  half  the  power 
of  the  ship  is  involved  in  the  backing,  whereas  with  a  single 
screw,  the  whole  power  is  involved.  Again,  the  suction  current 
in  the  present  case  is  at  some  distance  to  one  side,  and  affects 
only  the  outer  part  of  the  hard-over  rudder;  and,  finally,  the 
headway  is  prolonged  by  the  other  screw,  and  this  tends  to  con- 
tinue the  normal  action  of  the  rudder. 

In  turning,  then,  with  considerable  headway,  and  wishing  to 
get  the  maximum  effect,  the  rudder  should  be  used  as  in  ordinary 
turning,  and  the  inner  screw  reversed. 

As  regards  the  track  of  the  ship  in  turning  under  these  condi- 
tions, we  have  seen  that  the  curve  of  a  twin-screw  ship  with  both 
screws  going  ahead  and  rudder  hard  over,  does  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  that  of  a  single-screw  ship ;  but  it  would  be  natural  to 
suppose  that  the  case  must  be  greatly  changed  when  the  inner 
screw  is  reversed  to  help  the  rudder.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  consid- 
erable difference,  but  it  is  far  less  than  is  commonly  supposed ;  at 
least  in  the  first  brief  interval  after  the  turn  begins ;  in  the  in- 
terval, that  is  to  say,  during  which  the  emergency  for  which  the 
action  is  taken  must  work  itself  out.  The  complete  turning 
circles  will  be  widely  different,  but  the  track  of  the  vessel  for 
some  time  will  be  but  little  modified.  The  stern  will,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  go  off  to  leeward,  and  the  ship  will  gain  nothing  to 
the  side  toward  which  her  head  is  thrown,  until  she  has  covered 
from  two  to  three  lengths  along  her  old  track.  She  will,  however, 
gradually  lose  her  speed,  and  will  throw  her  head  around  rather 
more  sharply,  with  the  result  that,  by  the  time  she  does  begin  to 
move  away  from  her  old  line  of  advance,  she  will  do  so  at  a  con- 
siderably greater  angle  than  if  her  rudder  were  merely  put  over 
without  reversing  the  inner  screw. 

"  Right  rudder "  is  port  helm. 
"  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


354  THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS. 

4.  SHIP  GOING  AHEAD,  BOTH  SCREWS  BACKING. — In  this  case, 
if  the  rudder  is  kept  amidships,  the  ship  may  be  stopped  in  from 
three  to  five  lengths,  or  double  this  for  turbine  ships. 

If  the  rudder  is  put  hard  over  to  either  side,  we  have  a  case 
resembling  that  in  which  the  screw  of  a  single-screw  steamer  is 
suddenly  reversed ;  but  with  some  points  of  difference.  In  the 
present  case,  we  shall  have  a  suction  current  on  each  side  drawn 
forward  by  the  screw  of  that  side.  Whichever  way  the  rudder  is 
put,  its  direct  steering  action  for  headway  will  be  opposed  by  the 
suction  current  of  that  side  alone;  that  is  to  say,  by  only  half  the 
power  of  the  total  suction.  Moreover,  this  current  is  so  far  to 
one  side  that  its  effect  will  be  confined  to  a  small  part  of  the  area 
of  the  rudder. 

Thus  the  twin  screws,  in  backing,  will  have  much  less  tendency 
than  a  single  screw,  to  reverse  the  ordinary  steering  effect  of  the 
rudder ;  and  it  is  found  that  so  long  as  the  headway  continues, 
the  ship  steers  normally  (for  headway),  but  turns  less  rapidly 
under  the  influence  of  the  rudder  than  if  the  screws  were  going 
ahead ;  in  other  words,  the  screws  in  this  case  reduce,  but  do  not 
reverse,  the  normal  effect  of  the  rudder. 

There  is  an  important  gain  in  the  rapidity  of  turning  if  the 
rudder  is  put  hard  over  before  the  screws  are  reversed,  thus 
starting  the  head  to  swinging  in  the  right  direction. 

5.  SHIP  GOING  ASTERN,  BOTH  SCREWS  GOING  AHEAD. — In  this 
case,  the  ship  will  obey  her  rudder  for  sternboard,  although  the 
power  of  the  rudder  will  be  materially  reduced  by  the  discharge 
current  of  the  screws. 

If  necessary,  the  rudder  may  be  helped,  and  the  ship  ma- 
nceuvred  with  ease  and  certainty,  by  varying  the  speed  of  the 
screws. 

§  IV.    ADDITIONAL  NOTES  UPON  STEERING. 

EFFECT    OF    WIND. 

:  If  a  steamer  is  lying  in  a  smooth  sea,  with  her  engines  stopped 
and  .with  the  wind  abeam,  she  will  gradually  fall  off  and  bring 
the  wind  abaft  the  beam;  this  for  the  reason  that  the  draft  is 
usually  less  forward  than  aft,  so  that  the  bow  has  less  hold  on 
the  water  than  the  stern;  that,  usually,  the  bow  is  higher  than 


THE    STEERING   OF    STEAMERS.  355 

the  stern  and  so  presents  a  greater  surface  to  the  wind ;  and  that, 
above  all,  the  screw  acts  as  a  drag  holding  the  stern  up  to  the 
wind. 

In  going  ahead,  the  wind  has  no  important  effect.  In  backing, 
there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  the  stern  to  back  up  into  the  wind. 
This  tendency  increases  with  the  force  of  the  wind  and  the  speed 
of  the  ship,  and  differs  greatly  with  different  ships.  Some  ships 
cannot  be  backed  at  all,  even  in  a  light  breeze,  without  throwing 
their  sterns  up  to  it,  even  though  all  other  forces  are  acting  to 
turn  them  the  other  way. 

It  will  be  clear  from  the  above  that  advantage  may  be  taken 
of  the  wind  in  manoeuvring,  and  that  its  effect  will  be  felt  much 
more  decidedly  in  backing  than  in  going  ahead.  We  shall  have 
the  maximum  of  favorable  conditions  for  turning  with  a  single 
screw,  when  the  wind  is  fresh  on  the  port  hand.  Under  these 
conditions,  everything  favors  turning  to  starboard ;  and  it  will  be 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  turn  to  port. 

The  problem  of  handling  a  ship  becomes  one  of  especial  diffi- 
culty when  she  is  flying  light.  In  this  condition,  she  has  less  hold 
on  the  water  and  exposes  more  surface  to  the  wind.  Moreover, 
the  effective  rudder  area  is  reduced,  and  the  steering  effect  of  the 
screw,  due  to  incomplete  immersion,  is  very  greatly  increased. 
Thus  everything  acts  to  minimize  the  control  of  the  ship  by  the 
rudder.  Under  these  conditions,  a  single-screw  steamer  may 
steer  fairly  well  so  long  as  she  is  in  the.  open  sea  and  under  full 
speed,  but  she  will  handle  very  badly  in  a  harbor,  where  she  has 
no  opportunity  to  get  up  speed ;  and  if  the  breeze  is  fresh  she  will 
be  nearly  or  quite  unmanageable.  The  effect  of  the  screw  is  to 
throw  her  stern  off  to  the  side  from  which  the  lower  blades  are 
moving;  so  that  the  bow  falls  off  to  port  in  going  ahead,  and  to 
starboard  in  backing.  If  the  wind  and  screw  act  together  in  any 
given  case,  the  rudder  will  be  practically  useless  if  acting  against 
them;  if  they  oppose  each  other,  it  may  have  some  power  to  con- 
trol the  ship,  but  the  power  will,  at  best,  be  far  below  what  it  is 
in  ordinary  conditions  of  trim.  The  conditions  above  described 
are  much  less  important  to  a  twin-screw  ship  than  to  one  with  a 
single  screw,  but  they  must  still  be  recognized  and  allowed  for. 

It  can  hardly  be  necessary  to  state  that  the  ship  when  flying 
light  will  drift  bodily  to  leeward  much  more  rapidly  than  under 


356  THE    STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 

ordinary  conditions ;  and  that  the  tide  is  of  relatively  greater 
importance  than  usual,  because  of  the  comparative  helplessness 
of  the  ship. 

EFFECT  OF  SEA. 

A  ship  lying  at  rest  in  a  seaway  will  gradually  fall  off  into  the 
trough  of  it,  and  some  effort  will  be  required  to  hold  her  up.  If 
going  ahead,  she  will  tend  to  keep  in  the  trough,  ?jid  lee  helm 
will  be  needed  to  bring  her  head  to  it;  but  if  the  engines  are 
backed,  she  will  throw  her  stern  up  to  the  sea  exactly  as  she 
would  to  the  wind,  and  this  in  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done  to 
prevent  it. 

The  longer  the  ship,  the  more  decided  will  be  the  tendency  to 
lie  in  the  trough  of  the  sea. 

There  may  be  special  features  of  design  or  of  the  trim  which 
will  materially  affect  the  steering  of  the  ship.  If  she  trims  by  the 
head,  she  may,  when  lying  at  rest  with  a  beam  wind,  gradually 
throw  her  head  up  to  it  instead  of  her  stern,  although  the  chances 
are  that  the  drag  of  the  screw  will  prevent  this. 

If  her  after  deadwood  is  cut  away  somewhat  more  than  in 
ordinary  designs,  her  hold  upon  the  water  will  be  reduced  and 
there  may  be  difficulty  in  holding  her  to  a  straight  course.  On 
the  other  hand,  she  will  be  very  sensitive  to  small  changes  of 
rudder,  and  will  turn  in  small  space,  her  stern  being  thrown  off  to 
leeward  very  decidedly  by  hard-over  rudder. 

EFFECT  OF  SHALLOW  WATER. — It  is  well  known  that  ships  do 
not  manoeuvre  as  well  in  shallow  as  in  deep  water,  and  it  not  in- 
frequently happens  that  a  vessel  which  steers  perfectly  in  the  open 
sea  becomes  very  wild  in  channels  where  she  has  only  a  few  feet 
of  water  under  her  keel.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  displaced  water  cannot  flow  off  freely  along  the  natural  wave 
lines  due  to  the  shape  of  the  under-water  body.  For  similar 
reasons,  the  speed  is  reduced  in  shallow  water  as  compared  with 
that  due  to  the  same  power  in  water  deep  enough  to  allow  a  free 
flow  of  the  displaced  water. 

*  *  ***** 

The  preceding  sections,  as  carefully  explained  in  the  beginning, 
relate  to  ships  of  average  characteristics  in  all  respects.  They 
illustrate  principles  which  are  broadly  true  of  all  ships,  but  which 


THE    STEERING    OF    STEAMERS.  357 

must  be  modified  in  one  direction  or  another  if  we  seek  to  apply 
them  to  ships  of  exceptional  build,  speed,  trim  or  manoeuvring 
power.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  turning  curve  of  the  Yash- 
ima,  already  referred  to.  The  facts  that  her  after  deadwood 
is  cut  away  much  more  than  is  usual,  that  her  rudder  is  excep- 
tionally large,  and  that  her  steering-gear  admits  of  putting  the 
helm  over  very  quickly,  result  in  an  excessive  "  kick; "  and  this, 
coupled  with  the  momentum  due  to  high  speed,  results  in  the 
peculiarities  which  have  been  noted  in  her  turning  circle.  If,  in 
addition  to  the  features  just  detailed,  she  were  of  light  draft  and 
flat  bottom,  certain  of  her  peculiarities  would  be  exaggerated  still 
further,  the  conditions  in  such  a  case  approximating  to  those  in- 
volved in  certain  types  of  speed  boats  which  have  very  high 
speed  and  extraordinary  turning  power  associated  with  light 
draft  and  a  floor  comparatively  flat.  Such  a  boat,  upon  putting 
her  helm  hard  over  at  full  speed,  turns  sharply,  but  may  drive 
along  her  original  line  even  after  she  has  turned  her  broadside 
nearly  full  towards  it.  In  the  manoeuvring  of  such  a  craft  as 
this,  there  is  brought  out  strikingly  another  point  which  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  appears  in  all  cases  of  turning.  This  is 
the  outward  heel  of  the  ship,  due  to  the  momentum  and  the 
centrifugal  force  acting  outward  from  the  center,  and  to  the 
lateral  resistance  of  the  water,  which  acts  inward,  but  usually 
below  the  center  of  gravity,  so  that  it  adds  to  outward  heel. 
These  heeling  forces  are  to  some  extent  offset  by  the  lateral 
water  pressure  on  the  rudder,  which,  acting  on  the  inside,  and 
below  the  center  of  gravity,  has  a  tendency  to  produce  inward 
heel.  The  heeling  of  large  ships  in  turning  is  rarely  of  practi- 
cal importance;  but  in  small  craft  it  may  be  a  source  of  consid- 
erable danger.  Suppose  such  a  boat,  whose  build  happens  to  be 
favorable  for  heeling,  to  be  turning  at  full  speed  and  with  hard- 
over  helm  while  at  the  same  time  rolling  more  or  less  in  a  seaway. 
The  hard-over  helm  acts,  as  already  noted,  to  counteract  the 
other  forces  and  reduce  the  outward  heel.  If,  now,  the  helm  is 
suddenly  eased,  this  counteracting  force  is  removed,  and  the  boat 
lurches  sharply  outward ;  and  if  it  happens  that  she  is  at  the  same 
instant  rolled  outward  by  an  impulse  from  a  wave,  she  may  be 
unable  to  recover  and  may  capsize. 

********* 

The  forces  thus  far  described  as  involved  in  the  turning  of  a 


THE    STEERING    OF   STEAMERS. 

ship  are  all  more  or  less  under  the  control  of  those  who  must  ma- 
noeuvre her;  or,  if  not  under  control,  must  be  understood  in 
order  that  she  may  be  handled  intelligently.  They  are  thus 
properly  matters  of  Seamanship.  It  will  be  interesting  now  to 
glance  at  a  few  points  of  a  slightly  different  kind. 

As  the  helm  is  put  over,  the  ship  begins  to  turn,  or  to  acquire 
angular  velocity,  and  for  our  present  purpose  we  may  consider  the 
turning  as  taking  place  about  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  ship. 
The  turning  is  opposed  by  the  resistance  of  the  water  to  lateral 
displacement  of  the  bow  and  stern;  but  as,  in  the  beginning,  this 
resistance  is  small — the  turning  being  slow — the  velocity  of  turn- 
ing rapidly  increases.  This  increase  results  in  a  still  more  rapid 
increase  of  resistance,  and  presently  the  two  sets  of  forces,  those 
producing  and  those  opposing,  the  angular  velocity,  balance  each 
other,  and  this  velocity  becomes  constant.  From  this  time  on, 
the  ship  turns  in  a  curve  which  is  practically  a  circle,  her  bow 
maintaining  a  steady  angle,  technically  known  as  the  "  drift 
angle,"  to  the  tangent  of  the  circle. 

An  important  point  in  connection  with  the  turning  of  a  ship 
has  to  do  with  what  is  known  in  mechanics  as  the  "  moment  of 
inertia,"  of  which  we  need  only  explain  here  that  it  depends  upon 
the  distribution  of  weights  in  the  ship  with  reference  to  the  center 
of  gravity.  The  significance  of  this  point  may  be  made  clear  by 
a  simple  illustration.  Suppose  we  have  a  long  rod  pivoted  at  its 
middle  point  (the  center  of  gravity)  and  carrying  on  each  side 
of  the  pivot  a  weight  which  may  be  moved  in  and  out.  If  the 
weights  are  kept  close  in  to  the  pivot,  the  rod  will  be  easily 
turned  and  stopped;  whereas  if  the  weights  are  run  out  to  the 
ends,  a  much  greater  effort  will  be  required  to  start  it,  and, 
after  it  is  started,  to  stop  it.  In  the  first  case,  the  moment  of 
inertia  is  small  and  the  rod  is  easily  controlled;  in  the  second, 
the  moment  of  inertia  is  large,  and  considerable  force  is  re- 
quired to  control  it.  Similarly,  ships  with  their  weights  near 
the  ends  have  large  moments  of  inertia  and  are  more  difficult 
to  manoeuvre  than  those  whose  weights  are  concentrated  more 
nearly  amidships,  and  whose  moments  of  inertia  are  accordingly 
small. 

It  is  important  that  all  officers  should  be  familiar  with  the 
manoeuvring  peculiarities  of  the  ships  which  they  are  called  upon 


THE    STEERING   OF   STEAMERS. 


359 


to  handle,  and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  determine  and 
record  these  peculiarities  at  the  very  beginning  of  her  service,  a 
"  ship's  book  "  being  kept,  in  which  the  results  of  all  experiences 
are  carefully  entered.  This  book  should  contain  the  following 
information : 

1.  The  turning  circles  of  the  ship,  with  right  and  left  rudder, 
— and  with  different  degrees  of  rudder  carefully  plotted  to  scale 
and  showing  the  "kick,"  the  "  drift  angle,"  the  "tactical  diam- 
eter," the  "  advance,"  the  "  transfer,"  etc. 

2.  The  time  and  distance  required  to  bring  the  ship  to  rest  by 
backing  with  full  power  at  several  different  speeds. 

3.  The  behavior  of  the  s*hip  in  stopping  under  the  conditions  of 
2;  whether  the  head  goes  to  starboard  or  to  port  and  how  far. 

4.  The  result  of  putting  the  helm  over  either  way  during  the 
manoeuvre  of  2. 

5.  The  effect  upon  this  manoeuvre  of  using  a  reserve  of  power 
for  backing. 

6.  The  effect  upon  this  manoeuvre  of  varying  the  time  at  which 
the  helm  is  put  over;  before  reversing  the  engines,  after  reversing, 
simultaneously  with  reversing. 

7.  The  effect  of  wind  in  backing. 

8.  The  best  way  to  work  helm  and  engines  for  turning  in  a 
limited  space,  and  the  shortest  space  in  which  the  ship  can  be 
turned 

The  methods  of  obtaining  these  data,  as  prescribed  for  ships  of 
the  United  States  Navy,  are  given  in  the  Appendix.  As  usually 
carried  out,  often  hurriedly  and  with  conditions  far  from  ideal, 
they  leave  much  to  desire  in  accuracy  of  results. 

"  Right  rudder  "  is  port  helm.  "  Left  rudder  "  is  starboard  helm. 


Plate  No.    120. 


STEAMER  WITHOUT  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


STEAMER  WITH  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


A  SAILING  VESSEL. 


VESSELS'  LIGHTS. 


(36i) 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 

§1.    REGULATIONS    FOR    PREVENTING   COLLISION. 
The  Regulations  for  Preventing  Collision  include : 

1.  The  International  Rules,  established  by  agreement  between 
maritime  nations  as  governing  navigation  on  the  high  seas. 

Article  30  of  the  International  Rules,  reads  as  follows : 
"  Nothing  in  these  Rules  shall  interfere  with  the  operation 
of  a  special  rule  duly  made  by  local  authority,  relative  to  the 
navigation  of  any  harbor,  river,  or  inland  waters." 

2.  The  Inland  Rules  enacted  by  Congress  and  governing  the 
navigation  of  the  inland  waters  of  the  United  States. 

3.  The  Pilot  Rules  for  United  States  Inland  Waters,  supple- 
menting the  Inland  Rules. 

These  Rules  are  established  by  the  Board  of  Supervising 
Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels,  and  are  published  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  "  Pilot  Rules  for  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Coast 
Inland  Waters." 

4.  Local  Regulations  for  the  navigation  of  various  harbors, 
rivers,  etc.,  of  countries  other  than  the  United  States. 

These  rules  are  numerous  and  in  some  cases  important, 
but  they  must  in  general  be  obtained  from  pilots  or  other 
local  authorities. 

Important  decisions  by  the  courts  in  connection  with  the  Rules  of  the 
Road  can  be  found  in  the  "  Federal  Reporter  Digest,"  which  gives  a  brief 
digest  of  all  important  decisions  under  "  Collision  "with  sub-heads,  such 
as  "  Speed  in  a  Fog,"  "  Lights,"  etc. 

Other  valuable  works  on  the  subject  are:  Collisions  at  Sea,  by  R.  G. 
Marsden ;  Collision  at  Sea,  by  Julian  B.  Swope ;  Rules  of  the  Road  at  Sea, 
by  H.  Stuart  Moore;  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Marine  Collisions,  by 
Herbert  R.  Spencer;  and  Rules  of  the  Road  at  Sea,  by  W.  H.  La- 
Boyteaux. 

The  INTERNATIONAL  RULES  and  the  INLAND  RULES  are  printed 
in  parallel  columns  facing  each  other  on  the  following  pages  of 
this  chapter.  Where  there  are  important  differences  between  the 
two  sets  of  Rules,  attention  is  called  to  the  difference  by  the  use 
of  special  type. 

The  PILOT  RULES  are  embodied  in  the  INLAND  RULES  at  the 
points  where  they  belong.  They  are,  in  fact,  a  part  of  the  INLAND 
RULES,  since  they  derive  their  authority  from  a  clause  of  the  law 
of  Congress  by  which  the  INLAND  RULES  were  enacted. 


362  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

§11.    INTERNATIONAL  RULES. 

Preliminary  Definitions. 

In  the  following  rules  every  steam-vessel  which  is  under  sail 
and  not  under  steam  is  to  be  considered  a  sailing-vessel,  and 
every  vessel  under  steam,  whether  under  sail  or  not,  is  to  be  con- 
sidered a  steam-vessel. 

The  word  "  steam-vessel "  shall  include  any  vessel  propelled 
by  machinery. 

A  vessel  is  "  under  way  "  within  the  meaning  of  these  rules 
when  she  is  not  at  anchor,  or  made  fast  to  the  shore,  or  aground. 

II.— LIGHTS,  AND  SO  FORTH. 

The  word  "  visible  "  in  these  rules  when  applied  to  lights  shall 
mean  visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear  atmosphere. 

Article  I.  The  rules  concerning  lights  shall  be  complied  with 
in  all  weathers  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and  during  such  time  no 
other  lights  which  may  be  mistaken  for  the  prescribed  lights  shall 
be  exhibited. 

f 

Steam-vessels — Masthead  Light. 

Art.  2.  A  steam-vessel  when  under  way  shall  carry — (a)  On 
or  in  front  of  the  foremast,  or  if  a  vessel  without  a  foremast,  then 
in  the  forepart  of  the  vessel,  at  a  height  above  the  hull  of  not  less 
than  twenty  feet,  and  if  the  breadth  of  the  vessel  exceeds  twenty 
feet,  then  at  a  height  above  the  hull  not  less  than  such  breadth,  so, 
however,  that  the  light  need  not  be  carried  at  a  greater  height 
above  the  hull  than  forty  feet,  a  bright  white  light,  so  constructed 
as  to  show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of 
twenty  points  of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  ten 
points  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  namely,  from  right  ahead  to 
two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  either  side,  and  of  such  a  character 
as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  five  miles. 

Steam-vessels — Side-lights. 

(b)  On  the  starboard  side  a  green  light  so  constructed  as  to 
show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  points 
of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead 


INLAND  RULES.  363 

§11.    RULES    FOR   UNITED    STATES    INLAND   WATERS. 

Preliminary  Definitions. 

In  the  following  rules  every  steam-vessel  which  is  under  sail 
and  not  under  steam  is  to  be  considered  a  sailing-vessel,  and 
every  vessel  under  steam,  whether  under  sail  or  not,  is  to  be  con- 
sidered a  steam-vessel. 

The  word  "  steam-vessel  "  shall  include  any  vessel  propelled  by 
machinery. 

A  vessel  is  "  under  way,"  within  the  meaning  of  these  rules, 
when  she  is  not  at  anchor,  or  made  fast  to  the  shore,  or  aground. 


II.— LIGHTS,  AND  SO  FORTH. 

The  word  "  visible  "  in  these  rules,  when  applied  to  lights,  shall 
mean  visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear  atmosphere. 

Art.  I.  The  rules  concerning  lights  shall  be  complied  with 
in  all  weathers  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and  during  such  time  no 
other  lights  which  may  be  mistaken  for  the  prescribed  lights 
shall  be  exhibited. 


Steam-Vessels — Masthead  Light. 
Art.  2.     A  steam-vessel  when  under  way  shall  carry — (a)  On 

or  in  front  of  the  foremast,  or,  if  a  vessel  without  a  foremast, 
then  in  the  forepart  of  the  vessel,  a  bright  white  light  so  con- 
structed as  to  show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon 
of  twenty  points  of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  ten 
points  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  namely,  from  right  ahead  to  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  either  side,  and  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  .at  least  five  miles. 


Steam- Vessels— Side-Lights. 

(b)  On  the  starboard  side  a  green  light  so  constructed  as  to 
show  an  unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  points 
of  the  compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead 


364  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  starboard  side,  and  of  such 
a  character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(c)  On  the  port  side  a  red  light  so  constructed  as  to  show  an 
unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  .ten  points  of  the 
compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead  to  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  port  side,  and  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(d)  The  said  green  and  red  side-lights  shall  be  fitted  with  in- 
board  screens  projecting  at  least  three  feet  forward  from  the 
light,  so  as  to  prevent  these  lights  from  being  seen  across  the 
bow.1 

NOTE  i. — A  very  little  consideration  will  show  that  these  lights 
can  not  be  prevented  from  showing  to  some  extent  across  the  bow. 
The  flame  of  the  lamp  must  have  a  certain  width,  and  the  lamp  as 
a  whole  must  stand  out  at  some  distance  from  the  inboard  screen. 
In  addition  to  this,  there  will  always  be  a  reflection,  visible  at  a 
certain  distance,  from  the  outer  (after)  side  of  the  light  box.  The 
mere  use  of  a  screen  projecting  three  feet  forward  can  do  very  little 
toward  correcting  this.  The  matter  is  a  serious  one,  involving 
danger  which  is  the  greater  because  seldom  realized.  If  we  see  all 
the  lights  of  a  steamer,  we  assume,  and  the  law  justifies  us  in  as- 
suming (see  Art.  18),  that  she  is  heading  directly  toward  us.  But  if 
her  lights  show  a  point  across  the  bow,  we  may  misjudge  her  course 
by  a  point;  and  if  she  makes  a  corresponding  error  with  regard  to 
our  lights  and  our  course,  the  situation  may  be  one  of  grave  danger. 

Although  this  difficulty  can  not  be  entirely  done  away  with,  it  can 
be  much  reduced,  by  a  batten  of  wood  placed  vertically  along  the 
forward  edge  of  the  fore  and  aft  screen,  and  projecting  out-board 
so  that  its  outer  edge  shall  be  tangent  to  a  line  drawn  through  the 
inner  edge  of  the  wick,  parallel  to  the  keel  line. 

A  light  so  screened  will  still  show  nearly  or  quite  half  a  point 
across  the  bow,  depending  upon  the  width  of  the  wick.  This  width  is 
fixed  by  an  English  rule  at  "not  less  than  one  inch,  nor  more  than 
two  inches."  A  two-inch  wick  screened  as  above  will  show  nearly  4° 
across  the  bow. 

In  inspecting  the  lights  and  their  fittings,  it  is  important  to  see 
that  the  after  screen  complies  with  the  requirement  that  the  light 
shall  show  only  2  points  abaft  the  beam. 


INLAND  RULES.  365 

to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  starboard  side,  and  of  such 
a  character  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(c)  On  the  port  side  a  red  light  so  constructed  as  to  show  an 
unbroken  light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  ten  points  of  the 
compass,  so  fixed  as  to  throw  the  light  from  right  ahead  to  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  port  side,  and  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(d)  The  said  green  and  red  side-lights  shall  be  fitted  with  in- 
board screens  projecting  at  least  three  feet  forward  from  the 
light,  so  as  to  prevent  these  lights  from  being  seen  across  the  bow. 


366  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Steam- vessels — Range-lights. 

(e)  A  steam-vessel  when  under  way  may  carry  an  additional 
white  light  similar  in  construction  to  the  light  mentioned  in  sub- 
division (a).  These  two  lights  shall  be  so  placed  in  line  with  the 
keel  that  one  shall  be  at  least  fifteen  feet  higher  than  the -other, 
and  in  such  a  position  with  reference  to  each  other  that  the  lower 
light  shall  be  forward  of  the  upper  one.  The  vertical  distance 
between  these  lights  shall  be  less  than  the  horizontal  distance.* 

NOTE  2. — The  range-lights,  as  herein  described,  while  giving  far 
less  information  than  they  might  be  made  to  give  if  their  position 
were  more  definitely  fixed  by  law,  are  nevertheless  so  useful  that  it 
is  to  be  hoped  they  may,  before  many  years,  be  made  compulsory 
for  all  steamers  at  all  times  when  under  way.  They  are  at  present 
compulsory  within  the  interior  waters  of  the  United  States  for  all 
other  than  "sea-going"  steamers  and  ferry-boats.  (See  "Inland 
Rules"  for  United  States.  Art.  2.  f.) 

It  is  clear  that,  supposing  a  vessel  carrying  such  lights  to  be  seen 
on  an  even  keel,  the  lights  will  show  one  above  the  other  when  she 
is  heading  toward  the  observer;  that  if  she  changes  course,  the  lights 
will  open  out,  the  lower  one  (which  is  also  the  forward  one),  drawing 
away  from  the  upper  one,  in  the  direction  to  which  the  ship's  head  is 
changing.  If  the  position  of  the  lights  were  definitely  fixed  by  law, 
the  angle  of  the  line  joining  them  would  be  an  indication  of  the  course 
steered;  but  since  neither  the  vertical  nor  the  horizontal  distance 
between  them  is  established,  they  can  not  usually  be  regarded  as  giving 
much  more  information  about  the  course  than  is  given  by  side-lights. 
They  have,  however,  one  very  great  advantage  over  side-lights,  in 
that,  after  being  once  clearly  sighted,  a  change  in  their  relative  posi- 
tion gives  instant  notice  of  a  change  of  course.  This  indication  is 
especially  sensitive  when  the  vessel  carrying  the  light  is  heading 
toward  the  observer,  or  nearly  toward  him,  and  this  happens  to  be 
the  point  where  the  signals  given  by  side-lights  are  often  dangerously 
misleading.  (See  note  i.) 

There  is,  of  course,  the  farther  very  great  advantage  in  range- 
lights  over  side-lights,  that  they  can  be  seen  at  a  much  greater  distance 
and  thus  give  earlier  notice  as  to  the  approximate  course  of  the 
steamer  carrying  them.  Their  value  would  be  considerably  increased 
if  we  could  be  sure  of  finding  associated  with  them  the  permanent 
white  stern  light  permitted  by  the  second  part  of  Art.  10;  but  as  the 
law  stands,  these  two  "  permissive  "  clauses  have  no  connection  with 
each  other,  and  we  are  not  justified  in  assuming  that  a  steamer  which 
carries  range-lights  will  also  carry  a  permanent  stern  light. 

It  should  be  noted  that  when  the  vessel  carrying  range-lights  is 
seen  end-on,  these  lights  may  be  confused  with  the  lights  of  a  vessel 
towing. 


INLAND  RULES.  367 

Steam-vessels — Range-lights. 

(e)  A  sea-going  steam-vessel  when  under  way  may  carry  an 
additional  white  light,  similar  in  construction  to  the  light  men- 
tioned in  subdivision  (a).  These  two  lights  shall  be  so  placed  in 
line  with  the  keel  that  one  shall  be  at  least  fifteen  feet  higher  than 
the  other,  and  in  such  a  position  with  reference  to  each  other  that 
the  lower  light  shall  be  forward  of  the  upper  one.  The  vertical 
distance  between  these  lights  shall  be  less  than  the  horizontal 
distance. 


(f)  All  steam-vessels  (except  sea-going  ves- 
sels and  ferry-boats)  shall  carry  in  addition 
to  green  and  red  lights  required  by  article  two 
(b),  (c),  and  screens  as  required  by  article  two 
(d),  a  central  range  of  two  white  lights,  the 
after-light  being  carried  at  an  elevation  at 
least  fifteen  feet  above  the  light  at  the  head  of 
the  vessel.  The  head-light  shall  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  show  an  unbroken  light  through 
twenty  points  of  the  compass,  namely,  from 
right  ahead  to  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on 
either  side  of  the  vessel,  and  the  after -light 
so  as  to  show  all  around  the  horizon. 


368  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Steam-vessels — When  Towing. 

Art.  3.  A  steam-vessel  when  towing  another  vessel  shall,  in 
addition  to  her  side-lights,  carry  two  bright  white  lights  in  a  ver- 
tical line  one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,3  and 
when  towing  more  than  one  vessel  shall  carry  an  additional  bright 
white  light  six  feet  above  or  below  such  light,  if  the  length  of  the 
tow,  measuring  from  the  stern  of  the  towing  vessel  to  the  stern  of 
the  last  vessel  towed,  exceeds  six  hundred  feet.  Each  of  these 
lights  shall  be  of  the  same  construction  and  character,  and  shall 
be  carried  in  the  same  position  as  the  white  light  mentioned  in 
article  two*  (a),  excepting  the  additional  light,  which  may  be  car- 
ried at  a  height  of  not  less  than  fourteen  feet  above  the  hull.5 

Such  steam-vessels  may  carry  a  small  white  light  abaft  the  fun- 
nel or  aftermast  for  the  vessel  towed  to  steer  by,  but  such  light 
shall  not  be  visible  forward  of  the  beam. 

NOTE  3. — These  lights  may  be  confused  with  the  range-lights  of 
a  steamer  seen  end-on.  Moreover,  the  range-lights  and  towing- 
lights  may  be  carried  by  the  same  vessel,  which  may  thus,  when  seen 
end-on,  show  as  many  as  four  lights  in  a  vertical  line. 

NOTE  4. — Under  Art.  9  (b),  fishing- vessels  off  the  European  coast 
north  of  Cape  Finisterre,  carry,  when  fishing  with  drift-nets,  two 
white  lights,  which  may  be  confused  with  those  of  vessels  towing. 
This  calls  for  caution.  A  steamer  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  fishing 
ground,  and  having,  perhaps,  passed  a  number  of  fishing  boats  show- 
ing these  lights,  might  easily  fail  to  recognize  a  steamer  towing,  if  she 
should  chance  to  meet  one. 

NOTE  5. — That  is  to  say,  if  two  lights  are  carried,  the  lower  one 
shall  comply,  as  to  height,  with  the  requirements  of  Art.  2,  for  the 
regular  masthead  light;  and  if  three  are  carried,  the  middle  one  shall 
comply  with  these  requirements. 

It  is  found  that  two  lights  separated  by  six  feet  blend  into  a  single 
light  at  distances  beyond  about  four  miles. 

Special  Lights. 

Art.  4.  (a)  A  vessel  which  from  any  accident  is  not  under  com- 
mand shall  carry  at  the  same  height  as  the  white  light  mentioned 
in  article  two  (a),  where  they  can  best  be  seen,  and  if  a  steam- 
vessel  in  lieu  of  that  light,  two  red  lights,  in  a  vertical  line  one 
over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  and  of  such  a  charac- 
ter as  td  be  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least 


INLAND  RULES.  369 

Steam-vessels — When  Towing. 

Art.  3.  A  steam-vessel  when  towing  another  vessel  shall,  in 
addition  to  her  side-lights,  carry  tico  bright  white  lights  in  a  ver- 
tical line,  one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  three  feet  apart, 
and  when  towing  more  .than  one  vessel,  shall  carry  an  additional 
bright  white  light  three  feet  above  or  below  such  lights,  if 
the  length  of  the  tow,  measuring  from  the  stern  of  the  towing 
vessel  to  the  stern  of  the  last  vessel  towed,  exceeds  six  hundred 
feet.  Each  of  these  lights  shall  be  of  the  same  construction  and 
character,  and  shall  be  carried  in  the  same  position  as  the  white 
light  mentioned  in  article  two  (a)  or  the  after  range- 
light  mentioned  in  article  two  (f). 

Such  steam-vessel  may  carry  a  small  white  light  abaft  the  fun- 
nel or  aftermast  for  the  vessel  towed  to  steer  by,  but  such  light 
shall  not  be  visible  forward  of  the  beam. 


Art.  4  of  the  International  Rules  is  omitted  from  the  Inland  Rules.  In 
inland  waters,  therefore,  a  vessel  not  under  command  and  a  vessel  lay- 
ing or  picking  up  a  telegraph  cable,  carry  the  same  lights  as  other  vessels. 


370 


Plate  No.    121, 


Plate  No.   121 


372  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

two  miles ;  and  shall  by  day  carry  in  a  vertical  line  one  over  the  j 
other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  where  they  can  best  be  seen, ' 
tzvo  black  balls  or  shapes,  each  two  feet  in  diameter. 

(b)  A  vessel  employed  in  laying  or  in  picking  up  a  telegraph 
cable  shall  carry  in  the  same  position  as  the  white  light  mentioned 
in  article  two  (a),  and  if  a  steam- vessel,  in  lieu  of  that  light,  three 
lights  in  a  vertical  line,  one  over  the  other,  not  less  than  six  feet 
apart.  The  highest  and  lowest  of  these  lights  shall  be  red,  and  the 
middle  light  shall  be  white,  and  they  shall  be  of  such  a  character 
as  to  be  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two 
miles.6     By  day  she  shall  carry  in  a  vertical  line,  one  over  the 
other,  not  less  than  six  feet  apart,  where  they  can  best  be  seen, 
three  shapes  not  less  than  two  feet  in  diameter,  of  which  the 
highest  and  lowest  shall  be  globular  in  shape  and  red  in  color, 
and  the  middle  one  diamond  in  shape  and  white. 

NOTE  6. — The  middle  one  of  these  lights,  being  white,  will  usually 
be  seen  before  the  others,  and  may  be  mistaken,  until  the  other 
lights  are  seen,  for  a  steamer's  masthead  light. 

(c)  The  vessels  referred  to  in  this  article,  when  not  making 
way  through  the  water,  shall  not  carry  the  side-lights,  but  when 
making  way  shall  carry  them. 

(d)  The  lights  and  shapes  required  to  be  shown  by  this  article 
are  to  be  taken  by  other  vessels  as  signals  that  the  vessel  show- 
ing them  is  not  under  command  and  can  not  therefore  get  out  of 
the  way. 

These  signals  are  not  signals  of  vessels  in  distress  and  requir- 
ing assistance.     Such  signals  are  contained  in  article  thirty-one. 


INLAND  RULES.  373 


374  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Lights  for  Sailing-vessels  and  Vessels  in  Tow. 

Art.  5.  A  sailing-vessel  under  way  and  any  vessel  being"  towed 
shall  carry  the  same  lights  as  are  prescribed  by  article  two  for  a 
steam-vessel  under  way,  with  the  exception  of  the  white  lights 
mentioned  therein,  which  they  shall  never  carry. 


INLAND  RULES.  375 

Lights  for  Sailing-Vessels  and  Vessels  in  Tow. 

Art.  5.  A  sailing-vessel  under  way  or  being  towed  shall  carry 
the  same  lights  as  are  prescribed  by  article  two  for  a  steam-vessel 
under  way,  with  the  exception  of  the  white  lights  mentioned 
therein,  which  they  shall  never  carry. 

NOTE  7. — No  lights  are  prescribed  for  steam-vessels  being  towed 
in  inland  waters.  Such  vessels  however,  carry  the  same  lights  as 
sailing-vessels  being  towed. 

NOTE  8. — The  following  lights  are  carried  by  barges  and  canal-boats 
in  tow :  "  In  the  Hudson  River,  the  East  River  and  Long  Island 
Sound,  to  and  including  Narragansett  Bay,  barges  and  canal-boats 
carry  white  lights  at  bow  and  stern.  The  last  vessel  of  the  tow  car- 
ries two  white  lights  at  the  stern,  placed  athwartship.  Where  a 
number  of  them  are  massed  in  one  or  more  tiers,  the  limits  of  the 
tow  are  marked  by  white  lights  carried  at  the  bow  of  the  outside 
boats  and  an  additional  white  light  at  the  stern  of  each  of  the  two 
outside  boats  of  the  last  tier." 

In  waters  other  than  those  above-named,  barges  and  canal-boats  in 
tow  carry  colored  side-lights;  and  where  they  are  massed  in  tiers, 
these  lights  are  carried  at  the  bows  of  the  outside  barges  of  each 
tier. 

Ferry-boats  carry  the  side-lights  and  range-lights  of  other  steamers 
except  that  double-ended  ferry-boats  carry  a  central  range  of  white 
lights  showing  all  around  the  horizon  and  placed  at  equal  heights 
forward  and  aft;  in  place  of  the  range-lights  of  other  vessels. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  ferry-boats  may  carry  a  special  light, 
white  or  colored,  on  a  flag-staff  amidships,  15  feet  above  the  white 
range-lights  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  different  lines  of 
ferry-boats  from  each  other. 


376  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Lights  for  Small  Vessels. 

Art.  6.  Whenever,  as  in  the  case  of  small  vessels  under  way 
during  bad  weather,  the  green  and  red  side-lights  can  not  be  fixed, 
these  lights  shall  be  kept  at  hand,  lighted  and  ready  for  use ;  and 
shall,  on  the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels,  be  exhibited  on  their 
respective  sides  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  collision,  in '  such 
manner  as  to  make  them  most  visible,  and  so  that  the  green  light 
shall  not  be  seen  on  the  port  side,  nor  the  red  light  on  the  star- 
board side,  nor,  if  practicable,  more  than  two  points  abaft  the 
beam  on  their  respective  sides.  To  make  the  use  of  these  port- 
able lights  more  certain  and  easy  the  lanterns  containing  them 
shall  each  be  painted  outside  with  the  color  of  the  light  they 
respectively  contain,  and  shall  be  provided  with  proper  screens. 

lights  for  Small  Steam-  and  Sail-Vessels  and  Open  Boats. 

Art.  7.  Steam-vessels  of  less  than  forty,  and  vessels  under  oars 
or  sails  of  less  than  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage,  respectively,  and 
rowing  boats,  when  under  way,  shall  not  be  required  to  carry  the 
lights  mentioned  in  article  two  (a),  (b),  and  (c),  but  if  they  do 
not  carry  them  they  shall  be  provided  with  the  following  lights : 

First.     Steam-vessels  of  less  than  forty  tons  shall  carry — 

(a)  In  the  forepart  of  the  vessel,  or  on  or  in  front  of  the  fun- 
nel, where  it  can  best  be  seen,  and  at  a  height  above  the  gunwale 
of  not  less  than  nine  feet,  a  bright  white  light  constructed  and 
fixed  as  prescribed  in  article  two  (a),  and  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(b)* Green  and  red  side-lights  constructed  and  fixed  as  pre- 
scribed in  article  two  (b)  and  (c),  and  of  such  a  character  as  to 
be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile,  or  a  combined  lantern 
showing  a  green  light  and  a  red  light  from  right  ahead  to  two 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  their  respective  sides.  Such  lanterns 
shall  be  carried  not  less  than  three  feet  below  the  white  light. 

Second.  Small  steamboats,  such  as  are  carried  by  sea-going 
vessels,  may  carry  the  white  light  at  a  less  height  than  nine  feet 
above  the  gunwale,  but  it  shall  be  carried  above  the  combined 
lantern  mentioned  in  subdivision  one  (b). 


INLAND  RULES.  377 

Lights  for  Small  Vessels. 

Art.  6.  Whenever,  as  in  the  case  of  vessels  of  less  than 
ten  gross  tons  under  way  during  bad  weather,  the  green 
and  red  side-lights  can  not  be  fixed,  these  lights  shall  be  kept  at 
hand,  lighted  and  ready  for  use ;  and  shall,  on  the  approach  of  or 
to  other  vessels,  be  exhibited  on  their  respective  sides  in  sufficient 
time  to  prevent  collision,  in  such  manner  as  to  make  them  most 
visible,  and  so  that  the  green  light  shall  not  be  seen  on  the  port 
side  nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side,  nor,  if  practicable, 
more  than  two  points  abaft  the  beam  on  their  respective  sides. 
To  make  the  use  of  these  portable  lights  more  certain  and  easy 
the  lanterns  containing  them  shall  each  be  painted  outside  with 
the  color  of  the  the  light  they  respectively  contain,  and  shall  be 
provided  with  proper  screens. 


lights  for  Open  Boats. 

Art.  7.  Rowing  boats,  whether  under  oars  or  sail, 
shall  have  ready  at  hand  a  lantern  showing  a 
white  light  which  shall  be  temporarily  ex- 
hibited in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  col- 
lision. 


Plate  No.    122. 


STEAM     PILOT   VESSEL  UNDER   WAY. 


At  Anchor. 
STEAM  PILOT  VESSEL. 


Under  Way.  At  Anchor. 

Flare  -up  at  Intervals,)      (Shows  Flare-up  at  Intervals.) 
(     »      Side -Lights  »      »       .) 


SAILING  PILOT  VESSEL. 


Carries   Side  Lights,  tf 
Making  Way  thro1  Water. 

VESSEL  NOT  UNDER  COMMAND. 


Carries  Side  Lights?,  if 
Making  Way  thro' Water. 

VESSEL  WORKING  WITH 
TELEGRAPH  CABLE. 


VESSELS  LIGHTS. 


Plate   No.    123. 


\t-Nore  than  ISO  Feet  ->| 


OPEN  BOATS. 


STKAM   TRAWLER. 


LINE  FISHING. 


DRIFT  NET  FISHING. 


SAILING  TRAWLER 
OR  DREDGE. 


ANY  FISHING  VESSEL  AT  ANCHOR 
AND  ATTACHED  TO  FISHING  GEAR. 


VESSELS'  LIGHTS. 


380  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


ons 

lA* 


Third.  Vessels  under  oars  or  sails  of  less  than  twenty  tons 
shall  have  ready  at  hand  a  lantern  with  a  green  glass  on  one  side 
and  a  red  glass  on  the  other,  which,  on  the  approach  of  or  to 
other  vessels,  shall  be  exhibited  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent 
collision,  so  that  the  green  light  shall  not  be  seen  on  the  port  side 
nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

Fourth.  Rowing  boats,  whether  under  oars  or  sail,  shall  have 
ready  at  hand  a  lantern  showing  a  white  light  which  shall  be  tem- 
porarily exhibited  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  collision. 

The  vessels  referred  to  in  this  article  shall  not  be  obliged  to 
carry  the  lights  prescribed  by  article  four  (a)  and  article  eleven, 
last  paragraph. 

Lights  for  Pilot-vessels. 

Art.  8.  Pilot-vessels  when  engaged  on  their  stations  on  pilot- 
age duty  shall  not  show  the  lights  required  for  other  vessels,  but 
shall  carry  a  white  light  at  the  masthead,  visible  all  around  the 
horizon,7  and  shall  also  exhibit  a  flare-up  light  or  flare-up  lights 
at  short  intervals,  which  shall  never  exceed  fifteen  minutes. 

NOTE  7 — This  may  be  mistaken  for  a  steamer's  masthead  light. 

On  the  near  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels  they  shall  have 
their  side-lights  lighted,  ready  for  use,  and  shall  flash  or  show 
them  at  short  intervals,  to  indicate  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
heading,  but  the  green  light  shall  not  be  shown  on  the  port  side, 
nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

A  pilot-vessel  of  such  a  class  as  to  be  obliged  to  go  alongside  of 
a  vessel  to  put  a  pilot  on  board  may  show  the  white  light  instead 
of  carrying  it  at  the  masthead,  and  may,  instead  of  the  colored 
lights  above-mentioned,  have  at  hand,  ready  for  use,  a  lantern 
with  green  glass  on  the  one  side  and  a  red  glass  on  the  other,  to 
be  used  as  prescribed  above. 

Pilot-vessels,  when  not  engaged  on  their  station  on  pilotage 
duty,  shall  carry  lights  similar  to  those  of  other  vessels  of  their 
tonnage. 


INLAND  RULES.  381 


Lights  for  Pilot- Vessels. 

Art.  8.  Pilot-vessels  when  engaged  on  their  station  on  pilot- 
age duty  shall  not  show  the  lights  required  for  other  vessels,  but 
shall  carry  a  white  light  at  the  masthead,  visible  all  around  the 
horizon,  and  shall  also  exhibit  a  flare-up  light  or  flare  up  lights  at 
short  intervals,  which  shall  never  exceed  fifteen  minutes. 

On  the  near  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels  they  shall  have 
their  side-lights  lighted,  ready  for  use,  and  shall  flash  or  show 
them  at  short  intervals,  to  indicate  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
heading,  but  the  green  light  shall  not  be  shown  on  the  port  side, 
nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 

A  pilot-vessel  of  such  a  class  as  to  be  obliged  to  go  alongside  of 
a  vessel  to  put  a  pilot  on  board  may  show  the  white  light  instead 
of  carrying  it  at  the  masthead,  and  may,  instead  of  the  colored 
lights  above-mentioned,  have  at  hand,  ready  for  use,  a  lantern 
with  a  green  glass  on  the  one  side  and  a  red  glass  on  the  other,  to 
be  used  as  prescribed  above. 

Pilot-vessels  when  not  engaged  on  their  station  on  pilotage 
duty,  shall  carry  lights  similar  to  those  of  other  vessels  of  their 
tonnage. 


382  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

A  steam  pilot-vessel,  when  engaged  on  her  station  on 
pilotage  duty  and  in  waters  of  the  United  States,  and  not  at 
anchor,  shall,  in  addition  to  the  lights  required  for  all  pilot 
boats,  carry  at  a  distance  of  eight  feet  below  her  white  mast- 
head light  a  red  light,  visible  all  around  the  horizon  and  of 
such  a  character  as  to  be  visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear 
atmosphere  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles,  and  also  the 
colored  side-lights  required  to  be  carried  by  vessels  when 
under  way. 

When  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty  and  in 
waters  of  the  United  States,  and  at  anchor,  she  shall  carry 
in  addition  to  the  lights  required  for  all  pilot  boats  the  red 
light  above-mentioned,  but  not  the  colored  side-lights.  When 
not  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty,  she  shall  carry 
the  same  lights  as  other  steam-vessels. 

NOTE  8.— This  Rule  was  adopted  by  the  United  States  in  1900.  A 
similar  Rule  has  been  adopted  by  Great  Britain,  but  not  by  other 
Maritime  Powers.  Thus  the  rule  is  not,  in  fact,  International. 

Lights,  etc.,  of  Fishing  Vessels. 

Art.  9.  Fishing-vessels  and  fishing  boats,  when  under  way, 
and  when  not  required  by  this  article  to  carry  or  show  the  lights 
hereinafter  specified,  shall  carry  or  show  the  lights  prescribed 
for  vessels  of  their  tonnage  under  way. 

(a)  Open  boats,  by  which  is  to  be  understood  boats  not  pro- 
tected from  the  entry  of  sea  water  by  means  of  a  continuous  deck, 
when  engaged  in  any  fishing  at  night,  with  outlying  tackle  ex- 
tending not  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  horizontally 
from  the  boat  into  the  seaway,  shall  carry  one  all-round  zvhite 
light. 

Open  boats,  when  fishing  at  night,  with  outlying  tackle  extend- 
ing more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  horizontally  from  the 
boat  into  the  seaway,  shall  carry  one  all-round  white  light,  and 
in  addition,  on  approaching  or  being  approached  by  other  vessels, 
shall  show  a  second  white  light  at  least  three  feet  below  the  first 
light  and  at  a  horizontal  distance  of  at  least  five  feet  away  from 
it  in  the  direction  in  which  the  outlying-  tackle  is  attached. 

(b)  Vessels  and  boats,  except  open  boats  as  defined  in  sub- 
division (a),  when  fishing  with  drift-nets,10  shall,  so  long  as  the 
nets  are  wholly  or  partly  in  the  water,  carry  two  white  lights 
where  they  can  best  be  seen.     Such  lights  shall  be  placed  so  that 
the  vertical  distance  between  them  shall  be  not  less  than  six  feet 
and  not  more  than  fifteen  feet,  and  so  that  the  horizontal  distance 
between  them,  measured  in  a  line  with  the  keel  shall  be  not  less 


INLAND  RULES.  383 

A  steam  pilot-vessel,  when  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilot- 
age duty  and  in  waters  of  the  United  States,  and  not  at  anchor, 
shall,  in  addition  .to  the  lights  required  for  all  pilot-boats,  carry 
at  a  distance  of  eight  feet  below  her  white  masthead  light  a  red 
light,  visible  all  around  the  horizon  and  of  such  a  character  as 
to  be  visible  on  a  dark  night  with  a  clear  atmosphere  at  a  dis- 
tance of  at  least  two  miles,  and  also  .the  colored  side-lights  re- 
quired to  be  carried  by  vessels  when  under  way. 

When  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty  and  in  waters 
of  the  United  States,  and  at  anchor,  she  shall  carry  in  addition 
to  .the  lights  required  for  all  pilot-boats  the  red  light  above-men- 
tioned, but  not  the  colored  side-lights. 

When  not  engaged  on  her  station  on  pilotage  duty,  she  shall 
carry  the  same  lights  as  other  steam-vessels. 

Lights,  Etc.,  of  Fishing- Vessels. 

Art.  9.  (a)  Fishing- vessels  of  less  than  ten  gross  tons, 
when  under  way  and  when  not  having  their  nets,  trawls,  dredges, 
or  lines  in  the  water;  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  colored 
side-lights  ;  but  every  such  vessel  shall,  in  lieu  thereof,  have  ready 
at  hand  a  lantern  with  a  green  glass  on  one  side  and  a  red  glass 
on  the  other  side,  and  on  approaching  to  or  being  approached  by 
another  vessel  such  lantern  shall  be  exhibited  in  sufficient  time  to 
prevent  collision,  so  that  the  green  light  shall  not  be  seen  on  the 
port  side  nor  the  red  light  on  the  starboard  side. 


(b)  All  fishing-vessels  and  fishing-boats  of 
ten  gross  tons  or  upward,  when  under  way  and 
when  not  having  their  nets,  trawls,  dredges, 
or  lines  in  the  water,  shall  carry  and  show  the 
same  lihts  as  other  vessels  under  way. 


384  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


than  five  feet  and  not  more  than  ten  feet.  The  lower  of  these  two 
lights  shall  be  in  the  direction  of  the  nets,  and  both  of  them  shall 
be  of  such  a  character  as  to  show  all  around  the  horizon,  and  to  be 
visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  three  miles. 

Within  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  the  seas  bordering  the 
coasts  of  Japan  and  Korea  sailing  fishing-vessels  of  less  than 
twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  lower 
of  these  two  lights.  Should  they,  however,  not  carry  it,  they 
shall  show  in  the  same  position  (in  the  direction  of  the  net  or 
gear)  a  white  light,  visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  one  sea 
mile,  on  the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels. 

(c)  Vessels  and  boats,  except  open  boats  as  defined  in  sub- 
division (a),  when  line  fishing  with  their  lines  out  and  attached 
to  or  hauling  their  lines,  and  when  not  at  anchor  or  stationary 
within  the  meaning  of  subdivision  (h),  shall  carry  the  same  lights 
as  vessels  Ushing  with  drift-nets.  When  shooting  lines,  or  fishing 
with  towing  lines,  they  shall  carry  the  lights  prescribed  for  a 
steam-  or  sailing-vessel  under  way,  respectively. 

Within  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  the  seas  bordering  the 
coasts  of  Japan  and  Korea  sailing  fishing-vessels  of  less  than 
twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  lower 
of  these  two  lights.  Should  they,  however,  not  carry  it,  they 
shall  show  in  the  same  position  (in  the  direction  of  the  lines)  a 
white  light,  visible  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  one  sea  mile  on 
the  approach  of  or  to  other  vessels. 

NOTE  10. — A  distinction  is  drawn  in  Art.  9  between  two  important 
methods  of  fishing. — Trawlers,  dredgers,  and  drag-net  fishers,  run 
usually  with  the  tide,  dragging  a  net  or  scoop  along  the  bottom. 
Their  speed,  under  favorable  circumstances,  rarely  exceeds  two  or 
three  knots,  and  their  power  of  manoeuvring  is  of  course  very  lim- 
ited. These  vessels  are  usually  of  considerable  size  (from  50  to  100 
tons),  and  their  work  is  carried  on  in  deep  water  and  often  at  great 
distances  from  shore.  If  the  trawl  or  dredge  catches  on  the  bottom, 
the  vessel  is  virtually  at  anchor,  and  shows  the  regular  anchor  lights. 

Fishing  by  drift-nets  and  lines  is  carried  on  by  vessels  drifting, 
and,  of  course,  unable  to  manoeuvre  for  the  avoidance  of  collision. 

Drift-nets  are  laid  out  with  the  wind  and  the  vessel  rides  head  to 
wind  to  leeward  of  her  nets,  which  may  be  as  much  as  two  miles  in 
length,  stretching  off  to  windward,  and  buoyed  at  certain  distances. 
Lines  are  laid  out  across  the  tide,  and  may  be  six  or  eight  miles  in 
length,  marked  at  intervals  by  small  buoys  carrying  flags.  These 
buoys  are  not  to  float  the  line,  but  only  to  mark  it.  At  the  end  of  the 


INLAND  RULES.  385 


(c)  All  vessels,  when  trawling,  dredging,  or  fishing 
with  any  kind  of  drag-nets  or  lines,  shall  exhibit,  from 
some  part  of  .the  vessel  where  they  can  be  best 
seen,  two  lights.  One  of  these  lights  shall  be  red 
and  the  other  shall  be  white.  The  red  light  shall 
b  e  above  the  white  light,  and  shall  be  at  a  vertical 
distance  from  it  of  not  less  than  six  feet  and 
not  more  than  twelve  feet;  and  the  hori- 
zontal distance  between  them,  if  any,  shall 
not  be  more  than  ten  feet.  These  two  lights 
shall  be  of  such  a  character  and  contained  in 
lanterns  of  such  construction  as  to  be  visible 
all  round  the  horizon,  the  white  light  a  dis- 
tance of  not  less  than  three  miles  and  the  red 
light  of  not  less  than  two  miles. 


386  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


line  is  a  light  anchor  or  other  weight,  which  drags  along  the  bottom, 
keeping  the  lines  well  down  but  not  holding  the  boat. 

Drift-net  fishing  is  principally  done  by  night,  line  fishing  by  day, 
trawling  by  both  night  and  day. 

The  methods  of  fishing  to  which  this  article  applies  are  carried  on 
by  many  thousands  of  vessels  along  the  coasts  of  Europe  north  of 
Cape  Finisterre,  in  certain  parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the 
waters  of  China  and  Japan. 

(d)  Vessels  when  engaged  in  trawling,  by  which  is  meant  the 
dragging  of  an  apparatus  along  the  bottom  of  the  sea — 

First.  //  steam-vessels  shall  carry  in  the  same  position  as  the 
white  light  mentioned  in  article  two  (a)  a  tri-colored  lantern  so 
constructed  and  fixed  as  to  show  a  white  light  from  right  ahead 
to  two  points  on  each  bow,  and  a  green  light  and  a  red  light 
over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  from  two  points  on  each  bow  to  tivo 
points  abaft  the  beam  on  the  starboard  and  port  sides,  respect- 
ively ;  and  not  less  than  six  nor  more  than  twelve  feet  below  the 
tri-colored  lantern  a  white  light  in  a  lantern,  so  constructed  as 
to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and  unbroken  light  all  around  the 
horizon. 

Second.  If  sailing-vessels,  shall  carry  a  white  light  in  a  lan- 
tern, so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and  unbroken 
light  all  around  the  horizon,  and  shall  also,  on  the  approach  of 
or  to  other  vessels,  show  where  it  can  best  be  seen  a  white  flare- 
up  light  or  torch  in  sufficient  time  to  prevent  collision. 

All  lights  mentioned  in  subdivision  (d)  first  and  second  shall 
be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

(e)  Oyster  dredgers  and  other  vessels  fishing  with  dredge-nets 
shall  carry  and  show  the  same  lights  as  trawlers. 

(f)  Fishing-vessels  and  fishing  boats  may  at  any  time  use  a 
flare-up  light  in  addition  to  the  lights  which  they  are  by  this 
article  required  to  carry  and  show,  and  they  may  also  use  work- 
ing lights. 

(g)  Every   fishing-vessel   and   every  fishing  boat  under   one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  when  at  anchor,  shall  exhibit  a 
white  light  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least 
one  mile. 

Every  fishing-vessel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  or 
upward,  when  at  anchor,  shall  exhibit  a  white  light  visible  all 
around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile,  and  shall 


INLAND  RULES.  387 


lights  for  Rafts  or  Other  Craft  Not  Provided  For. 

(d)  Rafts,  or  other  water  craft  not  herein 
provided  for,  navigating  by  hand-power, 
horse-power,  or  by  the  current  of  the  river, 
shall  carry  one  or  more  good  white  lights, 
which  shall  be  placed  in  such  manner  as  shall 
be  prescribed  by  the  Board  of  Supervising  In- 
spectors of  Steam  Vessels. 


388  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

exhibit  a  second  light  as  provided  for  vessels  of  such  length  by 
article  eleven. 

Should  any  such  vessel,  whether  under  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  in  length  or  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length  or  up- 
ward, be  attached  to  a  net  or  other  fishing  gear,  she  shall  on  the 
approach  of  other  vessels  show  an  additional  white  light  at  least 
three  feet  below  the  anchor  light,  and  at  a  horizontal  distance  of 
at  least  five  feet  away  from  it  in  the  direction  of  the  net  or  gear. 

(h)  If  a  vessel  or  boat  when  fishing  becomes  stationary  in 
consequence  of  her  gear  getting  fast  to  a  rock  or  other  obstruc- 
tion, she  shall  in  daytime  haul  down  the  day  signal  required  by 
subdivision  (k)  ;  at  night  show  the  light  or  lights  prescribed  for 
a  vessel  at  anchor ;  and  during  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy 
rainstorms  make  the  signal  prescribed  for  a  vessel  at  anchor. 
(See  subdivision  (d)  and  the  last  paragraph  of  article  fifteen.) 

Fog-Signals  for  Vessels  Fishing. 

(i)  In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rainstorms  drift- 
net  vessels  attached  to  their  nets,  and  vessels  when  trawling, 
dredging,  or  fishing  with  any  kind  of  drag  net,  and  vessels 
line  fishing  with  their  lines  out,  shall,  if  of  twenty  tons  gross 
tonnage  or  upward,  respectively,  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  one  minute  make  a  blast;  if  steam-vessels,  with  .the 
whistle  or  siren,  and  if  sailing-vessels,  with  the  fog-horn, 
each  blast  to  be  followed  by  ringing  the  bell.  Fishing-vessels 
and  boats  of  less  than  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  shall  not 
be  obliged  to  give  the  above-mentioned  signals ;  but  if  they 
do  not,  they  shall  make  some  other  efficient  sound  signal  at 
intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute. 

(k)  All  vessels  or  boats  fishing  with  nets  or  lines  or  trawls, 
when  under  way,  shall  in  daytime  indicate  their  occupation  to  an 
approaching  vessel  by  displaying  a  basket  or  other  efficient  signal 
where  it  can  best  be  seen.  If  vessels  or  boats  at  anchor  have 
their  gear  out,  they  shall,  on  the  approach  of  other  vessels,  show 
the  same  signal  on  the  side  on  which  those  vessels  can  pass. 

The  vessels  required  by  this  article  to  carry  or  show  the  lights 
hereinbefore  specified  shall  not  be  obliged  to  carry  the  lights  pre- 
scribed by  article  four  (a)  and  the  last  paragraph  of  article 
eleven. 


INLAND  RULES.  389 


39O  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Lights  for  an  Overtaken  Vessel. 

Art.  10.  A  vessel  which  is  being  overtaken  by  another  shall 
show  from  her  stern  to  such  last-mentioned  vessel  a  white  light 
or  a  flare-up  light. 

The  white  light  required  to  be  shown  by  this  article  may  be 
fixed  and  carried  in  a  lantern,  but  in  such  case  the  lantern  shall 
be  so  constructed,  fitted,  and  screened  that  it  shall  throw  an  un- 
broken light  over  an  arc  of  the  horizon  of  twelve  points  of  the 
compass,  namely,  for  six  points  from  right  aft  on  each  side  of  the 
vessel,  so  as  to  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  at  least  one  mile.  Such 
light  shall  be  carried  as  nearly  as  practicable  on  the  same  level 
as  the  side-lights. 

Anchor  Lights. 

Art.  II.  A  vessel  under  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length, 
when  at  anchor,11  shall  carry  forward,  where  it  can  be  best  seen, 
but  at  a  height  not  exceeding  twenty  feet  above  the  hull,  a  white 
light  in  a  lantern  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and 
unbroken  light  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at 
least  one  mile 

A  vessel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  upwards  in  length, 
when  at  anchor,  shall  carry  in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  at 
a  height  of  not  less  than  twenty  and  not  exceeding  forty  feet 
above  the  hull,  one  such  light,  and  at  or  near  the  stern  of  the 
vessel,  and  at  such  a  height  that  it  shall  be  not  less  than  fifteen 
feet  lower  than  the  forward  light,  another  such  light. 

The  length  of  a  vessel  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  length  appear- 
ing in  her  certificate  of  registry. 

A  vessel  aground  in  or  near  a  fair-way  shall  carry  the  above 
light  or  lights  and  the  two  red  lights  prescribed  by  article 
four  (a). 

NOTE  ii. — A  vessel  is  at  anchor  under  the  law  when  she  is  fixed 
by  some  means  to  the  soil,  when  she  is  made  fast  to  a  buoy  which 
is  itself  fixed  to  the  soil,  and  when  she  is  moored  to  a  dock.  (See 
the  definition  of  "  under  way "  in  the  preliminary  clause  of  these 
rules.) 


INLAND  RULES.  39! 

Lights  for  an  Overtaken  Vessel. 

Art.  10.  A  vessel  which  is  being  overtaken  by  another,  ex- 
cept a  steam-vessel  with  an  after  range-l'ight 
showing  all  around  the  horizon,  shall  show  from 
her  stern  to  such  last-mentioned  vessel  a  white  light  or  a  flare-up 


light. 


Anchor  lights. 

Art.  ii.  A  vessel  under  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length 
when  at  anchor  shall  carry  forward,  where  it  can  best  be  seen, 
but  at  a  height  not  exceeding  twenty  feet  above  the  hull,  a  white 
light,  in  a  lantern  so  constructed  as  to  show  a  clear,  uniform,  and 
unbroken  light  visible  all  around  the  horizon  at  a  distance  of  at 
least  one  mile. 

A  vessel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  upwards  in  length 
when  at  anchor  shall  carry  in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  at  a 
height  of  not  less  than  twenty  and  not  exceeding  forty  feet  above 
the  hull,  one  such  light,  and  at  or  near  the  stern  of  the  vessel, 
and  at  such  a  height  that  it  shall  be  not  less  than  fifteen  feet  lower 
than  the  forward  light,  another  such  light. 

The  length  of  a  vessel  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  length  appear- 
ing in  her  certificate  of  registry. 

NOTE  12. — As  the  Inland  Rules  do  not  prescribe  special  lights  for  a 
vessel  aground,  such  a  vessel  must,  in  United  States  inland  waters, 
show  the  lights  of  a  vessel  at  anchor. 


392  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Special  Signals. 

Art.  12.  Every  vessel  may,  if  necessary  in  order  to  attract 
attention,  in  addition  to  the  lights  which  she  is  by  these  rules 
required  to  carry,  show  a  flare-up  light  or  use  any  detonating 
signal  that  can  not  be  mistaken  for  a  distress  signal.13 

NOTE  13. — This  is  useful  to  attract  the  attention  of  a  ship  whose 
duty  is  to  keep  clear,  if  she  does  not  show  a  disposition  to  act. 

Naval  Lights  and  Recognition  Signals. 

Art.  13.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  interfere  with  the  opera- 
tion of  any  special  rules  made  by  the  Government  of  any  nation 
with  respect  to  additional  station  and  signal-lights  for  two  or 
more  ships  of  war  or  for  vessels  sailing  under  convoy,  or  with  the 
exhibition  of  recognition  signals  adopted  by  ship  owners,  which 
have  been  authorized  by  their  respective  Governments  and  duly 
registered  and  published. 

Steam-vessel  under  Sail  by  Day. 

Art.  14.  A  steam-vessel  proceeding  under  sail  only  but  hav- 
ing her  funnel  up,  shall  carry  in  day-time,  forward,  where  it  can 
best  be  seen,  one  black  ball  or  shape  two  feet  in  diameter. 

III.— SOUND  SIGNALS  FOR  FOG,  AND  SO  FORTH. 

Preliminary. 

Art.  15.  All  signals  prescribed  by  this  article  for  vessels 
under  way  shall  be  given: 

First.     By  "  steam-vessels  "  on  the  whistle  or  siren. 

Second.  By  "  sailing-vessels  "  and  "  vessels  towed  "  on  the 
fog  horn. 

The  words  "  prolonged  blast "  used  in  this  article  shall  mean  a 
blast  of  from  four  to  six  seconds'  duration. 

A  steam-vessel  shall  be  provided  with  an  efficient  whistle  or 
siren,  sounded  by  steam  or  by  some  substitute  for  steam,  so 
placed  that  the  sound  may  not  be  intercepted  by  any  obstruction, 
and  with  an  efficient  fog-horn,  to  be  sounded  by  mechanical 
means,  and  also  with  an  efficient  bell.  (In  all  cases  where  the 
rules  require  a  bell  to  be  used  a  drum  may  be  substituted  on 
board  Turkish  vessels,  or  a  gong  where  such  articles  are  used  on 
board  small  sea-going  vessels.)  A  sailing-vessel  of  twenty  tons 
gross  tonnage  or  upward  shall  be  provided  with  a  similar  fog- 
horn and  bell. 


INLAND  RULES.  393 

Special  Signals. 

Art.  12.  Every  vessel  may,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  attract 
attention,  in  addition  to  the  lights  which  she  is  by  these  rules 
required  to  carry,  show  a  flare-up  light  or  use  any  detonating 
signal  that  can  not  be  mistaken  for  a  distress  signal. 


Naval  Lights  and  Kecognition  Signals. 

Art.  13.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  interfere  with  the  opera- 
tion of  any  special  rules  made  by  the  Government  of  any  nation 
with  respect  to  additional  station  and  signal  lights  for  two  or 
more  ships  of  war  or  for  vessels  sailing  under  convoy,  or  with  the 
exhibition  of  recognition  signals  adopted  by  shipowners,  which 
have  been  authorized  by  their  respective  Governments,  and  duly 
registered  and  published. 


Steam- Vessels  Under  Sail  by  Day. 

Art.  14.  A  steam-vessel  proceeding  under  sail  only,  but  hav- 
ing her  funnel  up,  may  carry  in  day-time,  forward,  where  it 
can  best  be  seen,  one  black  ball  or  shape  two  feet  in  diameter. 


HI.— SOUND  SIGNALS  FOR  FOG,  AND  SO  FORTH. 

Preliminary. 

Art.  15.  All  signals  prescribed  by  this  article  for  vessels 
under  way  shall  be  given : 

1.  By  "  steam-vessels  "  on  the  whistle  or  siren. 

2.  By  "  sailing-vessels  "  and  "  vessels  towed  "  on  the  fog-horn. 
The  words  "  prolonged  blast "  used  in  this  article  shall  mean  a 

blast  of  from  four  to  six  seconds  duration-. 

A  steam-vessel  shall  be  provided  with  an  efficient  whistle  or 
siren,  sounded  by  steam  or  by  some  substitute  for  steam,  so  placed 
that  the  sound  may  not  be  intercepted  by  any  obstruction,  and 
with  an  efficient  fog-horn ;  also  with  an  efficient  bell.  A  sailing- 
vessel  of  twenty  tons  gross  tonnage  or  upward  shall  be  provided 
with  a  similar  fog-horn  and  bell. 


394  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


NOTE  14. — It  is  not  easy  to  say  what  an  "  efficient "  signal  should 
be  capable  of  doing;  but  we  may  probably  insist  that,  under  reason- 
ably favorable  conditions  of  wind  and  weather,  a  whistle  should  be 
heard  not  less  than  two  miles,  a  fog-horn  and  bell  not  less  than  one 
mile.  It  would,  however,  be  dangerous  to  rely  upon  hearing  signals 
at  these  or  any  other  definite  distances,  so  many  and  so  seemingly 
erratic  are  the  atmospheric  conditions  which  modify  the  audibility  of 
sound.  A  sound  which,  under  most  circumstances,  would  be  clearly 
heard  several  miles,  may,  by  some  peculiar  conditions  of  the  atmos- 
phere, be  inaudible  at  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  It  is  fairly  well  established, 
that  sounds  are  heard  rather  better  in  a  fog  or  snow  than  in  clear 
weather  (other  things  being  equal)  ;  that  sound  travels  better  with 
the  wind  than  against  it;  that  a  strong  breeze  breaks  up  all  sounds, 
and  that  when  the  upper  and  lower  strata  of  air  are  moving  in  con- 
trary directions,  sounds  are  particularly  unreliable. 

In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rainstorms,  whether  by  day 
or  night,  the  signals  described  in  this  article  shall  be  used  as 
follows,  namely: 

Steam-vessel  under  Way. 

(a)  A  steam-vessel  having  way  upon  her  shall  sound,  at  inter- 
vals of  not  more  than  two  minutes,  a  prolonged  blast.15 

NOTE  15 — It  is  clear  that  the  blast  from  a  whistle  might  be  so 
prolonged  or  so  frequent  as  to  lessen  unduly  the  probability  of  hear- 
ing a  signal  from  another  vessel.  There  is  also,  no  doubt,  some 
danger  that  the  hearing  of  an  officer  on  the  bridge  may  be  in  a 
measure  dulled  by  the  too  frequent  sound  of  his  own  whistle. 

It  will  be  agreed  by  most  seamen,  however,  that  two  minutes  is 
much  too  long  a  time  between  signals;  and  the  general  practice  of 
men-of-war  and  well  regulated  merchant  steamers  seems  to  be  to 
make  this  interval,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  one  minute,  and  to  give  the 
blast  a  length  of  from  four  to  six  seconds. 

There  are  electrical  devices  on  the  market,  by  which  the  whistle 
is  sounded  automatically,  at  regular  intervals  and  for  a  fixed  length 
of  time,  thus  relieving  the  officer  of  the  watch  and  the  quarter- 
master of  all  thought  in  the  matter,  and  leaving  them  free  to  give 
their  undivided  attention  to  duties  from  which,  in  a  fog,  they  never 
should  be  diverted. 

The  interval  between  signals  is  closely  connected  with  the  ques- 
tion of  speed  in  a  fog. 

(b)  A  steam-vessel  under  way,  but  stopped,  and  having  no 
way  upon  her,  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  two 
minutes,   two  prolonged  blasts,  with  an  interval  of  about  one 
second  between. 


INLAND  RULES. 


395 


In  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rainstorms  whether  by  day 
or  night,  the  signals  described  in  this  article  shall  be  used  as  fol- 
lows, namely : 

Steam- Vessels  Under  Way. 

(a)  A  steam-vessel  under  way  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute,  a  prolonged  blast. 

NOTE  16. — In  United  States  inland  waters  no  special  signal  is  pro- 
vided for  a  vessel  tinder  way,  but  having  no  way  upon  her.  Such  a 
vessel  uses  the  regular  signal  for  a  vessel  under  way. 


396  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

NOTE  17. — The  power  to  distinguish,  in  a  fog,  between  a  vessel 
moving  and  one  stationary,  is  very  important.  Properly  used,  this 
signal  should  be  interpreted  by  another  vessel  hearing  it,  to  mean, 
"The  way  is  off  my  ship;  you  may  feel  your  way  past  me." 

A  caution  is  required  in  connection  with  the  interval  (two  minutes) 
permitted  between  signals.  The  law  probably  intended  to  require 
that  a  steamer,  having  thus  indicated  that  she  is  stationary,  •  should 
remain  so  until  she  gives  another  signal  and  a  different  one — in  other 
words,  if  a  vessel  which  has  been  stationary,  starts  her  engines,  she 
should,  by  the  time  she  gathers  way,  give  the  signal  for  a  vessel 
moving,  without  reference  to  the  interval  which  has  elapsed  since  her 
last  signal.  Otherwise,  she  might  gather  way  and  actually  move  a 
considerable  distance  before  indicating  to  vessels  in  her  vicinity  that 
she  was  no  longer  at  rest  and  in  the  position  where  they  would  have 
every  reason  for  placing  her. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  from  the  time  two  vessels  sight  each 
other,  the  sound  signals  of  this  article  give  way  to  the  sound  signals 
of  Art.  28  for  "  Vessels  in  sight  of  each  other." 

Sail-vessel  under  Way. 

(c)  A  sailing-vessel  under  way  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute : 

When  on  the  starboard  tack,  one  blast. 
When  on  the  port  tack,  two  blasts  in  succession. 
When  with  the  wind  abaft  the  beam,  three  blasts  in  suc- 
cession. 

(d)  A  vessel  when  at  anchor  shall,  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  one  minute,  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  about  five  seconds. 

Vessels  Towing  or  Towed  and  Vessels  Unable  to  Manoeuvre. 

(e)  A  vessel  when  towing,18  a  vessel  employed  in  laying  or  in 
picking  up  a  telegraph  cable,  and  a  vessel  under  way,  which  is 
unable  to  get  out  of  .the  way  of  an  approaching  vessel  through 
being  not  under  command,  or  unable  to  manoeuvre  as  required  by 
the  rules,  shall,  instead  of  the  signals  prescribed  in  subdivisions 
(a)  and  (c)  of  this  article,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  two  min- 
utes, sound  three  blasts  in  succession,  namely:   One  prolonged 
blast  followed  by  two  short  blasts.    A  vessel  towed  may  give  this 
signal  and  she  shall  not  give  any  other. 

NOTE  18. — Observe  that  a  vessel  towing  -is  here  classed  with  vessels 
unable  to  manoeuvre  in  accordance  with  these  rules  when  "  in  a  fog, 
mist,  falling  snow,  or  heavy  rainstorm."  We  shall  see,  however 
(Art.  16),  that  she  is  not  relieved  from  the  obligations  laid  upon 


INLAND  RULES. 


397 


Sail- Vessels  Under  Way. 

(c)  A  sailing-vessel  under  way  shall  sound,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute,  when  on  the  starboard  tack,  one  blast; 
when  on  the  port  tack,  two  blasts  in  succession,  and  when  with 
the  wind  abaft  the  beam,  three  blasts  in  succession. 

Vessels  at  Anchor. 

(d)  A  vessel  when  at  anchor  shall,  at  intervals,  of  not  more 
than  one  minute,  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  about  five  seconds. 

Vessels  Towing  or  Towed. 

(e)  A  steam-vessel  when  towing,  shall,  instead  of  the  signals 
prescribed  in  subdivision   (a)   of  this  article,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  one  minute,  sound  three  blasts  in  succession,  namely, 
one  prolonged  blast  followed  by  two  short  blasts. 

A  vessel  towed  may  give  this  signal  and  she  shall  not  give  any 
other. 

NOTE  19. — In  United  States  inland  waters  no  signal  is  provided  for 
a  vessel  not  under  command. 

Rafts  or  Other  Craft  Not  Provided  For. 

(f)  All  rafts  or  other  water  craft,  not  herein 
provided      for,      navigating      by      hand-power, 
horse-power,    or   by   the    current   of    the    river, 
shall  sound  a  blast  of  the  fog-horn,  or  equiva- 
lent signal,   at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one 
minute. 


398  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

other  vessels,  of  running  at  a  moderate  speed,  stopping  in  case  of 
danger,  and  proceeding  with  caution;  nor  from  the  obligations  as  to 
manoeuvring  which  are  prescribed  for  steam-vessels  meeting  and 
crossing.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  a  vessel  with  another  vessel  in 
tow  is  not  by  any  means  as  free  to  manoeuvre  as  if  she  were  unin- 
cumbered.  She  can  not  stop  and  back  as  readily  as  other  vessels,  and 
even  if  she  does  this  herself,  she  is  powerless  to  stop  or  back  the  tow. 
It  has  been  repeatedly  held  by  the  courts  that  other  vessels  are  bound 
to  take  these  limitations  into  account  and  to  make  due  allowance  for 
them,  not  only  in  a  fog,  but  at  all  other  times.  In  other  words  a  tow- 
ing-vessel  must,  as  far  as  possible,  comply  with  the  Rules;  but  other 
vessels  must  not  expect  her  to  do  things  which  are  manifestly  im- 
possible- 

The  fog-signal  prescribed  for  a  vessel  towing,  and  the  lights  which 
such  a  vessel  shows  at  night,  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  throwing 
upon  other  vessels  an  obligation  to  manoeuvre  with  especial  caution. 
And  this  obligation  is  of  course  greater  in  a  fog  than  at  any  other 
time. 

Small  Sailing-vessels  and  Boats.20 

Sailing-vessels  and  boats  of  less  than  twenty  tons  gross  ton- 
nage shall  not  be  obliged  to  give  the  above-mentioned  signals, 
but  if  they  do  not  they  shall  make  some  other  efficient  sound- 
signal  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  one  minute, 

NOTE  20. — See  Art.  9  for  the  fog-signals  to  be  used  by  fishing-vessels. 


(399) 


FOG     SIGNALS. 


SHORT  BLAST. 


1  Second 
Interval  ' 


LONG  BLAST 

STEAM  VESSEL   HAVING  WAY  UPON  HER 
STEAM    VESSEL    UNDERWAY  \ 
BUT    STOPPED    and    HAV    t- 
ING   NO    WAY    UPON    HER  ) 
SAILING  VESSEL  UNDERWAY 

On   Starboard  Tack          

On   Port  Tack  

With  Wind  Abaft  Beam    

VESSEL  TOWING 
VESSEL  TOWED 

VESSEL  NOT  UNDER  COMMAND 
VESSEL  WORKING  WITH   TELE- 
GRAPH CABLE 


NOTE  — The  International  Rules  require  the.  above  signals  to  be 
sounded  at  intervals  not  exceeding  2  minutes,  the  United  States  Inland 
Rules  at  intervals  not  exceeding  1  minute. 


VESSEL  AT  ANCHOR       Ring  BELL  rapidly  for  5  seconds 
(at  intervals  of  ^   minute). 

VESSEL  FISHING  Ring  Bell. 

Blast 

SOUND     SIGNALS. 

FOR  VESSELS  IN  SIGHT  OF  EACH  OTHER. 

—  I  am  directing  my  course  to  starboard. 

—  —  I  am  directing  my  course  to  port. 

—  —    —      My  engines  are  going  Full  Speed  Astern. 

NOTE  —The  significance  attached  to  these  signals  in  the  Pilot  Rules 
for  United  States  Inland  waters  is  slightly  different  from  the  above. 
(See   Notes    29   and   31,    Chapter    XIV,   Art.    19.) 


4OO  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


Speed  in  Fog. 

Art.  16.  Every  vessel  shall,  in  a  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or 
heavy  rainstorms,  go  at  a  moderate  speed,  having  careful  regard 
to  the  existing  circumstances  and  conditions.21 

A  steam-vessel  hearing,  apparently  forward  of  her  beam,  the 
fog-signal  of  a  vessel  the  position  of  which  is  not  ascertained, 
shall,  so  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  admit,  stop  her 
engines,  and  then  navigate  with  caution  until  danger  of  collision 
is  over.23' 24 

NOTE  21. — There  is  no  point  in  connection  with  seamanship  or 
admiralty  law  about  which  there  has  been  as  much  discussion  as 
about  this  question  of  "  moderate  speed "  in  a  fog.  The  debates  on 
it  fill  a  hundred  pages  or  more  in  the  report  of  the  International 
Marine  Conference  by  which  the  present  rules  were  drawn  up.  It 
was  contended  that  a  law  upon  which  so  much  depended  ought  not 
to  be  left  open  to  any  doubt ;  and  that  the  maximum  speed  at  which 
a  vessel  might  run  in  a  fog  should  be  definitely  fixed  by  a  law  which 
no  one  could  violate  except  willfully  and  at  his  peril. 

This  subject  will  be  treated  as  a  matter  of  seamanship  in  a  later 
chapter.  As  a  matter  of  law,  it  may  be  said  that  the  courts  of 
both  England  and  America  have  held  that  "  moderate "  speed  is 
such  speed  as  will  enable  a  vessel  to  bring  herself  to  rest  before  com- 
ing into  collision  with  any  other  vessel  which  she  can  sight  through 
the  fog  in  its  existing  condition,  assuming  that  the  other  vessel  is  also 
running  at  a  proper  speed  under  this  Rule,  and  that  both  vessels  act 
promptly  to  prevent  collision.  In  a  dense  fog,  this  calls  for  the  very 
lowest  speed  which  is  consistent  with  steerage  way;  and  steamers 
have  been  found  at  fault  when  running  less  than  five  knots.  If  the 
fog  is  so  dense  that  a  ship  which  has  barely  steerage  way  and  a  good 
reserve  of  power  can  not  see  another  in  time  to  avoid  her  even  at  that 
low  speed,  then  the  law  requires  vessels  to  stop,  and,  if  circumstances 
permit  it,  to  anchor.  This  is  unquestionably  the  law  in  the  matter, 
and  we  are  not  at  present  considering  its  wisdom,  or  the  general 
practice  of  seamen  in  connection  with  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  held  by  the  courts  of  both  England 
and  the  United  States  that  a  higher  speed  is  permissible  in  the  open 
sea,  where  the  probability  of  falling  in  with  other  ships  is  very  slight, 
than  in  crowded  waters  or  on  fishing  grounds.  When  in  the  neigh- 


INLAND  RULES.  4OI 

Speed  in  Fog. 

Art.  1 6.  Every  vessel  shall,  in  a  fog,  mist,  falling  snow,  or 
heavy  rainstorms,  go  at  a  moderate  speed,  having  careful  regard 
to  the  existing  circumstances  and  conditions. 

A  steam-vessel  hearing,  apparently  forward  of  her  beam,  the 
fog-signal  of  a  vessel  the  position  of  which  is  not  ascertained 
shall,  so  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  admit,  stop  her 
engines,  and  then  navigate  with  caution  until  danger  of  collision 
is  over. 

NOTE  22. — See  Note  21  under  International  Rules,  and  §  IV  at  end 
of  this   Chapter. 


402  INTERNATIONAL  RULES. 

borhood  of  shoals  and  particularly  in  channels  \\here  currents  are 
strong  and  unknown,  it  may  be  dangerous  to  slow  beyond  a  certain 
point,  and  a  court  would  doubtless  accept  such  a  plea  as  a  valid 
reason  for  maintaining  a  speed  which  under  other  circumstances  would 
be  excessive.  This  is  fully  covered  by  the  phrase  "  having  careful 
regard  to  the  existing  circumstances  and  conditions."  But  the  burden 
of  proof  is  thrown  upon  the  ship  maintaining  such  speed.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  custom  commonly  followed  by  the  great 
ocean  liners,  of  running  through  dense  fogs  at  a  speed  only  a  few 
knots  below  their  maximum,  is,  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  altogether  un- 
justifiable. 

This  subject  is  one  of  such  importance,  and  the  views  held  by  seafaring 
men  with  regard  to  it  are  so  vague,  that  it  is  considered  worth  while  to 
.append  (in  §  IV  at  end  of  this  Chapter)  a  number  of  decisions  of  the 
courts  dealing  with  the  subject.  These  decisions  will  be  found  recorded, 
in  conveniently  accessible  form,  in  the  files  of  the  "  Federal  Reporter," 
which  can  be  seen  in  almost  any  large  library. 

NOTE  23. — It  should  be  noted  that  the  ship  need  not  be  stopped  im- 
mediately, but  the  engines  must  be.  If,  later,  the  danger  appears 
such  that  the  ship  should  be  stopped,  there  will  be  a  reserve  of 
steam  ready  for  backing  hard.  The  objection  to  backing  the  engines 
before  the  location  of  the  danger  is  fixed,  is  that  by  doing  so  the 
control  of  the  ship  by  the  helm  is  to  a  great  extent  destroyed. 

NOTE  24. — It  is  clear  that  this  rule  could  not  safely  be  applied  by 
the  individual  vessels  of  a  squadron  of  men-of-war  steaming  in 
formation  in  a  fog.  Each  vessel  under  such  circumstances  must  have 
due  regard  to  her  neighbors  in  squadron  as  well  as  to  other  vessels 
which  may  be  near.  The  case  is  covered  by  the  words  "  so  far  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  admit." 


INLAND  RULES.  403 


404  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

IV.— STEERING  AND  SAILING  RULES. 

Preliminary — Risk  of  Collision. 

Risk  of  collision  can,  when  circumstances  permit,  be  ascer- 
tained by  carefully  watching  the  compass  bearing  of  an  approach- 
ing vessel.  If  the  bearing  does  not  appreciably  change,  such  risk 
should  be  deemed  to  exist.25 

NOTE  25. — The  principle  involved  here  is  one  of  such  vital  import- 
ance that  it  should  be  very  carefully  impressed  upon  all  officers.  If 
the  bearing  of  the  other  vessel  is  changing  materially,  there  is  no 
danger  of  collision.  If  it  is  not  changing  materially,  collision  is 
certain  to  result  unless  one  vessel  changes  course  or  speed.  The  fact 
that  the  bearing  is  not  changing  indicates  that  both  vessels  are  due  to 
arrive  at  the  same  time  at  the  point  where  their  courses  intersect.  If 
either  vessel  changes  course  or  speed  (materially)  the  danger  will  be 
averted.  If  both  vessels  change,  the  danger  may  remain.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  law  provides  (Art.  21)  that  the  vessel  which  has 
the  other  on  her  own  port  side  shall  keep  her  course  and  speed.  As- 
suming that  this  requirement  is  complied  with,  practically  any  change 
on  the  part  of  the  other  vessel  should  make  the  situation  safe,  but  the 
law  has  wisely  provided  (Art.  22)  that  she  shall,  if  possible,  avoid 
crossing  ahead. 

The  practical  way  to  determine  whether  the  bearing  is  or  is  not 
changing,  is  to  stand  at  a  point  from  which  the  compass  can  be 
watched,  and  then,  taking  care  that  a  steady  course  is  steered,  bring 
the  other  vessel  or  light  "  on "  with  a  point  of  the  rigging  or  the 
rail,  and  watch  thus  for  a  change  in  its  bearing. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  cases  in  which  there  is  no  time  to  wait 
for  a  change  in  bearing;  but  in  cases  of  such  emergency  as  this,  the 
ships  are  close  enough  together  to  make  the  danger  clear  at  a  glance, 
and  there  is  rarely  more  than  one  course  of  action  that  can  give  a 
hope  of  safety. 

It  is  of  course  not  necessary  to  wait  for  the  side-light  of  a  steamer 
to  show.  The  masthead  light  should  be  visible  five  miles,  and  if  it 
shows  at  anything  like  this  distance  the  warning  of  danger,  assuming 
thSt  such  exists,  will  be  perfectly  clear  long  before  the  side-lights  are 
made  out. 

Sailing-vessels. 

Art.  17.  When  two  sailing-vessels  are  approaching  one  an- 
other, so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  one  of  them  shall  keep  out 
of  the  way  of  the  other  as  follows,  namely : 

(a)  A  vessel  which  is  running  free  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  a  vessel  which  is  close-hauled. 


INLAND  RULES.  405 

IV.— STEERING  AND  SAILING  RULES. 

Preliminary— Risk  of  Collision. 

Risk  of  collision  can,  when  circumstances  permit,  be  ascertained 
by  carefully  watching  the  compass  bearing  of  an  approaching 
vessel.  If  the  bearing  does  not  appreciably  change,  such  risk 
should  be  deemed  to  exist. 

NOTE  26. — See   Note  25  under  corresponding  paragraph  in  the  In 
ternational  Rules. 


Sailing-Vessels  Meeting  or  Crossing. 

Art.  17.  When  two  sailing-vessels  are  approaching  one  an- 
other, so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  one  of  them  shall  keep  out 
of  the  way  of  the  other  as  follows,  namely : 

(a)  A  vessel  which  is  running  free  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  a  vessel  which  is  close-hauled. 


406  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

(b)  A  vessel  which  is  close-hauled  on  the  port  tack  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  a  vessel  which  is  close-hauled  on  the  starboard 
tack. 

(c)  When  bo.th  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  different 
sides,  the  vessel  which  has  the  wind  on  the  port  side  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

(d)  When  both  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  the  same 
side,  the. vessel  which  is  to  the  windward  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  vessel  which  is  to  leeward. 

(e)  A  vessel  which  has  .the  wind  aft  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  the  other  vessel.29 

NOTE  26. — These  rules  are  simple  and  satisfactory  when  the  situa- 
tions to  which  they  apply  are  clearly  defined.  But  in  practice  it  is 
often  impossible  for  A  to  tell  with  any  degree  of  certainty  whether 
B  is  close-hauled  or  a  little  free ;  and  yet  the  action  to  be  taken  by 
A  may  depend  upon  this  and  this  alone. 

A  similar  difficulty  arises  when  A,  running  with  the  wind  free  on 
the  port  hand,  sights  B,  to  port  and  running  free,  and  cannot  tell 
on  which  side  B  has  the  wind.  If  she  has  it  on  the  starboard  side, 
A  must  keep  clear,  under  rule  (c)  ;  if  on  the  port  side,  A  has  the 
right  of  way  and  B  must  keep  clear  under  rule  (d),  because  she  is  to 
windward  of  A. 

No  doubt  a  rational  interpretation  of  this  rule  would  require  B 
to  keep  clear  in  most  of  these  doubtful  cases,  on  the  ground  that  she 
would  have  the  wind  so  nearly  aft  that  it  should  be  considered  aft 
in  the  meaning  of  the  law. 

An  officer  taking  charge  of  the  deck  of  a  sailing  ship  should  esti- 
mate carefully  the  true  direction  of  the  wind  and  consider  what  con- 
clusions may  be  based  upon  this  with  regard  to  the  possible  or  prob- 
able course  of  other  vessels  whose  lights  may  be  sighted  anead  or 
on  either  hand.  Remembering  that  a  square  rigger  can  not  lie  closer 
to  the  wind  than  6  points  and  that  side-lights  show  through  a  range 
of  ten  points,  from  right  ahead  to  two  points  abaft  the  beam,  he  will 
have  much  information  upon  which  to  base  an  opinion  as  to  the 
way  in  which  a  ship  may  be  heading  which  is  seen  on  a  given  bear- 
ing, showing  a  red  or  green  light.  If  his  own  ship  is  close-hauled 
on  the  port  tack,  he  has  the  right  of  way  over  all  other  vessels  ex- 
cept one  close-hauled  on  the  starboard  tack,  and  it  is  clear  that  such 
a  vessel,  to  threaten  collision,  must  bear  a  little  on  the  lee  bow  and 
must  show  a  red  light.  In  a  similar  way,  deductions  may  be  drawn 
from  the  data  available  in  any.  given  case,  and,  usually,  a  line  of 
bearing  may  be  decided  upon,  with  reference  to  which  it  may  be 
said  that,  broadly  speaking,  it  is  right  to  stand  on  for  all  crossing 
lights  seen  on  one  side  of  this  line,  and  to  give  way  to  all  crossing 
lights  seen  on  the  other  side. 


INLAND  RULES.  407 

(b)  A  vessel  which  is  close-hauled  on  the  port  tack  shall  keep 
out  of  .the  way  of  a  vessel  which  is  close-hauled  on  the  starboard 
tack. 

(c)  When  both  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  different 
sides,  the  vessel  which  has  the  wind  on  the  port  side  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

(d)  When  both  are  running  free,  with  the  wind  on  the  same 
side,  the  vessel  which  is  to  the  windward  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  vessel  which  is  to  the  leeward. 

(e)  A  vessel  which  has  the  wind  aft  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  the  other  vessel. 


408  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Steam-vessels  Meeting. 

Art.  1 8.  When  two  steam-vessels  are  meeting  end-on,  or 
nearly  end-on,  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  each  shall  alter 
her  course  to  starboard,  so  that  each  may  pass  on  the  port  side  of 
the  other. 

This  article  only  applies  to  cases  where  vessels  are  meeting 
end-on,  or  nearly  end-on,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve  the  risk 
of  collision,  and  does  not  apply  to  two  vessels  which  must,  if  both 
keep  on  their  respective  courses  pass  clear  of  each  other. 

The  only  cases  to  which  it  does  apply  are  when  each  of  the 
two  vessels  is  end-on  or  nearly  end-on,  to  the  other ;  in  other 
words,  to  cases  in  which,  by  day,  each  vessel  sees  the  masts  of  the 
other  in  a  line  or  nearly  in  a  line  with  her  own ;  and  by  night  to 
cases  in  which  each  vessel  is  in  such  a  position  as  to  see  both  the 
side-lights  of  the  other. 

It  does  not  apply  by  day  to  cases  in  which  a  vessel  sees  another 
ahead  crossing  her  own  course ;  or  by  night,  to  cases  where  the 
red  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  red  light  of  the  other,  or 
where  the  green  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  green  light 
of  the  other,  or  Vhere  a  red  light  without  a  green  light,  or  a 
green  light  without  a  red  light,  is  seen  ahead,  or  where  both 
green  and  red  lights  are  seen  anywhere  but  ahead.27 

NOTE  27. — The  wording  of  this  article  is  necessarily  somewhat 
indefinite,  and  leaves  room  for  a  difference  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  situation  on  the  part  of  two  vessels  approaching  each  other, 
"nearly  end-on,"  but  not  exactly  so.  If  one  vessel  considers  that 
the  situation  is  a  case  of  "meeting,"  as  here  defined,  while  the  other 
considers  it  one  of  "  crossing,"  there  may  be  such  a  conflict  of  action 
between  them  as  will  lead  to  serious  danger,  especially  if  it  happens 
that  each  vessel  is,  in  reality,  a  little  on  the  starboard  bow  of  the 
other. 

Many  seamen  consider  a  green  light  a  very  little  on  the  starboard 
bow  the  most  serious  threat  of  collision  with  which  they  have  to  deal. 

The  great  safeguard,  in  this  and  other  doubtful  cases,  lies  in  an 
interchange  of  sound-signals  while  the  vessels  arc  still  separated  by  a 
safe  distance,  and  in  prompt  action  in  accordance  with  the  under' 
standing  thus  established. 


INLAND  RULES. 

Steam- Vessels  Meeting. 

Art.  18.  When  steam  vessels  are  approaching  » 
each  other  head  and  head,  that  is,  end  on,  or  nearly  so, 
it  shall  be  the  duty  ofeach  to  pass  on  the  port 
side  of  t-he  other  ;  and  either  vessel  shall  give, 
as  a  signal  of  her  intention,  one  short  and  distinct 
blast  of  her  whistle,  which  the  other  vessel 
shall  answerpromptly  by  a  similar  blast  of  her 
whistle,  and  thereupon  such  vessels  shall  pass 
on  the  port  side  of  each  other.  But  if  the  courses  of 
such  vessels  are  so  far  on  the  starboard  of 
each  other  as  not  to  be  considered  as  meeting 
head  and  head,  either  vessel  shall  immediately 
give  two  short  and  distinct  blasts  of  her  whistle,  which  the 
other  vessel  shall  answer  promptly  by  two 
similar  blasts  of  her  whistle,  and  they  shall  pass 
on  the  starboard  side  of  each  other. 

The  foregoing  only  applies  to  cases  where  vessels  are 
meeting  end  on  or  nearly  end  on,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  involve 
risk  of  collision ;  in  other  words,  to  cases  in  which,  by  day,  each 
vessel  sees  the  masts  of  the  other  in  a  line,  or  nearly  in  a  line, 
with  her  own,  and  by  night  to  cases  in  which  each  vessel  is  in 
such  a  position  as  to  see  both  the  side-lights  of  the  other. 

It  does  not  apply  by  day  to  cases  in  which  a  vessel  sees  another 
ahead  crossing  her  own  course,  or  by  night  to  cases  where  the 
red  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  red  light  of  the  other,  or 
where  the  green  light  of  one  vessel  is  opposed  to  the  green  light 
of  the  other,  or  where  a  red  light  without  a  green  light  or  a  green 
light  without  a  red  light,  is  seen  ahead,  or  where  both  green  and 
red  lights  are  seen  anywhere  but  ahead. 

The  following  have  no  parallel  in  the  International  Rulesf^ 

Nearing  a  Bend  or  Leaving  a  Slip. 

Whenever  a  steam-vessel  is  nearing  a  short  bend  or 
curve  in  the  channel,  where,  from  the  height  of  the  banks 
or  other  cause,  a  steam- vessel  approaching  from  the  oppo- 
site direction  can  not  be  seen  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile, 


Plate  No.    124. 


No  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


SHOWING   "  B "   AS    SEEN  BY  "  A 


RANGE  LIGHTS. 


STEAMERS  MEETING. 


INLAND  RULES.  41  i 

mile,  such  steam-vessel,  when  she  shall  have  arrived  within 
half  a  mile  of  such  curve  or  bend,  shall  give  a  signal  by  one 
long  blast  of  the  steam-whistle,  which  signal  shall  be  an- 
swered by  a  similar  blast,  given  by  any  approaching  steam- 
vessel  that  may  be  within  hearing.  Should  such  signal  be  so 
answered  by  a  steam-vessel  upon  the  farther  side  of  such 
bend,  then  the  usual  signals  for  meeting  and  passing  shall 
immediately  be  given  and  answered ;  but,  if  the  first  alarm 
signal  of  such  vessel  be  not  answered,  she  is  to  consider  .the 
channel  clear  and  govern  herself  accordingly. 

When  steam-vessels  are  moved  from  their  docks  or  berths, 
and  other  boats  are  liable  to  pass  from  any  direction  toward 
them,  they  shall  give  the  same  signal  as  in  the  case  of  vessels 
meeting  at  a  bend,  but  immediately  after  clearing  the  berths 
so  as  to  be  fully  in  sight  they  shall  be  governed  by  the  steer- 
ing and  sailing  rules.  (See  remarks  in  §  III  of  this  chap- 
ter on  •'  Vessels  Backing.") 

Passing  a  Vessel  Going  in  Same  Direction. 

When   steam-vessels  are   running  in   the   same  direction, 
and  the  vessel  which  is  astern  shall  desire  to  pass  on  the 
right  or  starboard  hand  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give 
one  short  blast  of  the  steam-whistle,  as  a  signal  of  such 
desire,  and  if  the  vessel  ahead  answers  with  one  blast,  she 
shall  put  her  helm  to  port;  or  if  she  shall  desire  to  pass  on 
the  left  or  port  side  of  the  vessel  ahead,  she  shall  give  two 
short  blasts  of  the  steam-whistle  as  a  signal  of  such  desire, 
and  if  the  vessel  ahead  answers  with  two  blasts,  shall  put 
her  helm  to  starboard ;  or  if  the  vessel  ahead  does  not  think 
it  safe  for  the  vessel  astern  to  attempt  to  pass  at  that  point, 
she   shall  immediately  signify   the  same  by  giving  several ! 
short  and  rapid  blasts  of  the  steam-whistle,  not  less  than 
four,  and  under  no  circumstances  shall  the  vessel  astern  at- 
tempt to  pass  the  vessel  ahead  until  such  time  as  they  have 
reached  a  point  where  it  can  be  safely  done,  when  said  vessel 
ahead  shall  signify  her  willingness  by  blowing  the  proper 
signals.     The  vessel  ahead  shall  in  no  case  attempt  to  cross 
the  bow  or  crowd  upon  the  course  of  the  passing  vessel. 

NOTE  28. — It  is  good  seamanship  for  a  vessel  overtaking  another 
from  directly  astern  and  desiring  to  pass  her,  to  pass  to  the  left  rather 
than  to  the  right,  and  for  the  following  reason:  Suppose  that  A  is 
overtaking  B.  It  may  happen  that  while  A  is  passing,  B  will  meet 
another  vessel,  C.  In  this  case,  B  must  put  her  helm  to  port  and 
sheer  over  to  the  right,  which  will  throw  her  directly  across  A's  bow 
if  A  is  passing  on  that  side.  With  A  passing  on  the  other  side,  B's 
port  helm  will  take  her  clear  of  both  A  and  C. 


412  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Two  Steam-vessels  Crossing. 

Art.  19.  When  two  steam-vessels  are  crossing,  so  as  to  in- 
volve risk  of  collision,  the  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her  own 
starboard  side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

NOTE  29. — In  comparing  the  International  and  the  Inland  Rules  for 
Vessels  Meeting  and  Crossing,  some  confusion  may  result  from  the 
different  methods  of  treating  these  situations  in  the  two  sets  of  Rules. 

In  the  International  Rules,  the  manoeuvres  for  meeting  vessels 
are  prescribed  in  Article  18  and  those  for  crossing  vessels  in  Articles 
19,  21  and  22.  The  sound  signals  for  both  meeting  and  crossing  are 
given  in  Article  28. 

The  treatment  of  the  matter  in  the  Inland  Rules  is  described  in 
Note  3f,  on  the  opposite  page. 

The  signals  from  Article  28  are  quoted  below  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience and  for  comparison  with  the  United  States  Pilot  Rules  on 
the  opposite  page. 


From  International  Rules.      (Art.  28). 

"One  short  blast  to  mean,  I  am  directing  my  course  to 
starboard. 

Two  short  blasts  to  mean,  I  am  directing  my  course  to 
port. 

Three  short  blasts  to  mean,  My  engines  are  going  at  full 
speed  astern." 

NOTE  30. — It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  sound-signals  are  as  ap- 
plicable by  night  as  by  day,  and  that,  under  favorable  conditions,  they 
can  be  heard  nearly  or  quite  as  far  as  side-lights  are  required  by  law 
to  be  visible.  There  is,  however,  this  important  difference;  that  by 


INLAND  RULES.  413 

Two  Steam-Vessels  Crossing. 

Art.  19.  When  two  steam- vessels  are  crossing,  so  as  to  involve 
risk  of  collision,  the  vessel  which  has  the  other  on  her  own  star- 
board side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other. 

NOTE.  31. —  (Compare  with  Note  29,  opposite.)  In  the  Inland  Rules, 
Article  18  prescribes  the  manoeuvres  for  vessels  meeting  and  also  the 
Sound  Signals  to  be  used.  Articles  19,  21  and  22  prescribe  the 
manoeuvres  for  vessels  crossing.  But,  at  no  point  in  the  Inland  Rules 
as  enacted  by  Congress  are  the  Sound  Signals  for  crossing  prescribed. 
For  some  reason,  Congress  thought  it  wise  to  leave  these  signals  to 
be  fixed  by  the  Supervising  Inspectors  of  Steam  Vessels.  Accord- 
ingly, these  sound  signals  (for  vessels  crossing  in  United  States  In- 
land Waters)  are  found  only  in  the  "Pilot  Rules"  issued  by  the 
Steamboat  Inspection  Service.  Altho  the  rules  thus  prescribed  are 
in  their  essentials  identical  with  the  corresponding  International 
Rules,  they  are  unfortunately  expressed  in  terms  differing  rather 
widely  from  those  of  the  International  Rules,  as  will  be  seen  by 
comparing  the  following  with  the  corresponding  International  Rules. 

It  must  be  understood  that  tJiese  rules  are  as  much  a  matter 
of  law  as  if  they  had  been  specifically  embodied  in  the  Act  of 
Congress.  They  are,  lioivever,  subject  to  change  by  the  will  of 
Supervising  Inspectors  of  Steam-vessels. 

From  United  States  Pilot  Rules 

"One  short  blast  of  the  whistle  signifies  intention. to  direct 
course  to  own  starboard,  except  when  two  steam  vessels  are 
approaching  each  other  at  right  angles  or  obliquely,  when  it 
signifies  intention  of  the  steam  vessel  which  is  to  starboard 
of  the  other  to  hold  course  and  speed. 

Tivo  short-blasts  of  the  whistle  signify  intention  to  direct 
own  course  to  port. 

Three  short  blasts  of  the  whistle  shall  mean,  '  My  engines 
are  going  at  full  speed  astern.' " 


Plate  No.    125. 


No  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


CROSSING:  "A"  SIGHTS  "B"  TO  PORT. 


RANGE  LIGHTS. 
STKAMERS  CROSSING  WITH 


AND  WITHOUT  RANGE  LIGHTS 


Plate  No.    125. 


No  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


Bi 


CROSSING  :  "  A  "  SIGHTS  "  B  "  TO  STARBOARD. 


RANGE  LIGHTS. 


STEAMERS  CROSSING  WITH  AND  WITHOUT  RANGE  LIGHTS. 


416  JNTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

day  the  sound  of  the  whistle  is  usually  confirmed  by  the  sight  of  es- 
caping steam,  and  seamen  commonly  rely  almost  as  much  upon  their 
eyes  as  upon  their  ears  for  recognizing  signals.  By  night  this  ad- 
vantage does  not  exist,  and  greater  care  is  called  for. 

The  danger  of  misunderstanding  at  night  is  still  further  increased 
by  the  uncertainty  existing  on  each  ship  with  regard  to  the  exact 
course  of  the  other,  except  in  case  where  both  ships  are  carrying 
range-lights.  Where  range-lights  are  not  used,  it  is  helpful  to  rec- 
ognize the  value  of  the  information  given  by  a  change  in  the  side- 
lights seen ;  as,  for  example,  a  change  from  one  light  to  both,  or  from 
both  to  one.  A  change  in  the  relative  positions  of  the  side-light  and 
the  masthead  light  is  also  significant,  but  as  there  is  no  means  of 
knowing  whether  the  side-light  is  forward  of  the  masthead  light  or 
abaft  it,  this  gives  no  information  as  to  the  nature  of  the  change  of 
course  which  is  being  made. 

Observe  that  there  is  nothing  in  Articles  18  and  19  which  leaves 
any  choice  to  meeting  and  crossing  vessels  with  regard  to  the  side 
on  which  they  pass  each  other.  Nevertheless,  circumstances  some- 
times arise  in  which  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  pass  starboard  to 
to  starboard,  and  this  manoeuvre  can  be  justified  (but  only  in  cases  of 
necessity),  under  Art.  27.  See  §  III  of  this  chapter. 


INLAND  RULES.  417 

Additional  Pilot  Rules  covering  exceptional  situations  in  Inland  Waters. 

(a)  If,  when  steam-vessels  are  approaching  each  other,  either 
vessel  fails  to  understand  the  course  or  intention  of  the  other,  from 
any  cause,  the  vessel  so  in  doubt  shall  immediately  signify  the  same 
by  giving  several  short  and  rapid  blasts,  not  less  than  four,  of  the 
steam-whistle. 

(6)  If  from  any  cause  whatever  the  conditions  covered  by  this  sit- 
uation are  such  as  to  prevent  immediate  compliance  with  each  other's 
signals,  the  misunderstanding  or  objection  shall  at  once  be  made 
apparent  by  blowing  the  danger  signal,  and  both  steamers  shall  be 
stopped,  and  backed  if  necessary,  until  signals  for  passing  with  safety 
arc  made  and  understood. 

(c)  Steam-vessels   are   forbidden  to  use  what  has  become  techni- 
cally known  among  "  pilots "  as  "  Cross  Signals,"  that  is,  answering 
one  whistle  with  two  and  answering  two  whistles  with  one. 

(d)  The  signals  for  passing,  by  the  blowing  of  the  whistle,  shall 
be  given  and  answered  by  pilots,  in  compliance  with  these  rules,  not 
only  when  meeting  "head  and  head,"  or  nearly  so,  but  at  all  times, 
when  the  steam  vessels  are  in  sight  of  each  other,  when  passing  or 
meeting  at  a  distance  within  half  a  mile  of  each  other,  and  whether 
passing  to  the  starboard  or  port. 

O)  The  whistle  signals  provided  in  the  rules  of  this  article,  for 
steam-vessels  meeting,  passing,  or  overtaking,  are  never  to  be  used 
except  when  steamers  are  in  sight  of  each  other,  and  the  course  and 
position  of  each  can  be  determined  in  the  day-time  by  a  sight  of  the 
vessel  itself,  or  by  night  by  seeing  its  signal  lights.  In  fog,  mist,  fall- 
ing snow  or  heavy  rainstorms,  when  vessels  can  not  see  each  other, 
fog-signals  only  must  be  given. 


4 1 8  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


£team-vessels  shall  keep  out  of  the  Way  of  Sailing-vessels. 

Art.  20.  When  a  steam-vessel  and  a  sailing-vessel  are  pro- 
ceeding in  such  directions  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  the 
steam-vessel  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  sailing-vessel. 

Course  and  Speed. 

Art.  21.  Where,  by  any  of  these  rules,  one  of  the  two  vessels 
is  to  keep  out  of  the  way  the  other  shall  keep  her  course  and 
speed. 

Note.  When,  in  consequence  of  thick  weather  or  other  causes, 
such  vessel  finds  herself  so  close  that  collision  can  not  be  avoided 
by  the  action  of  the  giving-way  vessel  alone,  she  also  shall  take 
such  action  as  will  best  aid  to  avert  collision.  (See  articles 
twenty-seven  and  twenty-nine.)** 

NOTE.  32. — One  of  the  most  trying  positions  in  which  an  officer 
can  find  himself  is  that  of  holding  on  with  a  prospect  of  collision 
where  the  other  vessel  ought  to  keep  clear  but  takes  no  action  to  do 
so.  The  impossibility  of  knowing  whether  the  giving-way  ship  in- 
tends to  act,  and  if  so  when,  and  the  necessity  of  deciding  when  the 
time  has  come  which  will  justify  the  holding-on  ship  in  acting  under 
this  article  make  the  situation  very  difficult. 

The  use  of  a  detonating  signal,  as  per  article  12,  may  be  helpful 
here. 

Crossing  Ahead. 

Art.  22.  Every  vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules  to  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  if  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  admit,  avoid  crossing  ahead  of  the  other.33 

NOTE  33. — This  article  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Rules 
of  the  Road,  to  which  it  was  added  by  the  International  Conference 
of  1889. 

Taken  in  connection  with  Art.  19  and  with  the  new  provision  of 
Art.  21,  by  which  the  vessel  having  the  right  of  way  is  required  to 
keep  her  speed  as  well  as  her  course,  it  defines  very  clearly  the  ma- 
noeuvre for  steamers  crossing,  and  requires,  as  a  matter  of  law,  what 
has  always  been  the  practice  of  careful  and  competent  seamen. 

It  is  manifestly  impracticable  to  insist  that  the  vessel  which  is 
required  to  keep  clear  shall  never  cross  ahead  of  the  other  since  cir- 
cumstances may  in  some  cases  make  it  imperative  to  do  so;  as,  for 
example,  where  the  y-essels  suddenly  sight  each  other  close  aboard, 
or  where  neighboring  vessels  or  other  dangers  must  be  taken  into 
account  Such  situations  very  rarely  arise  on  the  open  sea,  except 


INLAND  RULES.  419 

Steam-Vessels  Shall  Keep  Out  of  the  Way  of  Sailing- Vessels. 

Art.  20.  When  a  steam-vessel  and  a  sailing-vessel  are  pro- 
ceeding in  such  directions  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  the 
steam-vessel  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  sailing-vessel. 


Course  and  Speed. 

Art.  21.     Where,  by  any  of  these  rules,  one  of  the  two  vessels 
is  to  keep  out  of  the  way  the  other  shall  keep  her  course  and  speed. 


Crossing  Ahead. 

Art.  22.  Every  vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules  to 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  if  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  admit,  avoid  crossing  ahead  of  the  other. 

NOTE  34. — See  Pilot  Rules  quoted  under  Art.  19.  See  also  §  III  of 
this  chapter. 

In  crowded  waters,  situations  frequently  arise  in  which  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  burdened  vessel  shall  cross  ahead;  but  if  collision  re- 
sults in  such  a  case,  the  courts  insist  upon  conclusive  evidence  that 
this  was  in  fact  the  safest  course.  Whatever  action  is  to  be  taken, 
whether  in  crowded  or  in  open  waters,  this  action  should  be  announced 
by  the  proper  whistle  signal. 

It  seems  to  be  believed  by  many  officers,  that  a  signal  of  two  blasts 
by  the  vessel  which  should  give  away  has  the  effect  of  changing  the 
law  and  of  justifying  this  vessel  in  crossing  ahead,  merely  as  a  mat- 
ter of  convenience.  The  law  on  this  subject  is  very  clearly  set  forth 
in  the  decision  quoted  in  §  III.  of  this  chapter. 


42O  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


in  case  of  fog,  and  when  they  do  arise  they  are  lully  covered  by 
Art.  21  (International  Rules),  and  Art.  27.  It  is  especially  important, 
in  cases  of  this  kind,  to  indicate  by  whistle  signals  the  manoeuvre 
which  is  to  be  attempted.  (See  §111,  of  this  chapter.) 

Steam-vessels  shall  slacken  Speed  or  Stop. 

Art.  23.  Every  steam-vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules 
to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  on  approaching 
her,  if  necessary,  slacken  her  speed  or  stop  or  reverse. 

Overtaking  Vessels. 

Art.  24.  Notwithstanding  anything  contained  in  these  rules 
every  vessel,  overtaking  any  other,  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of 
the  overtaken  vessel.85 

Every  vessel  coming  up  with  another  vessel  from  any  di- 
rection more  than  two  points  abaft  her  beam,  that  is,  in  such 
a  position,  with  reference  to  the  vessel  which  she  is  over- 
taking that  at  night  she  would  be  unable  to  see  either  of  that 
vessel's  side-lights,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  overtaking  ves- 
sel ;  and  no  subsequent  alteration  of  the  bearing  between  the 
two  vessels  shall  make  the  overtaking  vessel  a  crossing  vessel 
within  the  meaning  of  these  rules,  or  relieve  her  of  the  duty 
of  keeping  clear  of  the  overtaken  vessel  until  she  is  finally 
past  and  clear. 

As  by  day  the  overtaking  vessel  can  not  always  know  with  cer- 
tainty whether  she  is  forward  of  or  abaft  this  direction  from  the 
other  vessel  she  should,  if  in  doubt,  assume  that  she  is  an  over- 
taking vessel  and  keep  out  of  the  way. 

NOTE  35  — The  rule  for  overtaking  vessels  applies  to  sailing-ves- 
sels as  well  as  to  steamers,  so  that  a  sailing-vessel  close-hauled  com- 
ing up  from  more  than  two  points  abaft  the  beam  of  a  vessel  running 
free,  must  keep  clear.  Moreover,  a  sailing-vessel  overtaking  a  steamer 
must  keep  clear.  And  this  obligation  upon  the  overtaking  vessel  to 
keep  clear  is  not  modified  by  any  subsequent  change  in  the  relative 
position  of  the  two  vessels. 

Where  the  crossing  rule  and  the  overtaking  rule  conflict — that  is 
to  say,  where  one  vessel  is  both  overtaking  and  crossing  another,  the 
overtaking  rule  prevails,  so  that  a  crossing  steamer  which  has  come 
up  from  more  than  two  points  abaft  the  beam  of  another,  must  keep 
clear,  even  though  she  is  on  the  starboard  side  of  the  other ;  and  she 
is  not  relieved  from  this  obligation  even  after  she  draws  ahead  on  to 
the  beam  and  bow  of  the  other  vessel. 


INLAND  RULES.  42  I 


Steam-Vessel  Shall  Slacken  Speed  or  Stop. 
Art.  23.     Every  steam-vessel  which  is  directed  by  these  rules 
to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  vessel  shall,  on  approaching 
her,  if  necessary,  slacken  her  speed  or  stop  or  reverse. 

Overtaking  Vessels. 

Art.  24.  Notwithstanding  anything  contained  in  these  rules 
every  vessel  overtaking  any  other,  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of 
the  overtaken  vessel. 

Every  vessel  coming  up  with  another  vessel  from  any  di- 
rection more  than  two  points  abaft  her  beam,  that  is,  in  such 
a  position,  with  reference  to  the  vessel  which  she  is  overtak- 
ing that  at  night  she  would  be  unable  to  see  either  of  that 
vessel's  side-lights,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  overtaking  ves- 
sel ;  and  no  subsequent  alteration  of  the  bearing  between  the 
two  vessels  shall  make  the  overtaking  vessel  a  crossing  vessel 
within  the  meaning  of  these  rules,  or  relieve  her  of  the  duty 
of  keeping  clear  of  the  overtaken  vessel  until  she  is  finally 
past  and  clear. 

As  by  day  the  overtaking  vessel  can  not  always  know  with 
certainty  whether  she  is  forward  of  or  abaft  .this  direction 
from  the  other  vessel  she  should,  if  in  doubt,  assume  that 
she  is  an  overtaking  vessel  and  keep  out  of  her  way. 

NOTE  36.— See  Note  35  under  Article  24,  International  Rules. 

In  cases  where  the  crossing  rule  and  the  overtaking  rule  conflict, 
the  overtaking  rule  prevails;  so  that  a  vessel  which  is  both  over- 
taking and  crossing  another  must  keep  clear,  even  though  she  has  the 
other  on  her  port  hand. 


422  INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 

Narrow  Channels. 

Art.  25.  In  narrow  channels  every  steam-vessel  shall,  when  it 
is  safe  and  practicable,  keep  to  that  side  of  the  fair-way  or  mid- 
channel  which  lies  on  the  starboard  side  of  such  vessel.37 

NOTE.  37. — It  is  not  permissible  to  keep  to  the  wrong  side  of  the 
channel  to  avoid  an  unfavorable  current,  or  for  any  other  purpose, 
except  to  avoid  danger. 

Rights  of  Way  of  Fishing- vessels. 

Art.  26.  Sailing-vessels  under  way  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  sailing-vessels  or  boats  fishing  with  nets,  or  lines,  or  trawls. 
This  rule  shall  not  give  to  any  vessel  or  boat  engaged  in  fishing 
the  right  of  obstructing  a  fair-way  used  by  vessels  other  than 
fishing-vessels  or  boats. 

General  Prudential  Rule. 

Art.  27.  In  obeying  and  construing  these  rules  due  regard 
shall  be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation  and  collision,  and  to  any 
special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from  the 
above  rules  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger. 


INLAND  RULES.  423 

Narrow  Channels. 

Art.  25.  In  narrow  channels  every  steam-vessel  shall,  when  it 
is  safe  and  practicable,  keep  to  that  side  of  the  fair-way  or 
mid-channel  which  lies  on  the  starboard  side  of  such  vessel. 

NOTE.  38. — It  is  not  permissible  to  keep  to  the  wrong  side  of  the 
channel  either  to  avoid  an  unfavorable  current,  or  for  any  other  pur- 
pose, except  to  avoid  danger.  See  Note  40. 

Eights  of  Way  of  Fishing-Vessels. 

Art.  26.  Sailing-vessels  under  way  shall  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  sailing-vessels  or  boats  fishing  with  nets,  or  lines,  or  trawls. 
This  rule  shall  not  give  to  any  vessel  or  boat  engaged  in  fishing 
the  right  of  obstructing  a  fair-way  used  by  vessels  other  than 
fishing-vessels  or  boats. 

General  Prudential  Bule.41 

Art.  27.  In  obeying  and  construing  these  rules  due  regard 
shall  be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation  and  collision,  and  to  any 
special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  departure  from  the 
above  rules  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  immediate  danger. 

NOTE  40. — Although  there  is  no  provision  of  the  law  giving  special 
privileges  to  ferry-boats  the  courts  have  repeatedly  held  that  ferry- 
boats are  entitled  to  reasonable  freedom  of  entrance  to,  and  exit 
from,  their  slips. 

It  is  generally  held,  also,  that  vessels  navigating  a  harbor  should 
avoid  passing  close  to  the  docks. 

By  a  special  statute  of  the  State  of  New  York,  vessels  navigating 
East  River  are  required  to  keep  as  near  the  middle  of  the  stream  as 
is  practicable,  and  not  to  exceed  a  speed  of  10  knots. 

NOTE.  41.  It  is  to  this  Article  that  appeal  must 'be  made  for  justi- 
fication of  any  departure  from  the  rules  elsewhere  prescribed  for 
vessels  meeting  or  crossing.  But  no  appeal  can  be  successfully  main- 
tained before  the  Courts  unless  it  appears  clearly  that  the  course 
adopted  was  dictated  by  necessity ;— that  it  was,  in  fact,  the  only 
course  which  gave  a  chance  of  safety,  or  at  least  the  one  which  gave 
the  maximum  chance.  Neither  the  convenience  of  one  or  both  ves- 
sels nor  an  agreement  between  them  is  held  by  the  Courts  to  justify 
departure  from  the  rules. 

But  see  the  very  full  discussion  under  §  III  of  this  chapter,  where 
it  is  explained  that  violations  of  the  rules  by  Pilots  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  United  States  Inland  waters. 


424 


INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


Sound-signals  for  Vessels  in  Sight  of  One  Another.42 

Art.  28.  The  words  "  short  blast  "  used  in  this  article  shall 
mean  a  blast  of  about  one  second's  duration. 

When  vessels  are  in  sight  of  one  another,  a  steam-vessel  under 
way,  in  taking  any  course  authorized  or  required  by  these  rules, 
shall  indicate  that  course  by  the  following  signals  on  her  whistle 
or  siren,  namely: 

One  short  blast  to  mean,  "I  am  directing  my  course  to  star- 
board." 

Two  short  blasts  to  mean,  "  I  am  directing  my  course  to  port." 

Three  short  blasts  to  mean,  "  My  engines  are  going  at  full 
speed  astern." 

NOTE  42. — It  should  be  noted  that  this  rule  applies  to  vessels  in 
sight  of  each  other,  whether  by  night  or  day,  in  clear  or  in  foggy 
weather,  but  not  to  vessels,  however  close,  which  do  not  see  each 
other  or  each  other's  lights.  Thus  two  vessels  in  a  fog  must  keep 
to  the  signals  of  Art.  15  until  they  actually  see  each  other.  Many 
seamen  hold  that  there  would  be  great  advantage  in  the  use  of  these 
signals  by  vessels  near  each  other,  but  not  in  sight,  in  a  fog,  and 
some  officers  do  not  hesitate  to  use  them  in  this  way;  but  this  is  in 
direct  defiance  of  the  law. 

No  Vessel,  under  any  Circumstances,  to  Neglect  Proper 
Precautions. 

Art.  29.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  exonerate  any  vessel  or 
the  owner  or  master  or  crew  thereof,  from  the  consequences  of 
any  neglect  to  carry  lights  or  signals,  or  of  any  neglect  to  keep  a 
proper  lookout,  or  of  the  neglect  of  any  precaution  which  may 
be  required  by  the  ordinary  practice  of  seamen,  or  by  special 
circumstances  of  the  case. 

Reservation  of  Rules  for  Harbors  and  Inland  Navigation. 

Art.  30.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  interfere  with  the  opera- 
tion of  a  special  rule,  duly  made  by  local  authority,  relative  to  the 
navigation  of  any  harbor,  river,  or  inland  waters. 

NOTE.  43. — In  the  waters  of  the  United  States  there  are  two  sets 
of  rules  "duly  made  by  local  authority";  ist,  the  so-called  "Inland 
Rules  "  made  by  Act  of  Congress  and  printed  herewith ;  2d,  the  "  Pilot 
Rules "  made  by  the  inspectors  of  steam-vessels  and  embodied  in 
the  Inland  Rules  as  here  given. 


INLAND  RULES. 


425 


Sound-Signals  for  Vessels  in  Sight  of  One  Another. 

Art.  28.  When  vessels  are  in  sight  of  one  another  a  steam- 
vessel  under  way  whose  engines  are  going  at  full  speed  astern 
shall  indicate  that  fact  by  three  short  blasts  on  the  whistle. 

The  following  are  the  Pilot  Rules  establishing  sound  signals 
under  this  article. 

A  short  blast  of  the  whistle  shall  mean  a  blast  of  about 
one  second's  duration. 

A  prolonged  blast  of  the  whistle  shall  mean  a  blast  of 
from  four  to  six  seconds'  duration. 

One  short  blast  of  the  whistle  signifies  intention  to  di- 
rect course  to  own  starboard,  except  when  two  steam  ves- 
sels are  approaching  each  other  at  right  angles  or  obliquely, 
when  it  signifies  intention  of  steam  vessel  which  is  to  star- 
board of  the  other  to  hold  course  and  speed. 

Two  short  blasts  of  the  whistle  signify  intention  to  di- 
rect course  to  own  port. 

Three  short  blasts  of  the  whistle  shall  mean,  "  My  en- 
gines are  going  at  full  speed  astern." 

NOTE  44. — See  the  discussion  of  Sound  Signals  in  Notes  29  and  31 
under  article  19  preceding. 


No  Vessel  Under  Any  Circumstances  to  Neglect  Proper 
Precautions. 

Art.  29.  Nothing  in  these  rules  shall  exonerate  any  vessel,  or 
the  owner  or  master  or  crew  thereof,  from  the  consequences  of 
any  neglect  to  carry  lights  or  signals,  or  of  any  neglect  to  keep  a 
proper  lookout,  or  of  the  neglect  of  any  precaution  which  may  be 
required  by  the  ordinary  practice  of  seamen,  or  by  the  special 
circumstances  of  the  case. 

lights  on  Naval  and  Revenue  Vessels. 

Art.  30.  The  exhibition  of  any  light  on  board 
of  a  vessel  of  war  of  the  United  States  or  a 
revenue  cutter  may  be  suspended  whenever, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
the  commander-in-chief  of  a  squadron,  or  the 
commander  of  a  vessel  acting  singly,  _  t  h  e  spe- 
cial character  of  the  service  may  require  it. 


426 


INTERNATIONAL    RULES. 


Distress  Signals. 

Art.  31.  When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires  assistance 
from  other  vessels  or  from  the  shore  the  following  shall  be  the 
signals  to  be  used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or  sepa- 
rately, namely: 

In  the  daytime — 

First.  A  gun  or  other  explosive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 
about  a  minute. 

Second.  The  international  code  signal  of  distress  indicated  by 
N.  C. 

Third.  The  distance  signal,  consisting  of  a  square  flag,  having 
either  above  or  below  it  a  ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball. 

Fourth.    A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus. 

At  night — 

First.  A  gun  or  other  expolsive  signal  fired  at  intervals  of 
about  a  minute. 

Second.  Flames  on  the  vessel  as  from  a  burning  tar  barrel,  oil 
barrel,  and  so  forth. 

Third.  Rockets  or  shells  throwing  stars  of  any  color  or  de- 
scription, fired  one  at  a  time,  at  short  intervals. 

Fourth.    A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus. 


INLAND  RULES.  427 

Distress  Signals. 

Art.  31.  When  a  vessel  is  in  distress  and  requires  assistance 
from  other  vessels  or  from  the  shore  the  following  shall  be  the 
signals  to  be  used  or  displayed  by  her,  either  together  or  separ- 
ately, namely : 

In  the  Daytime. 

A  continuous  sounding  with  fog-signal  apparatus,  or  firing 
a  gun. 

At  Night. 

First.  Flames  on  the  vessel  as  from  a  burning  tar  barrel,  oil 
barrel  and  so  forth. 

Second.  A  continuous  sounding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus, 
or  firing  a  gun. 

NOTE  45.— Very  important  information  as  to  the  practices  and  meth- 
ods of  the  United  States  Coast  Guard  in  assisting  vessels  in  distress 
will  be  found  in  Chapter  XXIX. 


Plate  No.    126. 


THE   RULES   OF  THE  ROAD.  429 

§IH. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  RULES  FOR  STEAMERS  MEETING  AND 

CROSSING. 

The  rules  for  meeting  and  crossing  are  laid  down  in  Articles 
18,  19,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  27,  and  28  of  both  the  International  and 
Inland  Rules  and,  as  regards  United  States  inland  waters,  in  the 
Pilot  Rules  quoted  under  Article  19. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  All  of  the  above  rules  are  based  upon 
one  very  simple  principle,  which  is  that  every  steamer  in  passing 
another  steamer,  whether  in  meeting  or  in  crossing,  MUST  KEEP  TO 
THE  RIGHT;  or,  in  other  words,  must  present  her  own  port  side  to 
the  vessel  which  she  is  passing. 

It  follows  that,  if  A  and  B  are  crossing  and  if  A  is  already  pre- 
senting her  port  side  to  B,  she  has  no  occasion  to  make  a  change.  She 
therefore  keeps  her  course  and  speed.  It  follows  equally  that  B,  since 
she  is  presenting  her  starboard  side  to  A ,  must  make  a  change,  and 
this  change  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  bring  her  port  side  toward 
A.  This  will,  in  general  call  for  port  helm  and  will  swing  B's  head 
toward  A's  stern,  although  B  may,  of  course,  bring  about  the  same 
result  by  slowing,  stopping,  or  backing,  thus  allowing  A  to  draw 
ahead  across  B's  bow  and  toward  B's  port  side. 

If  the  vessels  are  meeting  end-on,  neither  one  is  presenting  her  port 
side  to  the  other,  and  each  must  change  course  to  starboard,  thus  bring- 
ing her  port  side  toward  the  other. 

It  has  been  explained,  in  Notes  34  and  41,  that  a  departure 
from  the  general  rule  is  permissible  in  cases  of  emergency,  where 
it  can  be  shown  to  give  a  maximum  chance  of  avoiding  colli- 
sion, but  not  otherwise. 

The  law  in  this  matter  is  clearly  laid  down  in  the  following 
decisions  of  the  United  States  courts : 

(i)  "A  steamer  bound  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  another  steamer 
by  going  to  the  right,  has  no  right,  when  under  no  stress  of  circum- 
stances, but  merely  for  her  own  convenience,  to  give  the  other  steamer 
a  signal  of  two  whistles,  importing  that  she  will  go  to  the  left,  unless 
she  can  do  so  safely  by  her  own  navigation,  without  aid  from  the 
other,  and  without  requiring  the  other  steamer  to  change  her  course 
or  her  speed.  Otherwise  she  would  be  imposing  upon  the  latter  steamer 
more  or  less  of  the  burden  and  the  duty  of  keeping  out  of  the  way, 
which  by  statute  is  imposed  on  herself.  When  two  blasts  are  given 
under  such  circumstances,  the  steamer  bound  to  keep  out  of  the  way 
thereby  in  effect  says  to  the  other:  'I  can  keep  out  of  your  way  by 
going  ahead  of  you  to  the  left,  and  will  do  so  if  you  do  nothing  to 
thwart  me;  do  you  assent?'  A  reply  of  two  whistles,  in  itself, 
means  nothing  more  than  an  assent  to  this  course,  a.t  the  risk  of  the. 


430 


Plate  No.  127. 


B 

A                          * 

Each  vessel  puts  helm  to  port 

/  j  \ 

and  passes  with  her  port  side  to 

the  other. 
Signal  Exchanged  :    One  Blast. 
Exception.    If  necessary  to  pass 
contrary  to  this  rule  (using  star- 
board helm)  the  proper  signal  is 
Two  Blasts. 
See  Article  18,  Rules  Road,  and 

A   keeps   clear  and  if  possible 
avoids  passing  ahead  of  B. 
B  keeps  course  and  speed. 
Signal  exchanged  ;  One  Blast. 
Exception.  —  If  necessary  for  A 
to  cross  ahead,  the  proper  signal 
is  Two  Blasts. 

"Remarks,"  §  III,  Chap.  XIV. 

See  Articles  19,  21,  22,  23. 

Rules  Road  ;  Pilot  Rules  VIII,  IX  j 

"Remarks,"  §  III,  Chap.  XIV. 

I.  VESSELS  MEETING. 

2.  VESSELS  CROSSING. 

' 

^^^^s   ' 

B                               A 

s 

If  B  wishes  to  pass  A,  she  signals 

s 

with  One  Blast  if  wishing  to  pass 

s* 

to  the  right,  and  with  Two  Blasts 

/' 

if  wishing  to  pass  to  the  left. 

s/j' 

If  A  consents  she  answers  with 

£y 

the  same  signal.     If  she  does  not 

consent,   she  gives  several   short 

and  rapid  blasts. 

B  has  come  up  from  more  than  2 

B  must  not  pass  until  A  con- 

pts. abaft  A's  beam  and  must  keep 

sents. 

clcnr  altho*  she  is  on  A's  starboard 

See  Pilot  Rule  under  Art.    18, 

hand. 

U.  S.  Inland  Rules  and  Note  28 

See  Art.  24,   International  and 

under  same  Article. 

Inland  Rules. 

3.  OVERTAKING. 

4.  PASSWG,GOING  IN  SAME  DIRECTION. 

TYPICAL  SITUATIONS.  RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 


Plate  3STo.    128. 


A 

f  A          £ 

\  B  C 

(PB 

Y 

Both  vessels  apply  the  crossing 
rule  with  reference  to  their  direction 

of  motion,  so  that  A  keeps  clear  of  B 
as  in  Situation  2,  Plate  99,  and  the 
same  whistle  signals  are  exchanged. 
In  this  case  One  Blast. 
If  it  is  necessary  for  A  to  back 
across  B's  line  of  motion,  the  proper 
signal    is   Two    Blasts.       See   §  III, 
Chap.  XIV. 

The  crossing  rule  applies  as  if  B's 
stern  were  her  bow. 
B  keeps  clear. 
Signal  in  this  cass,  v/na  Blast 
If  it  is  necessary  for  B  to  back 
across  A's  bow,  the  proper  signal  is 
Two  Blasts.     See  §  III,  Chap.  XIV. 

VESSELS  CROSSING,  BOTH  SACKING, 

ONE  GOINGAHEAD,ONEBACKWG, 

-1.- 

-2- 

^                  i  f 

/ 

^ 

\ 
\ 

In  these  situations,  A  being  presumably  faster  than  B,  wishes  to  cross  ahead 
to  make  her  dock,  or  for  some  other  reason. 

As  the  two  vessels  are  now  on  perfectly  safe  courses,  the  law  does  not  recognize 
the  right  of  A  to  cross,  even  in  Situation  1,  where  she  has  B  on  the  port  hand. 

The  following  manoeuvres  are^-hc^wever,  very  common  in  United  Stateslnland 
Waters :  In  1,  A  sounds  one  blast  and  puts  her  helm  to  starboard,  B  (usually) 
answers  with  one  blast  and  takes  whatever  steps  are  necessary  to  keep  clear. 

In  2,  A  sounds  two  blasts  and  waits  forSto  answer.  If  B  answers  with 
1  wo  blasts,  A  puts  her  helm  to  port  and  crosses,  and  B  takes  whatever  steps  are 
necessary  to  keep  clear.  If,  in  2,  B  does  not  answer,  A  (usually)  does  not  cross. 


STEAMERS  ON  PARALLEL  COURSES.  V  WISHES  TO  CROSS  AHEAD. 


TYPICAL  SITUATIONS.  RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 


432  THE   RULES   OF  THE   ROAD. 

vessel  proposing  it.  Such  a  reply  does  not  of  itself  change  or  modify 
the  statutory  obligation  of  the  former  to  keep  out  of  the  way  as  before, 
nor  does  it  guaranty  the  success  of  the  means  she  has  adopted  to  do 
so."  "  THE  CITY  OF  HARTFORD,"  Federal  Reporter  23,  page  650. 

(2)  "But  from  the  moment  that  such  an  attempt  [the  attempt  to 
cross  ahead]  apparently  involves  risk  of  collision,  both  steamers  are 
equally  bound  to  do  all  they  can  to  avoid  a  collision.    But  this  general 
obligation  applies  equally  whether  the  previous  signals  were  of  two 
whistles  or  of  one.    The  precise  acts  which  either  is  bound  to  do  when 
immediate  danger  of  collision  arises  must  depend  upon  the  particular 
circumstances,  and  of  these  circumstances  the  previous  understanding 
as  to  the  course  or  intention  of  each  vessel  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant.   But  where  the  circumstances  are  such  that  a  course  proposed 
by  a  signal  of  two  whistles  would,  if  assented  to  and  adopted,  require 
at  once,  as  in  this  case,  immediate  and  strong  measures  to  avoid  a 
collision,  there  can  be  no  question  that  such  a  proposal  is  wholly  un- 
justifiable, and  a  gross  fault,  when  proposed  by  a  steamer  that  is 
bound  to  keep  out  of  the  way,  and  is  under  no  constraint  of  circum- 
stances, but  free  to  pursue  other  safe  methods  of   doing  so."     The 
NEREUS.    Federal  Reporter,  No.  23,  page  455. 

(3)  "The  rule  of  the  Supervising  Inspectors  governing  navigation 
in  New  York  harbor,  that  a  steam-vessel  approaching  another  on  a 
crossing  course  so  as  to  endanger  collision  shall  signify  by  a  blact,  or 
blasts,  of  the  whistle  what  course  she  proposes  to  take  can  not  be  held 
to  deprive  the  vessel  which  is  on  the  starboard  side  of  the  other  of  her 
right  to  keep  on  her  course  as  provided  by  Revised  Statutes."     The 
HAMILTON  vs.  THE  JOHN  KING.     Federal  Reporter,  No.  49,  page 
469. 

The  remarks  which  precede  with  regard  to  crossing  deal  with 
cases  in  which  the  vessels  are  not  hampered  by  any  emergency 
connected  with  the  original  situation.  There  is  another  and  very 
important  case  which  frequently  arises  in  crowded  waters,  where 
A,  having  B  on  her  starboard  hand  and  rather  close  aboard,  is 
obliged  to  cross  ahead  because  she  has  not  room  to  manoeuvre 
otherwise.  This  is  distinctly  an  emergency  situation  and  is 
covered  in  the  International  Rules  by  the  second  paragraph  of 
Article  21,  and  in  both  the  International  and  the  Inland  Rules  by 
Articles  27  and  29.  In  this  case  the  vessels  exchange  a  two-blast 
signal  and  A  crosses  ahead,  B  taking  such  steps  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  let  her  cross  safely. 

Meeting  Vessels.  In  crowded  waters,  it  is  often  impracticable 
for  meeting  vessels  to  pass  each  other  port  to  port.  In  such  cases 
the  practice  is  to  exchange  a  two-blast  signal  and  pass  starboard 
to  starboard.  This  deviation  from  the  law  is  justifiable  only  in 
cases  of  actual  necessity ;  yet  it  constantly  occurs  in  the  inland 
waters  of  the  United  States  in  cases  where  no  possible  excuse  for 


THE   RULES   OF  THE  ROAD.  433 

it  exists.  The  custom  seems  .to  be  well  established  among  pilots, 
to  pass  on  whichever  side  is  the  more  convenient ;  and  it  seems  to 
be  considered  that  the  law  has  been  complied  with  if  the  side 
selected  is  indicated  by  the  appropriate  signal. 

So  well  established  is  this  custom,  that  its  existence  can  not  be 
ignored;  but  there  is  no  question  that  it  is  a  direct  violation  of  the 
law,  except,  as  already  noted,  when  it  is  actually  dictated  by  con- 
siderations of  safety. 

Vessels  Backing.  An  interesting  and  important  point  arises 
when  one  of  two  crossing  vessels  is  going  astern  instead  of  ahead. 
It  is  the  practice  of  seamen  to  consider  in  such  cases  that  the 
rules  apply  with  reference  to  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  ship, 
so  that  for  the  time  being,  the  starboard  side  becomes  the  port 
side  and  the  port  side  the  starboard  side.  This  practice  has  been 
sanctioned  by  several  decisions  of  the  courts,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  fully  established.  In  other  words,  we  must  consider  the  pilot 
of  a  backing  vessel  to  be  facing  aft,  .toward  the  direction  in  which 
his  ship  is  moving.  He  must  then  keep  clear  of  a  vessel  on  his 
right  hand  as  if  that  were  his  starboard  side.  And  his  whistle 
signals  must  correspond.  Similarly,  the  vessel  which  is  crossing 
him  must  regard  the  stern  of  the  backing  steamer  as  if  it  were 
the  bow,  etc. 

Winding  Channels.  Where  two  vessels  are  approaching  each 
other  in  adjoining  reaches  of  a  winding  channel  so  that  they  are 
for  the  moment  on  crossing  courses,  it  has  been  held  by  the  courts 
that  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  meeting,  not  as  crossing  vessels. 

If  they  seem  likely  to  meet  at  a  bend,  or  in  a  narrow  and  diffi- 
cult part  of  the  channel,  good  judgment  requires  the  one  which 
is  going  against  the  current  to  slow  until  the  other  has  cleared 
the  difficult  point  and  straightened  out,  after  which  there  is  no 
difficulty  about  passing. 

This  course,  which  is  dictated  by  good  seamanship,  is  in  many 
rivers  prescribed  by  local  regulations. 

Article  50  of  the  By-laws  for  the  Thames  reads  as  follows : 

"  Steam-vessels  and  steam-launches  navigating  against  the  stream 
above  Richmond  Lock  shall  ease  and  if  necessary  stop  to  allow  vessels 
coming  down  with  the  stream  to  pass  clear  particularly  when  rounding 
points  or  sharp  bends  in  the  river." 

Similar  provisions  are  included  in  the  local  regulations  for  the 
Trent,  the  Danube,  and  many  other  rivers. 

The  following  extract  from  the  decision  in  a  case  of  collision  in 
the  Danube,  where  two  steamers  met  in  a  dangerous  part  of  the 
channel,  sets  forth  the  view  which  would  probably  be  taken  by 
the  courts  in  similar  cases,  even  where  no  local  regulations  ex- 
isted covering  the  situation.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  this  decision  has  to  do  with  a  case  which  was  actually  covered 
by  a  local  rule: 


434  THE  RULES   OF  THE  ROAD. 

"  An  ascending  ship  must  stop  below  the  passage  until  a  descending 
ship  has  cleared  it  whenever  the  ascending  ship  has  notice  that  if  she 
proceeds  she  will  be  exposed  to  the  risk  of  meeting  the  descending  ship 
at  or  near  that  point;  and  the  descending  vessel  must  stop  above  the 
passage  when  the  ascending  ship  has  reached  such  point  and  has 
actually  begun  to  navigate  the  contracted  passage  before  notice  is 
conveyed  to  her  that  if  she  proceeds  she  will  be  exposed  to  the  risk  of 
meeting  the  descending  ship  at  or  near  the  point. 

"When  the  ascending  ship  neglects  to  stop  below  the  passage,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  descending  ship  to  refrain  from  any  attempt  to  ex- 
ercise her  right  of  precedence,  when  the  intention  of  the  ascending 
steamer  to  violate  the  regulations  becomes  reasonably  apparent."  The 
CLIEVEDEN  vs.  The  DIANA.  7.  Aspinall's  Maritime  Cases,  page  489. 

With  regard  to  ships  which  for  any  reason  pass  at  a  bend,  see 
remarks  to  Chapter  XVI  on  rounding  a  bend  with  and  against 
the  current. 

Men  of  War  in  Formation. 

There  are  no  actual  decisions  by  the  Courts  of  this  or  other  countries 
covering  the  special  case  of  a  vessel  encountering  a  fleet  of  warships  in 
formation.  No  doubt  such  a  vessel  has  all  the  rights  accorded  her  by  the 
rules  of  the  road  as  regards  -each  individual  vessel  of  the  fleet.  But  she 
would  do  well  to  remember  that  each  vessel  of  the  fleet  has  responsibilities 
(also  under  the  rules  of  the  road)  toward  every  other  vessel  of  the  fleet 
and  that,  by  entering  the  water  of  the  fleet,  she  may  create  a  situation  of 
great  complexity  and  serious  danger  to  the  ships  of  the  fleet  and  to  herself. 
In  connection,  the  following  incident  may  appropriately  find  a  place  here. 
Some  years  ago  (1900)  the  British  Channel  Fleet  of  thirty-two  ships 
was  proceeding  up  the  English  Channel  in  four  columns  abreast,  when  a 
tug  and  tow,  standing  across  from  starboard  to  port,  and  therefore  having 
the  right  of  way,  held  their  course  across,  and  having  cleared  the  first 
(starboard)  column,  came  into  collision  with  the  battleship  Sanspareil, 
leading  the  second  column. 

It  happened  that  the  Sanspareil  committed  a  fault  which  was  perfectly 
evident,  and  she  was  very  properly  condemned  for  the  collision,  but  the 
Court,  in  passing  upon  the  case,  took  occasion  to  express  the  opinion  that 
the  tug  and  tow  should  never  have  attempted  to  cross  ahead  of  the  fleet 
or  to  pass  through  it,  even  though  they  had  technically  the  right  of  way 
over  each  individual  ship. 

" .  .  .  .  The  ships  being  in  that  formation,  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  pe:fect  order  should  be  preserved  because  to  become  dis- 
organized is  to  run  lisk  of  great  disaster On  coming  up  with  a 

big  fleet  like  that,  what  ought  the  tug  and  tow  to  have  done?  Con- 
sider what  they  proposed  to  do.  They  proposed  to  keep  a  course  which 
would  have  just  cleared  them  of  the  first  column,  which  would  land 


THE   RULES   OF  THE   ROAD.  435 

them,  if  the  fleet  did  not  stop,  in  front  of  the  leading  ship  of  the 
second  column,  which  would  carry  them  into  the  center  of  the  third 
column  and  ....  into  about  the  center  of  the  fourth  column.  Con- 
sider the  danger  cast  upon  the  fleet  by  having  its  columns  broken  in 
such  a  way,  the  difficulty  of  stopping  ships  of  that  huge  build  and 

weight  suddenly  and  interfering  with  their  course I  do  not  see 

how,  without  great  difficulty  and  danger,  the  Channel  Fleet  could  pos- 
sibly have  done  so  without  running  great  risk  of  injury  to  its  vessels." 
From  opinion  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  in  the  case  of  the 
SANSPAREIL,  9  Aspinall,  Marine  Cases,  page  78. 

§IV.     SPEED  IN  A  FOG. 

DECISIONS    OF    COURTS. 

Extract  from  the  decision  in  the  case  of  the  BOLIVIA  (speed  7  to  8  knots, 
off  Fire  Island): 

"The  steam-ship  must  also  be  held  in  fault  because  she  was  not 
going  at  a  moderate  speed  in  the  fog,  under  the  special  circumstances 
and  conditions  of  the  case.  She  has  given  no  evidence  to  show  what 
speed  she  was  required  to  maintain  in  order  to  keep  steerage-way,  and 
none  to  show  that  at  a  lower  rate  of  speed  than  7  or  8  knots  she  would 
not  have  been  under  efficient  control,  and  able  to  govern  her  own  move- 
ments promptly  and  effectually.  Under  the  existing  state  of  fog,  and 
exercising  the  best  vigilance,  she  could  not  discover  another  vessel 
more  than  300  or  400  feet  away,  yet  maintained  such  a  speed  that, 
after  reversing,  her  headway  through  the  water  could  not  be  stopped 
within  three  times  that  distance. 

"  The  locality  was  one  frequented  by  numerous  vessels  in  the  coasting 
trade,  and  lay  in  one  of  the  paths  of  the  ocean  traffic  between  Europe 
and  the  principal  commercial  port  of  this  country.  The  steam-ship  had 
but  just  passed  a  sister  steam-ship  of  her  own  line,  bound  in  an  opposite 
direction;  and  the  schooner  had  seen  or  heard  several  vessels  during 
the  previous  half  hour  of  the  fog.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  not 
enough  that  the  steam-ship  moderated  her  speed;  she  should  have  re- 
duced it  to  that  moderate  speed  which  was  safe  and  prudent,  in  view 
of  all  the  circumstances  and  conditions  of  the  case.  The  rule  is  firmly 
established  in  this  country,  and  also  in  England,  that  the  speed  of  a 
steam-ship  is  not  moderate,  at  least  in  localities  where  there  is  a  likeli- 
hood of  meeting  other  vessels,  if  it  is  such  that  she  cannot  reverse  her 
engines  and  be  brought  to  a  stand-still  within  the  distance  at  which, 
in  the  condition  of  the  fog,  she  can  discover  another  vessel." — Federal 
Reporter,  No.  49,  page  171. 

From  the  decision  in  the  case  of  the  COLUMBIAN  (speed  9  to  10  knots  on 
La  Have  Bank) : 

"The  only  fault  alleged  against  the  steamer  is  excessive  speed  and 
the  authorities  make  it  clear  that  9  or  10  knots  an  hour  at  any  time  or 
place  is  excessive  speed  in  a  fog.  In  saying  this,  I  have  no  doubt  that 
the  captain  of  another  steamer  like  the  COLUMBIAN  would  have  gone 


436  THE   RULES  OF  THE   ROAD. 

ahead  quite  as  fast.  Had  the  steamer  been  an  ocean  liner  instead  of 
a  freight  steamer  it  would  probably  have  been  sent  through  the  same 
fog  at  from  15  to  20  knots  an  hour,  and  its  captain  would  have  been 
blamed  by  his  company  as  well  as  by  his  passengers  if  he  had  loitered 
along  at  half-speed.  Though  this  almost  universal  practice  may  re- 
lieve the  captain  of  a  steamer  from  moral  blame,  the  captain  of  the 
COLUMBIAN  was  none  the  less  a  transgressor  of  the  International  Rules 
and  I  am  bound  to  find  the  steamer  at  fault.  I  have  often  had  occa- 
sion to  say  that  owners  and  masters  must  either  comply  with  a  law 
or  secure  its  repeal.  Experts  may  perhaps  be  found  to  testify  that 
moderate  speed  is  harmful,  a  fog-horn  useless  and  a  torch  misleading, 
but  the  statute  must  be  obeyed."— Federal  Reporter,  No.  91,  page  801. 

From  the  decision  in  the  case  of  the  RALEIGH: 

"  The  rule  is  that  such  speed  only  is  lawful  or  moderate  speed  in  a 
fog  as  will  permit  a  steamer  seasonably  and  effectually  to  avoid  a 
collision  by  slacking  her  speed  or  by  stopping  or  reversing  within  a 
distance  at  which  another  can  be  seen.  If  this  rule  is  a  severe  one  and 
practically  requires  a  steam-ship  to  come  to  a  stop  and  remain  stopped, 
when  navigating  a  river  having  extensive  commerce,  or  in  a  crowded 
harbor,  it  is  too  well  established  to  be  disregarded." — Federal  Reporter, 
No.  44,  page  781. 
From  the  decision  in  the  case  of  the  NORMANDIE: 

M.  ...  It  is  not  very  material  whether  her  speed  was  12  knots  or  n. 
Either  is  considerably  in  excess  of  what  has  been  adjudged  in  many 
cases  in  the  courts  of  this  country  an  excessive  rate  of  speed  in  a  dense 
fog.  No  doubt  the  question  of  what  is  moderate  speed  is  largely  a 
question  of  circumstances,  having  reference  to  the  density  of  the  fog; 
the  place  of  navigation;  the  probable  presence  of  other  vessels  likely 
to  be  met;  the  state  of  the  weather  as  affecting  the  ability  to  hear  the 
fog-signals  of  other  vessels  at  a  reasonable  distance;  the  full  speed  of 
the  ship  herself,  her  appliances  for  rapid  manceuvring,  and  the  amount 
of  her  steam-power  kept  in  reserve,  as  affecting  her  ability  to  stop 
quickly  after  hearing  fog-signals.  No  doubt  also  that,  in  the  absence 
of  circumstances  of  special  danger,  navigation  is  not  required  to  be 
suspended  on  the  high  seas  on  account  of  dense  fog.  Neither  the  rules 
nor  the  ordinary  practice  of  seamen  require  that.  The  rules  intend 
that  signals  shall  be  given  which  are  expected  to  be  heard  in  time  to 
enable  vessels  to  avoid  each  other,  and  no  speed  is  sufficiently  moderate 
under  given  conditions  of  wind,  sea,  and  weather,  unless  it  is  so  re- 
duced as  to  enable  the  vessel  to  perform  her  duty  to  keep  out  of  the 
way,  from  the  time  when  she  has  a  right  to  expect  that  the  other 
vessel's  signals,  under  existing  conditions,  will  be  heard. 

"There  is  no  case  in  the  country  where  a  speed  of  two-thirds  the 
maximum  speed  under  such  circumstances  as  the  present,  has  been  held 
to  be  moderate  speed.  No  doubt  certain  evolutions  could  be  effected 
more  rapidly  with  a  speed  of  10  to  12  knots  than  with  a  speed  of  6. 
But  a  speed  of  10  to  12  knots  was  not  more  necessary  to  the  NORMAN- 


THE   RULES   OF  THE   ROAD.  437 

DIE'S  safe  navigation  in  this  case  than  was  7  knots  in  the  case  of  the 
PENNSYLVANIA.  Besides,  the  question  is  not  whether  certain  evolu- 
tions can  be  executed  in  less  time,  but  whether  the  NORMANDIE,  when 
meeting  a  vessel  suddenly  in  a  fog,  could  as  a  rule,  more  effectively 
avoid  her  under  a  speed  of  10  or  12  knots  than  under  a  speed  of  only 
6  or  7." — Federal  Reporter,  No.  43,  page  151. 

*********** 
With  reference  to  the  practice  of  the  Atlantic  liners  in  keeping  up  full 
speed  in  a  fog,  and  the  attempt  to  justify  this  on  the  ground  that  the 
time  of  exposure  to  danger  is  thereby  lessened,  the  courts  have  held  that 
while  high-speed  under  these  conditions  may  be  safer  for  the  fast  steamers 
themselves,  it  is  extremely  dangerous  to  any  smaller  vessels  which  may 
be  in  their  track  and  that  it  is,  therefore,  altogether  unjustifiable. 

The  following  decision  in  the  case  of  the  PATRIA  is  important  in  connec- 
tion with  lookouts.  There  are  many  other  similar  decisions: 

"  Besides  this,  I  think  the  steamer  is  further  to  blame  for  not  having 
a  lookout  stationed  forward  at  the  bow.  Nor  was  the  lookout  doubled. 
There  was  but  one  seaman  acting  as  lookout,  and  he  was  stationed  on 
the  bridge,  some  75  feet  or  more  from  the  bow,  and  was  also  attending 
to  blowing  the  whistle  once  a  minute.  If  on  account  of  the  lighter 
fog  above,  it  was  desirable  to  have  a  lookout  as  high  above  the  deck 
as  possible,  a  lookout  might  have  teen  stationed  in  the  cross-trees  or 
crow's  nest,  as  is  often  done  in  thick  fog;  but  neither  that,  nor  a  look- 
out on  the  bridge,  would  be  a  justification  of  the  omission  to  keep  a 
good  lookout  at  the  bow,  which  it  has  been  repeatedly  held  should  be 
maintained  wherever  possible.  The  master  states  his  opinion,  that  if 
he  had  had  10  seconds  more  time,  the  collision  would  have  been  avoided. 
Had  a  lookout  been  stationed  at  the  bow  with  no  divided  duties,  and 
reported  the  schooner  at  the  same  distance  it  was  seen  from  the  bridge, 
the  steamer  would  have  had  much  more  than  this  additional  time  for 
coming  to  a  complete  stop  and  backing  away  from  the  schooner." — 
Federal  Reporter,  No.  92,  page  411. 

An  exceptional  situation  arises  when  a  number  of  men-of-war  are  cruis- 
ing together  in  formation  in  a  fog.  It  may  reasonably  be  contended  that 
a  somewhat  higher  speed  is  necessary  for  the  safe  control  of  a  squadron 
under  these  conditions  than  for  that  of  a  single  ship,  and  such  speed  as 
can  be  shown  to  be  actually  necessary  for  safety  is  manifestly  justified  by 
the  phrase  in  Art.  16,  "  having  careful  regard  to  the  existing  circumstances 
and  conditions." 

The  obligation  of  each  ship  to  keep  clear  of  her  neighbors  in  the  squad- 
ron is  at  least  as  great  as  the  obligation  to  keep  clear  of  strangers,  and 
anything  which  can  be  shown  to  be  necessary  for  this  can  be  justified 
without  placing  undue  emphasis  upon  the  military  features  of  the  situa- 
tion. 


THE   RULES   OF  THE  ROAD. 

§V.  RULES  FOR  VESSELS  PASSING  DREDGES  AT  WORK 
IN  CHANNELS. 

The  improvement  of  channels  in  United  States  waters  is  done 
by  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  United  States  Army,  and  the 
Secretary  of  War  is  authorized  to  make  regulations  to  be  ob- 
served by  vessels  passing  dredges  or  other  craft  engaged  in  such 
improvement. 

EXTRACT  FROM  THE  RIVER  AND  HARBOR  ACT  OF  AUGUST  18,  1894. 

SECTION  4.  [As  amended  by  Section  n  of  the  river  and  harbor 
Act  of  June  13,  1902.]  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of 
War  to  prescribe  such  rules  and  regulations  for  the  use,  administration, 
and  navigation  of  any  or  all  canals  and  similar  works  of  navigation  that 
now  are,  or  that  hereafter  may  be,  owned,  operated,  or  maintained  by 
the  United  States  as  in  his  judgment  the  public  necessity  may  require; 
and  he  is  also  authorized  to  prescribe  regulations  to  govern  the  speed 
and  movement  cf  vessels  and  other  water  craft  in  any  public  navigable 
channel  which  has  been  improved  under  authority  of  Congress,  when- 
ever, in  his  judgment,  such  regulations  are  necessary  to  protect  such 
improved  channels  from  injury,  or  to  prevent  interference  with  the 
operations  of  the  United  States  in  improving  navigable  waters  or 
injury  to  any  plant  that  ;  ay  be  employed  in  such  operations.  Such 
rules  and  regulations  sha  i  be  posted,  in  conspicuous  and  appropriate 
places,  for  the  information  of  the  public;  and  every  person  and  every 
corporation  which  shall  violate  such  rules  and  regulations  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and,  on  conviction  thereof  in  any 
district  court  of  the  United  States  within  whose  territorial  juris- 
diction such  offense  may  have  been  committed,  shall  be  punished  by  a 
fine  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  (in  the 
case  of  a  natural  person)  not  exceeding  six  months,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court. 

Rules  are  drawn  up  for  each  individual  situation  coming  under 
the  above  law,  and  different  sets  of  rules  may  differ  from  each 
other  in  minor  particulars,  but  the  points  covered  are  practically 
identical  in  all  cases,  and  these  points  are  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing typical  set  of  rules : 

i.  Steamers  without  tows  passing  the  dredges,  shall  not  have  a 
speed  greater  than  six  miles  an  hour,  and  their  propelling  machinery 
shall  be  stopped  when  immediately  abreast  of  the  dredges,  and  while 
passing  over  the  breast  and  quarter  lines  of  the  dredges. 

Steamers  with  tows  passing  the  dredges  shall  not  have  a  speed 
greater  than  six  miles  an  hour,  and  their  propelling  machinery  shall 
be  stopped  while  passing  over  the  breast  and  quarter  lines  of  the 
dredges;  but  they  may  start  their  propelling  machinery  if  necessary 
between  these  lines. 


THE   RULES   OF  THE  ROAD.  439 

2.  Vessels   using  the   channel    shall   pass   the   dredges   on   the   side 
designated  from  the  dredge  by  the  signals  prescribed  in  paragraph  7 
of  these  regulations. 

3.  Vessels    whose    draft   permits    must   keep    outside   of   the   buoys 
marking  the  ends  of  mooring  lines  of  dredges. 

4.  Vessels  must  not  anchor  on  the  ranges  of  stakes  or  other  marks 
placed  for  the  guidance  of  the  dredges. 

5.  Vessels   must   not   run   over    or    disturb    stakes    or   other   marks 
placed  for  the  guidance  of  dredges. 

6.  Dredges    and   operating  plant,   in    the   prosecution   of   the   work, 
must  not  obstruct  any  part  of  the  channel  unnecessarily. 

7.  Dredges    shall    display   by    day    a   black   ball    three    (3)    feet    in 
diameter  at  the  end  of  a  horizontal  spar  extending  to  the  line  of  the 
side  of  the  dredge's  hull,  and  at  a  height  not  less  than  thirty    (30) 
feet  above  the  water,  the  balL  to  be  set  on  the  side  of  the  dredge  on 
which  it  is  desired  approaching  vessel  shall  pass. 

NOTE. — A  red  flag  or  other  signal  may  be  substituted  for  the 
black  ball  of  this  paragraph. 

Dredges  shall  display  by  night  one  white  light  on  a  staff  in  the 
middle  of  the  dredge,  and  at  least  thirty  (30)  feet  above  the  water,  to 
serve  as  the  regulation  anchor  light,  and  four  (4)  red  lights  sus- 
pended in  a  vertical  line  from  the  outer  end  of  the  horizontal  spar 
used  by  day  for  the  suspension  of  the  black  ball,  the  lights  to  be  set 
on  the  side  of  the  dredge  on  which  it  is  desired  approaching  vessels 
shall  pass.  If  approaching  vessels  may  pass  on  either  side  of  the 
dredge,  no  day  mark  shall  be  displayed,  and  by  night  the  four  red 
lights  shall  be  displayed  in  a  vertical  line  directly  under  the  above- 
mentioned  white  light. 

8.  The  breast  and  stern  anchors  of  the  dredges  shall  be  marked  or 
buoyed  so  as  to  be  plainly  visible  to  passing  vessels. 

9.  While  vessels  in  the  channel  are  passing,  all  lines  running  across 
the   channel   from   the   dredge   on  the   passing   side   must  be   entirely 
slacked. 

10.  Dredges  will  slack  the  lines  referred  to  in  paragraph  9  upon 
signal  by  whistle  from  an  approaching  vessel.  , 

In  addition  to  the  authority  vested  in  the  Secretary  of  War  to 
make  regulations  as  above,  the  same  official  is  empowered  to 
regulate  all  other  matters  which  have  to  do  with  possible  obstruc- 
tions to  navigable  waters  ;  such  as  the  dumping  of  ashes,  garbage, 
etc. ;  the  marking  of  wrecks  and  their  removal ;  the  building  of 
bridges  across  navigable  channels,  and  the  handling  of  draws  in 
bridges  spanning  such  channels. 


44O  THE  RULES   OF  THE  ROAD. 

§VI.  INLAND  RULES  OF  NATIONS  OTHER  THAN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  Inland  Rules  of  other  countries  do  not  exist  in  a  form 
which  admits  of  convenient  grouping.  In  most  cases  the  rules 
are  made  locally  for  each  port  or  river. 

Officers  having  to  navigate  the  inland  waters  of  any  country 
should  use  every  effort  to  acquaint  themselves  with  these  local 
laws.  In  some  cases  .they  are  to  be  found  in  Sailing  Directions ; 
in  others  they  must  be  learned  from  pilots  or  other  local  au- 
thorities. 

Generally  speaking,  it  will  be  found  that  such  local  rules  do 
not  modify  the  International  Rules  in  any  important  particulars. 
So  far  as  they  deal  with  the  rules  for  vessels  meeting  and  cross- 
ing, they  frequently  emphasize  cerUin  points  of  the  International 
Rules ;  as,  for  example,  the  requirement  about  keeping  to  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  channel.  In  many  cases  they  limit  the 
speed  which  may  be  used  within  the  river  or  harbor  in  question. 
Other  matters  with  which  they  deal  are  the  following :  anchorage 
limits ;  privileges  and  obligations  of  tows ;  length  of  tows ;  size 
of  rafts ;  lights  and  signals  for  dredges  at  work  in  the  channel, 
and  rules  for  passing  these ;  special  rules  for  vessels  desiring  to 
pass  other  vessels  going  in  the  same  direction  in  a  narrow  chan- 
nel ;  ferry-boats  crossing  the  channel,  or  entering  or  leaving  their 
slips ;  vessels  hauling  out  from  slips ;  marking  of  wrecks ;  pilot- 
age ;  harbor  police  regulations ;  explosives  on  board  vessels  in  the 
harbor ;  buoyage ;  mooring  alongside  docks  or  alongside  other 
vessels ;  special  rules  for  exceptionally  narrow  and  dangerous 
parts  of  channel ;  etc. 

In  the  case  of  basins  enclosed  by  breakwaters,  rules  are  pre- 
scribed as  to  the  conditions  for  entering,  permission  being  neces- 
sary in  all  such  cases,  and  arrangements  being  made  with  the 
harbor  master. 

In  the  case  of  military  ports,  very  stringent  regulations  are  pre- 
scribed, and  vessels  visiting  such  ports  should,  if  possible,  inform 
themselves  of  these  in  advance. 

As  a  rule,  all  necessary  information  for  the  guidance  of  a 
stranger  can  be  obtained  from  the  pilot.  The  rules  with  regard 
to  pilots  and  the  signals  for  calling  them  are  usually  to  be  found 
in  the  Sailing  Directions. 

A  very  full  and  valuable  collection  of  local  rules  is  to  be  found 
in  "  Rules  of  the  Road  at  Sea,"  by  H.  Stuart  Moore,  published  by 
J.  D.  Potter,  London. 


THE   RULES   OF  THE   ROAD.  441 

§VII.    LAWS  RELATING  TO  THE  RULES  OF  THE  ROAD. 

Penalties  are  prescribed  for  the  infringement  of  these  rules, 
by  all  nations  which  have  adopted  them  as  laws,  and  these  penal- 
ties do  not  depend  upon  the  question  whether  damage  has  or  has 
not  resulted  from  the  infringement. 

Where  damage  is  done,  and  can  be  shown  to  be  the  result  of 
neglect  or  violation  of  the  rules,  it  is  held,  in  the  absence  of  proof 
to  the  contrary,  to  be  the  fault  of  the  person  having  charge  of  the 
deck  of  the  vessel  offending,  who  will  be  considered  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor  and  punishable  therefor.  If  death  ensues,  he  will 
be  subject  to  a  charge  of  manslaughter. 

In  every  case  of  collision,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  person  in  charge 
of  each  vessel,  to  stay  by  the  other  and  to  render  such  assistance 
as  may  be  practicable,  provided  he  can  do  so  without  damage  to 
his  own  ship,  passengers  and  crew. 

He  is  also  required  to  give  to  the  master  of  the  other  ship  the 
name  of  his  own  ship  and  of  the  port  to  which  she  belongs,  and 
the  ports  to  and  from  which  she  is  bound. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  the  collision,  he  must  cause  an  entry 
to  be  made  in  the  log  book,  of  the  collision  and  of  all  facts  in 
connection  with  it. 


(442) 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION, 

§i. 

The  difficulties  and  dangers  with  which  this  chapter  has  to 
deal  are  principally  connected  with  darkness  and  with  fog.  In 
daylight  and  in  clear  weather,  the  avoidance  of  collisions  should 
be  simple  enough.  This  chapter  will  therefore  deal,  first,  with 
steamers  meeting  or  crossing  at  night,  and  later,  with  the  more 
difficult  question  of  manoeuvring  in  a  fog. 

As  an  aid  in  determining  accurately  the  bearing  of  a  light  sighted  at 
night,  and  of  readily  recognizing  a  change  in  this  bearing,  it  is  conveni- 
ent to  have  installed,  close  to  the  bridge  compass,  a  "  pelorus  "  or  dumb- 
compass,  marked  to  degrees  and  to  quarter  points,  accurately  adjusted 
with  its  zero  in  the  fore-and-aft  line  of  the  ship,  and  with  a  sighting-vane 
pivoted  at  the  center. 

It  is  well  also  to  establish  a  clearly  marked  fore-and-aft  line  from  a 
convenient  point  on  each  side  of  the  bridge  to  some  conspicuous  point  near 
the  bow,  by  which  the  line  on  which  the  ship  is  heading  may  be  picked  up 
at  a  glance. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  turbine  ships  respond  much  less 
quickly  to  changes  in  engine  speed  than  do  ships  having  the  large 
screws  that  go  with  reciprocating  engines.  Also  that  the  power 
available  for  backing  is  only  about  one-half  that  of  reciprocating 
engines. 

The  result  is  that  turbine  ships  must  rely  more  upon  the  rudder, 
and  must  be  especially  careful  to  avoid  situations  demanding 
quick  and  handy  manoeuvring. 

III. 

STEAMERS  MEETING. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  this  situation 
is  not  as  simple  as  it  at  first  appears,  for  the  reason  that  vessels 
which  seem  to  be  approaching  each  other  "end-en  or  nearly 
end-on,"  may  in  fact  be  crossing  at  a  considerable  angle. 

There  is  no  rule  which  can  be  laid  down  to  eliminate  the  danger 
of  such  misunderstanding;  but  there  is  a  certain  gain  in  recog- 
nizing the  existence  'of  the  danger  and  the  necessity  for  watch- 


Plate  No.    129. 


443 


Fig.  1 
B  2  Points  on  A's  Bow 


f» 2  Mia.,  5  Sec— - 

—2-Min.,  32  Sea — 
3  Min.,  14  Sec: »* 


[* 4  Min.,  5  Seo.  -' «4 


The  time  Intervals  shown  assume  A '»  speed  as  10  Knots,  but  can  be  easily 
corrected  for  any  other  speed. 
Ships  are  not  drawn  to  scale. 


! 


Fig.  2 
B  3  Points  on  A's  Bow 


h 


f« — 2  Min.,   11  Seer— 

H -2  Min.,  42  Seo; 

3  Min.,  36  Seo: 

Min.,  59  Seo-. 


500 


500 


7000 


Scale  of  Yards 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

Shouting  the  points  at  which  A  and  B  will  meet  for  various  relative  speed* 


444 


Plate  No.    130. 


in-.  20  Seer 4 

|t -2-Min-  57-Sec-. J 

!* -4-Minv  14-Sec. J 


The  time  Intervals  shown,  assume  A's  speed  as  10  knots, 
but  can  be  easily  corrected  for  any  other  speed. 
Ships  are  not  drawn  to  scale. 


Fig.  2 
B  5  Points  on  A's  Bow. 


\      10  Knots 


32-Sec— -- 

-  — 3-Min~20-Seo- 

5  Mint 23-S00-. 


Showing  the  points  at  which  A  and  B  will  meet,  for  uarious 
nlatlve  speeds. 


Scale  of  Yards 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION 


MANCEUVRINC,  TO  AVOTD  COLLISION.  445 

fulness.  If  the  rudder  is  to  be  put  to  right,1  this  should  be  done 
while  the  ships  are  separated  by  a  perfectly  safe  distance,  and 
the  course  changed  to  starboard  sufficiently  to  make  sure  of  shut- 
ting out  the  green  light  from  the  view  of  the  other  ship.  It  is  of 
course  impossible  to  do  this  in  a  narrow  channel,  nor  will  it  be 
important  to  do  it  there,  as  each  vessel  will  know  the  course  that 
the  other  must  be  steering ;  but  the  change  of  course  should  always 
be  made  as  early  as  the  channel  permits. 

When  meeting  another  vessel  in  a  narrow  channel,  there  is  danger  in 
changing  course  too  much,  as  to  do  so  opens  the  broadside  to  a  pos- 
sible blow  from  the  other  ship.  A  small  change  made  promptly,  is  safer 
than  a  greater  change  made  after  the  ships  are  close  aboard.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  the  danger  already  pointed  out,  that,  at  night,  a 
small  change  of  course  will  not  be  seen  by  the  other  ship.  In  this  situa- 
tion, range-lights  are  especially  valuable,  as  giving  instant  notice  of  the 
slightest  change  in  the  heading  of  a  vessel  seen  end-on  or  nearly  so. 

In  navigating  crowded  channels,  pilots  try  to  avoid  changing  course; 
preferring,  whenever  it  can  be  done  with  safety,  to  keep  clear  of  other 
vessels  by  reducing  or  increasing  speed.  This  is  less  confusing  than 
changes  of  course  where  several  vessels  are  trying  to  keep  clear  of  each 
other. 

§111. 

STEAMEES  CROSSING. 

Note. — In  this  section,  the  steamer  having  the  other  on  her  own 
starboard  hand  is  called  A;  the  other  B. 

As  preliminary  to  a  detailed  discussion  of  cases  arising  under 
this  heading,  attention  is  directed  to  the  figures  of  Plates  129  and 
130,  in  which  the  vessels  are  assumed  to  be  separated  by  one 
mile,  and  the  courses  plotted  which  B  must  be  steering,  for  va- 
rious rates  of  speed,  in  order  that  there  shall  be  danger  of  a 
bow-to-bow  collision  with  A.2 

We  do  not  attempt  here  to  draw  any  conclusions  which  involve  a 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  either  vessel,  of  the  course  or  speed  of  the 
other. 

It  is  apparent  from  these  figures  that,  if  there  is  to  be  a  colli- 
sion, the  point  at  which  it  will  take  place  depends  upon  the  rela- 
tive speed  of  the  two  ships.  If  the  speeds  are  equal,  it  will  be 

1  Helm  to  port. 

2  We   cannot,   of   course,   disregard   the   length   of   the   ships;  but   as   a 
basis  of  argument  we   deal  here  with  the  bows   only.     The   figures   will 
make  it  clear  in  what  way  the  argument  must  be  modified  to  include  the 
meeting  of  the  bow  of  one  ship  with  the  stern  of  the  other, 


446  MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

at  P,  equidistant  from  A  and  B.  If  B  has  the  greater  speed,  the 
point  of  meeting  is  crowded  back  towards  A,  and  the  space  avail- 
able for  A  to  manoeuvre  is  reduced.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  B'S 
speed  is  less  than  A'S,  the  point  of  intersection  recedes,  and  the 
space  at  A'S  command  is  correspondingly  increased.  It  follows 
from  this  that  if  A  is  running  at  a  low  speed  and  finds  another 
vessel  closing  in  on  her  without  change  of  bearing,  she  will  know 
that  the  space  at  her  command  for  manoeuvring  is  comparatively 
limited,  as,  in  all  probability,  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
courses  is  not  far  ahead. 

As  regards  B,  if  it  happens  that  she  is  running  at  very  high 
speed,  she,  too,  will  know  that  in  all  probability  the  courses  inter- 
sect near  A  and  that  A  has  probably  but  little  space  for  clearing 
her  (B'S)  line.  It  may  therefore  be  urged  that,  so  far  as  B  is  con- 
cerned, the  obligation  upon  her  to  act  for  the  avoidance  of  colli- 
sion, under  Art.  21  of  the  Rules  of  the  Road,  will  increase  with 
her  speed;  that  is  to  say,  if  her  speed  is  so  high  that  A'S  is  not 
likely  to  equal  it,  she  will  know  that  her  course  is  probably  crossing 
A'S  at  a  point  which  leaves  A  but  little  space  in  which  to  ma- 
noeuvre for  mutual  safety. 

As  regards  the  time  available  in  the  cases  illustrated  in  Plates 
129  and  130,  we  cannot  discuss  this  without  assuming  a  definite 
speed  for  A.  In  the  figures,  this  is  taken  at  10  knots,  so  that 
B'S  speed  becomes,  for  the  courses  laid  down,  10,  15,  20  and 
7  knots. 

If  A'S  speed  is  greater  or  less  than  10  knots,  the  intervals  must  be 
changed  correspondingly. 

If  we  take  the  distance  between  the  ships  as  greater  or  less  than  one 
mile,  the  scale  of  the  figures  must  be  changed. 

With  these  speeds,  we  see  that,  when  B  is  distant  one  mile 
and  crossing  without  change  of  bearing,  the  bows  of  the  two 
ships  will  meet  after  the  intervals  shown  in  the  figures. 

An  important  point  brought  out  by  the  figures  is  that,  if  B'S 
speed  is  materially  less  than  A'S,  there  are  only  certain  bearings 
on  which  B  can  threaten  collision.  Suppose,  for  example,  that 
B'S  speed  is  two-thirds  of  A'S,  and  that  she  bears  four  points  on 
A'S  bow.  She  cannot  by  any  possibility  reach  the  line  of  A'S 
course  in  time  to  intercept  and  collide  with  her.  As  the  differ- 
ence in  speed  increases,  this  point  comes  out  more  and  more 
strikingly.  If  A'S  speed  is  three  times  B'S,  there  can  be  no  colli- 
sion if  B  is  sighted  more  than  i^4  points  on  the  bow. 


MANOEUVRING   TO  AVOID  COLLISION.  447 

It  follows  from  this,  that  in  the  case  of  a  steamer  running  at 
a  speed  so  high  that  no  vessel  which  is  likely  to  cross  her  course 
can  be  expected  to  have  anything  like  an  equal  speed,  the  danger 
sector  is  confined  to  a  few  points  on  either  bow. 

Take  the  case  of  an  ocean  liner,  running  at  a  speed  of  20  knots, 
and  consider  her  relation,  for  example,  to  sailing-vessels  cross- 
ing her  route.  These  vessels  will  not  have  more  than  one-third 
to  one-half  her  speed.  To  threaten  collision,  then,  they  must 
bear  a  very  little  on  the  bow,  and  can  be  cleared,  in  most  cases, 
with  a  few  spokes  of  the  wheel.  Although  this  point  is  not  usu- 
ally specifically  brought  out,  it  is  probably  somewhat  vaguely  held 
as  the  basis  of  the  contention  so  strongly  insisted  upon  by  the 
officers  of  the  great  liners,  that  it  is  safer  for  them  to  run  at  full 
speed  in  a  fog  than  to  slow  down.  This  subject  will  be  discussed 
in  a  later  section,  in  connection  with  "  Fog,"  and  it  will  be  shown 
that  this  is  only  one  of  many  points  to  be  considered  in  thick 
weather,  and  that  the  unquestionable  advantage  of  high  speed 
from  this  point  of  view  is  much  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
other  considerations. 

I IV. 

A  large  proportion  of  steamers  meeting  at  sea  approach  each 
other  on  bearings  from  ahead  to  four  points  on  the  bow.  It 
happens  that  this  is,  for  reasons  which  will  appear  hereafter,  the 
most  dangerous  bearing  on  which  they  can  approach;  and  it 
resists  from  this  coincidence  of  the  maximum  frequency  of  occur- 
rence with  the  maximum  of  danger,  that  something  like  seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  all  collisions  reported,  are  between  vessels  ap- 
proaching each  other  on  these  bearings. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  distinguish  two  general  classes  of  situa- 
tions: ist,  Those  arising  under  ordinary  conditions,  where  ves- 
sels sight  each  other  at  normal  distances  and  have  plenty  of  time 
and  space  for  manoeuvring  to  avoid  collision;  and  2nd,  Those  in 
which  they  do  not  see  each  other  until  dangerously  close.  If  any 
doubt  exists  as  to  whether  they  are  dangerously  close  or  not,  it 
should  of  course  be  assumed  that  they  are. 

ist.  Masthead  lights  are  required  by  law  to  be  visible  five 
miles,  on  a  clear,  dark  night;  and  this  law  is  fairly  well  complied 
with.  We  shall  certainly  not  be  in  error  if  we  assume  that  they 
will  show  four  miles,  and  that  the  side-lights  of  a  steamer  will 
show  half  as  far.  If  bearings  are  taken  from  the  time  the  mast- 


448  MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

head  lights  are  seen,  the  situation  should  be  perfectly  clear  by 
the  time  the  side-lights  are  made  out,  and  if  danger  of  collision 
has  been  found  to  exist,  A  (the  "  giving  way  "  ship)  should  be 
ready  to  act  at  once.  She  may  give  way  by  changing  speed,  or 
course,  or  both,  but  it  is  always  simpler  to  change  the  course 
than  to  reduce  the  speed  materially;  and  this  has  the  further 
advantage  that  it  gives  notice  to  B  of  what  has  been  done — pro 
vided  the  course  can  be  changed  sufficiently  to  open  the  red 
light.  It  will  not  usually  be  necessary  to  make  so  great  a  change 
as  this,  merely  to  insure  passing  astern,  but  it  is  very  desirable 
to  do  it  if  u  is  not  too  far  on  the  bow,  as  it  immediately  clears 
up  the  situation  for  both  ships.  The  whistle  signal  required  by 
the  Rules  of  the  Road,  for  a  change  of  course,  is  an  additional 
safeguard  in  this  case,  which  could  not  be  used  for  a  mere  reduc- 
tion of  speed.  If,  however,  B  is  more  than  three  or  four  points 
on  the  bow,  it  will  suffice  to  slow  as  much  as  may  be  necessary  to 
let  her  draw  ahead,  changing  course  later  if  it  shall  seem  advisable. 

In  changing  course  to  avoid  collision,  right  rudder1  is  required 
of  A  by  the  article  which  directs  her,  whenever  possible,  to  pass 
astern  of  B.  This  is  a  survival  of  the  old  "  Law  of  Port  Helm  " 
which  has  been  the  object  of  such  violent  denunciation  from 
writers  on  the  Rules  of  the  Road.  When  confined,  as  it  is  by  the 
present  rules,  to  the  ship  having  the  other  on  her  own  starboard 
hand,  this  law  is  perfectly  sound ;  but  it  was  at  one  time  regarded 
as  applying  to  all  ships  under  almost  all  circumstances. 

2nd,  If  the  vessels  are  dangerously  close  when  they  sight  each 
other,  A  is  relieved  from  the  obligation  to  pass  astern  of  B,  unless 
it  shall  appear  that  this  is  the  safest  course  that  she  can  take.  We 
shall  find  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  in  a  majority  of  cases  the 
only  course  that  can  give  her  a  hope  of  safety ;  and  that  right  rud- 
der1 is  usually  even  more  imperatively  demanded  of  her  in  this 
case,  than  when  the  space  available  for  manoeuvring  is  greater. 

The  first  impulse  of  many  officers  in  such  a  situation  is  to  turn 
away  from  the  danger,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reverse  the  en- 
gines with  full  power.  This  course  is  much  more  likely  to  cause 
collisions  than  to  prevent  them.  It  may  be  right  for  B  (the  hold- 
ing-on  vessel)  to  turn  away,  if  the  emergency  is  such  as  to  call 
for  any  action  on  her  part;  but  if  she  does  this,  so  far  from  rever- 
sing her  engines,  she  should,  if  possible,  increase  her  speed,  as 

1  Port  helm. 


Plate  3STo.    131. 


449 


Fig.  1 


B  -2  Points  on  Bow  of  A 
500  Yards  Distant. 


700          90  0 


200 


300 


400 


Ssxls  of  Yards 


B  -  3  Points  on  Bow  of  A 
500  Yards  Distant. 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 


450 


Plate  No.    132. 


Fig.  1 


B    4  Points  on  Bow  of  A 
500  Yards  Distant 


B  5  Points  on  Bow  of  A 
500  Yards  Distant 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION.  45! 

her  whole  effort  must  be  directed  to  getting  across  the  bow  of  A 
as  quickly  as  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  A  should  reduce  her 
speed,  but  should  at  the  same  time  turn  to  starboard. 

A  vessel  turning  away  from  another  vessel  to  'avoid  collision  should 
always  continue  at  full  speed,  as  the  effort  involved  in  this  course  is 
an  attempt  to  cross  the  other  vessel's  bow.  To  turn  away  and  slow 
is  the  surest  possible  way  of  bringing  about  collision. 

To  make  it  clear  why  A  turns  toward  the  danger  instead  of 
away  from  it,  we  may  refer  to  Plates  131  and  132,  where  B  is  placed, 
in  the  successive  figures,  on  bearings  from  two  to  five  points  on 
A'S  bow,  and  showing  a  red  light.  In  such  a  situation,  the  action 
to  be  taken  will  not  depend  upon  the  exact  distance  between  the 
ships.  This  distance  is  here  taken,  for  convenience  of  plotting, 
at  500  yards,  but  it  may  be  more  or  less  than  this  without  modi- 
fying the  principle  involved,  except  in  one  special  case  to  be 
hereafter  considered. 

As  we  cannot  suppose  that  A  in  this  case  has  time  to  watch 
for  a  change  of  bearing,  or  that  she  will  have  any  information  of 
B'S  course  and  speed  beyond  that  given  by  a  red  and  white  light, 
we  must  consider  that,  so  far  as  A'S  knowledge  goes,  B  may  be 
heading  anywhere  between  the  lines  BX  and  BY.  If,  however, 
she  is  heading  nearly  along  BX,  she  is  safe  to  pass  astern  of  A;1 
and  if  she  is  heading  well  off  toward  BY,  the  danger  of  collision, 
although  it  may  still  exist,  will  be  comparatively  remote.  The 
situation  will  not  be  one  of  serious  emergency  unless  B  is  head- 
ing on  some  course  within  the  sector  SET. 

If  A  turns  to  starboard  and  reverses,  using  helm  and  engines 
together  to  the  best  advantage,  she  will  follow  the  heavy  line  (ap- 
proximately). If  she  has  twin  screws  and  reverses  the  inner  one, 
at  the  same  time  putting  her  helm  aport,  she  will  follow  the  light 
line.  In  either  case,  if  she  does  not  turn  clear  of  the  danger 
sector,  she  will  cut  only  a  few  of  its  lines  (that  is  to  say,  only  a 
few  of  the  possible  courses  of  B);  and  she  will  at  the  same  time 
present  her  stem  to  B,  thus  reducing,  at  once,  the  danger  of  colli- 
sion and  the  damage  to  be  expected  if  collision  occurs.  If  she 

1  It  will  be  noted  that  A  could,  by  turning  with  the  starboard  screw 
backing,  collide  with  B  even  if  B  is  heading  along  BX;  but  long  before 
this  could  happen,  A  would  see  B'S  green  light  and  would  resume  her 
course. 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

turns  to  port,  she  not  only  cuts  every  one  of  the  courses  of  B 
within  the  danger  sector,  but  she  throws  herself  across  B'S  path 
broadside  on,  inviting  the  most  fatal  blow  that  one  ship  can  give 
another. 

If  it  be  contended  that,  in  placing  the  ships  500  yards  apart, 
we  have  taken  too  great  a  distance  for  urgent  danger,  the 
answer  is  that  at  less  than  this  we  approach  the  case  in  which 
collision  is  not  only  imminent  but  almost  inevitable  and  for 
which  no  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down.  Whether,  in 
such  a  case,  it  is  safer  to  turn  toward  the  danger  or  away  from 
it  will  depend  largely  upon  the  angle  at  which  the  courses  con- 
verge, and  when  the  vessels  are  very  close  together,  we  may 
assume  that  something  will  be  known  about  this,  since  it  is 
hardly  to  be  supposed  that  two  vessels  within  a  few  hundred 
yards  of  each  other  will  not  see  something  besides  each  others 
running  lights.  If  it  is  seen  that  the  courses  converge  as  in 
Fig.  3,  Plate  132,  the  ships  being  very  close  together,  it  is  clear 
that  each  should  turn  away  from  the  other,  and  stop.  If  A  has 
twin-screws  she  would  back  the  port  screw  full  speed.  If  she  has 
a  single  right-handed  screw,  it  may  be  dangerous  to  back  if  B  is 
very  close. 

In  the  case  where  A  has  B  nearly  on  the  beam,  the  importance 
of  turning  inward  is  less  marked  than  when  she  is  on  the  bow, 
and  it  is  generally  safe  to  slow  or  stop  to  let  her  draw  ahead,  or 
at  least  to  let  the  situation  declare  itself  clearly. 

With  regard  to  B'S  course  when  she  finds  herself  called  upon 
under  Art.  21  to  act  for  the  avoidance  of  collision  with  a  vessel 
on  her  port  hand  (A),  she  should,  in  most  cases,  turn  away,  with 
right  rudder,1  and  keep  her  speed  or  if  possible  increase  It.  But 
this  involves  presenting  her  broadside  to  A  ;  and  if  the  ships  are  so 
close  that  it  is  evident  collision  cannot  be  avoided,  there  is  no 
question  that  B  should  turn  inward,  presenting  her  bow  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  A,  and  stopping;  remembering,  if  she  has  a  single 
(right-handed)  screw,  that  backing  will  throw  her  head  to  star- 
board and  may  defeat  the  object  of  the  manoeuvre.  This  is  a 
situation  for  which  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast 
rules ;  and  all  that  is  attempted  here  is  to  call  attention  to  all  the 
factors  in  the  problem. 

If  B  has  twin  screws,  she  should,  if  she  puts  her  rudder  to 
1  Port  helm. 


MANOEUVRING   TO  AVOID  COLLISION.  453 

left,1  reverse  the  inner  (port)  screw,  and  follow  this  up  by 
reversing  the  other  one  as  soon  as  she  has  begun  to  swing.  There 
is  a  chance  that  the  ships  may  still  avoid  each  other,  and  if  they 
meet,  the  damage  will  be  less  than  if  either  of  them  strikes  the 
other  full  on  the  broadside. 

If  A  (a  steamer)  meets  a  sailing-vessel,  her  obligation  to  keep 
clear  is  the  same  whether  the  latter  is  on  her  starboard  or  her  port 
hand.  The  law  requires  her,  also,  whenever  the  circumstances 
admit,  to  give  way  by  passing  astern.  Where  a  right-handed  single 
screw  steamer  is  to  turn  to  port  to  avoid  collision  with  a  vessel 
approaching  from  that  side,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  if 
the  engines  are  reversed  they  will  probably  destroy  the  effect 
of  the  helm,  and  throw  the  head  to  starboard,  thus  increasing, 
rather  than  diminishing,  the  danger.  The  point  is  of  special 
importance  because  this  situation,  if  arising  at  all,  is  likely  to 
come  in  the  form  of  an  emergency,  as  the  lights  of  sailing-ves- 
sels rarely  show  at  the  distance  prescribed  by  law,  and  fre- 
quently cannot  be  seen  until  close  aboard.  With  twin-screws 
it  is  as  easy  to  turn  to  one  side  as  to  the  other. 

It  will  be  clear  from  what  has  been  said  in  §  II,  concerning 
the  relation  of  a  fast  steamer  to  a  comparatively  slow  vessel 
crossing  her  track,  that  there  is  here  a  strong  temptation  to  turn 
away  from  the  slower  vessel  in  the  hope  of  getting  across  her 
bow;  and  no  doubt  there  are  situations  in  which  this  is  the  only 
thing  to  be  done;  but  it  is  accompanied  by  serious  risk  and  should 
be  resorted  to  only  in  an  extreme  emergency.  If  it  is  attempted, 
the  speed  must  be  maintained  at  its  maximum.  In  the  event  of 
turning  inward,  the  rules  laid  down  in  §  IV  of  Chapter  XIII 
should  be  carefully  observed ;  that  is  to  say,  in  turning  to  port 
(for  example)  the  rudder  should  be  put  hard  left1  instantly  and 
the  engines  stopped ;  then,  after  the  head  has  begun  to  swing  de- 
cidedly to  port,  the  engines  should  be  reversed,  and,  finally,  the 
rudder  shifted  to  hard  right.2  This  supposes  a  single  right-handed 
screw. 

§V. 

IN  A  FOG. 

An  officer  hearing  the  fog-signal  of  a  vessel  which  he  cannot 
see,  can  usually  form  a  general  idea  of  its  bearing  and  may  be 
1  Helm  starboard.  2  Helm  hard  a-port. 


454  MANCEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

able  to  judge  something  of  its  distance;  but  even  with  regarc 
to  these  points,  there  is  danger  of  serious  error,  and  of  all  other 
points  he  is  absolutely  ignorant.  The  other  vessel  may  be  head- 
ing toward  him,  or  crossing  his  course  at  any  angle,  or  running 
parallel  with  him.  If,  however,  he  hears  her  signal  more  than 
once,  he  can  judge  whether  she  is  drawing  nearer  or  not,  and  can 
perhaps  tell  something  of  her  course;  and  if  she  is  stopped,  her 
signal  will  tell  him  this. 

A  steamer's  whistle  can  be  heard,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
two  miles  or  more,  and  rather  farther  in  a  fog  than  in  clear 
weather;  but  so  many  things  affect  the  question  of  audibility  that 
it  is  not  safe  to  rely  upon  hearing  it  more  than,  say,  half  a  mile, 
even  when  all  conditions  seem  to  be  favorable.  The  fog-horn  of 
a  sailing-vessel  can  in  some  cases  be  heard  a  mile  or  more,  but 
in  other  cases  not  more  than  a  few  hundred  yards.  The  law  does 
not  require  the  signal  (of  a  steamer)  to  be  sounded  oftener  than 
once  in  two  minutes,  and  in  this  interval,  a  vessel  running  10 
knots  will  cover  between  600  and  700  yards,  while  two  vessels 
approaching  each  other  on  a  bow  bearing  will  draw  together  by 
half  a  mile. 

It  can  be  shown  that  the  safest  bearing  on  which  one  vessel, 
A,  can  have  the  fog-signal  of  another  vessel,  B,  is  directly  ahead. 
If  the  signal  indicates  that  B  is  stopped,  she  can  be  easily  avoid- 
ed; and  if  she  is  standing  across,  she  will  be  clear  before  A  can 
reach  her.  There  is  no  danger  of  collision,  unless  she  is  heading 
toward  A;  that  is  to  say,  within  the  very  small  angle  subtended 
by  A'S  beam;  and  in  this  case  the  vessels  should  be  able  to  pass 
clear,  after  sighting  each  other.  If  they  meet,  it  will  be  either 
stem  to  stem  or  with  a  glancing  blow,  and  such  collisions  are  never 
very  serious. 

Not  only  is  a  blow  on  the  broadside  far  more  dangerous  than 
one  on  the  stem,  but  the  length  offered  by  the  broadside  to  pos- 
sible collision  is  from  eight  to  ten  times  as  great  as  in  the  case  of 
the  stem;  from  which  we  may  argue  that,  so  far  as  other  con- 
siderations of  law  and  seamanship  permit,  any  vessel  in  danger 
of  collision  with  another  should  present  her  stem  to  the  danger, 
rather  than  her  broadside. 

The  rules  governing  the  manoeuvring  of  steamers,  as  laid  down 
in  Chapter  XIII,  are  evidently  of  maximum  importance  in  a  fog, 


MANCEUVRING    TO    AVOID    COLLISION.  455 

as  are  also  the  facts  in  connection  with  stopping,  given  in  Section 
VI  of  this  chapter. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  Rules  of  the  Road  for  vessels  crossing 
apply  in  a  fog  as  well  as  in  clear  weather,  but  a  certain  time  must 
elapse,  after  the  signals  are  first  heard,  before  it  can  be  determined 
whether  the  vessels  are  in  fact  crossing,  or  passing  clear  of  each 
other.  If  they  are  passing  clear,  any  change  of  course  on  the  part 
of  either  may  introduce  danger;  and  no  such  change  will  be  jus- 
tifiable unless  it  can  be  shown  to  contribute,  on  the  whole,  to  the 
probability  of  safety.  In  the  interval  of  uncertainty  following  the 
first  hearing  of  the  signal  (forward  of  the  beam),  the  law  requires 
that  both  vessels  shall  stop  their  engines.  It  does  not  require 
them  to  reverse,  because  this  would  destroy,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
control  of  the  ship  by  the  helm. 

Starting  with  this  single  demand  of  the  law,  we  have  to  inquire 
whether  anything  else  is  demanded  by  seamanship. 

Consider,  first,  the  case  of  a  steamer  hearing,  on  her  starboard 
bow,  the  signal  of  another  steamer,  of  whose  exact  bearing  she 
cannot  be  sure,  and  of  whose  distance  she  knows  only  that  it  is 
not  great.  A,  Plate  133. 

A  has  no  means  of  knowing  whether  the  vessels  are  crossing 
or  not,  but  she  knows  immediately  that,  if  they  are  crossing, 
she  must  keep  out  of  the  way.  If  she  contents  herself  with  stop- 
ping her  engines,  she  will  range  ahead,  with  constantly  diminish- 
ing speed,  along  the  line  AK.  If  she  turns  to  either  side,  she 
will  follow  one  of  the  curving  tracks.1  As  regards  the  possible 
courses  of  B,  we  need  consider  only  those  which  involve  a  chance 
of  collision.  These  will  all  lie  within  the  "  danger  sector  "  shown. 
Clearly,  if  A.  turns  inward,  she  cuts  comparatively  few  of  these 
possible  courses  of  B,  and  at  the  same  time  she  presents  her 
stem,  instead  of  her  broadside,  to  such  danger  as  may  exist.  If 
time  and  space  permit  her  to  turn  fully  toward  B,  she  will  have 
placed  herself  in  the  safest  position  she  could  take  with  refer- 
ence to  another  vessel  whose  course  is  unknown. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  A  keeps  her  course  or  turns  away  from 
B,  she  cuts  directly  through  the  danger  sector,  and  exposes  her 
broadside  to  collision  in  case  it  proves  that  B  is  heading  across. 

From  the  moment  when  it  becomes  clear  that  B  is  crossing, 

lrThe  tracks  shown  are  for  a  vessel  300  feet  long,  but  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  them  will  hold  for  vessels  of  any  length. 


456 


Plate  No.    133. 


B  rv 


Fig.  1 
In  a  Fog. 

A  hears  B's  Whistle 
to  Starboard. 


Scale  in  far  da 


Fig.  2 
In  a  Fog. 

A  hears  B's  Whistle 
to  Starboard. 


700   50     0 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION 


MANCEUVRING  TO  AVOID   COLLISION.  457 

the  Rules  of  the  Road  apply  to  the  situation;  and  these  rules 
require  that  A  shall  keep  clear  and  that  she  shall,  if  possible,  pass 
astern  of  B,  to  do  which  she  must  turn  inward;  that  is  to  say, 
the  manoeuvre  required  of  A,  after  the  ships  have  drawn  danger- 
ously close,  is  the  same  that  is  suggested  by  the  foregoing  consid- 
erations for  the  very  beginning,  when  the  time  and  space  avail- 
able for  it  are  much  greater,  and  while  the  ship  has  speed  enough 
to  be  under  satisfactory  command. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  a  steamer  in  a 
fog,  hearing  the  signal  of  another  vessel  on  her  starboard  bow, 
should  turn  toward  the  signal  in  the  shortest  possible  space  and 
time,  stopping  her  engines  as  required  by  law,  and  backing  if  this 
will  assist  in  turning.  She  should  not  continue  backing  long 
enough  to  come  to  a  dead  stop  unless  it  is  evident  that  this  is 
called  for  by  the  emergency.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  well  to 
renounce  control  by  the  helm  while  doubt  still  exists  about  the 
course  and  position  of  the  other  vessel.  Having  brought  the 
signal  ahead,  she  should  hold  the  compass  course  thus  fixed  until 
it  becomes  clear  what  course  the  other  vessel  is  making. 

If  the  signal  heard  is  on  the  starboard  hand,  but  only  a  little 
forward  of  the  beam,  the  advantages  of  turning  immediately 
toward  it  are  not  so  marked,  although  there  is  high  authority  for 
recommending  it  even  in  this  case.  It  is  probably  better  for  A, 
after  stopping  her  engines,  to  hold  her  course  for  awhile,  bearing 
in  mind,  however,  that  if  she  finds  reason  to  change  her  course  at 
all  it  will  be  to  starboard,  and  that  she  should  be  ready  to  do  this 
the  moment  it  becomes  clear  that  B  is  crossing.  If,  later,  she 
turns  to  starboard,  she  will  probably  have  reason  to  back  her 
engines  at  the  same  time. 

We  have  now  to  consider  what  B  should  do  upon  hearing  the 
signal  of  A,  a  steamer,  on  the  port  hand.  Certain  of  the  argu- 
ments which  have  been  applied  to  the  preceding  case  apply  with 
equal  force  here,  and,  as  far  as  they  go,  suggest  that  B  also  should 
turn  inward  (toward  A)  ;  but  a  decisive  argument  against  this  is 
that,  if  the  ships  are  not  crossing,  B  is  not  called  upon  to  take 
any  action  whatever;  and  if  they  are  crossing,  it  is  her  duty  to 
keep  her  course,  letting  A  pass  astern  of  her,  and  directing  all 
her  own  efforts  to  getting  across  A'S  bow  as  quickly  as  possible. 
She  should,  therefore,  in  the  period  of  uncertainty  following  the 
first  hearing  of  the  signal,  hold  her  course  with  her  engines 


458  MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

stopped.  The  moment  that  the  situation  is  recognized  as  one  of 
crossing,  she  should  start  her  engines  ahead,  unless  the  circum- 
stances make  it  evident  that  she  cannot  get  across.  In  this  case, 
which  can  only  arise  when  the  ships  are  very  close,  she  should 
turn  toward  A  and  stop.  Whether  she  should  back  or  not  will 
depend  upon  the  effect  this  will  have  on  her  steering,  and  upon 
other  circumstances  as  they  reveal  themselves  at  the  moment. 

An  officer  on  the  bridge  of  a  steamer,  hearing  a  sailing-vessel's 
fog-horn  forward  of  the  beam  on  either  side,  has  several  things 
to  help  him  in  deciding  whether  danger  exists  and  how  it  can  be 
avoided.  The  number  of  blasts  heard  will  tell  him  on  which  tack 
the  other  vessel  is,  and  the  force  and  true  direction  of  the  wind  will 
tell  him  much  about  her  course  and  speed.  The  law  requires  him 
to  stop  his  engines,  in  this  as  in  other  cases;  and  if  the  vessels 
seem  to  be  meeting  or  crossing  with  danger  of  collision,  it  re- 
quires him  to  keep  clear,  and,  if  circumstances  admit,  to  avoid 
crossing  the  other  vessel's  bow.  As  a  fog-horn  can  be  heard  but  a 
very  short  distance,  it  must  generally  be  assumed  in  this  situation 
that  the  vessels  are  dangerously  close;  and  to  decide  whether 
"  circumstances  will  admit "  of  passing  astern  of  the  sailing- 
vessel,  calls  for  rather  nice  judgment;  the  more  so  as  the  decision 
must  be  formed  without  the  least  delay.  If  the  steamer  is  run 
ning  as  slowly  as  under  the  law  she  should  be,  and  with  the  large 
reserve  of  power  which,  as  we  have  seen,  will  enable  her  to  stop 
within  her  own  length,  or  slightly  more  than  this,  she  should 
usually  turn  toward  the  signal  and  reverse  her  engines  (provided 
danger  of  collision  is  found  to  exist).  If  no  danger  exists,  the 
steamer  keeps  course  and  resumes  speed. 

An  officer  in  charge  of  the  deck  of  a  steamer  should  at  all  times, 
but  especially  at  night  and  in  a  fog,  have  as  exact  a  knowledge  as 
possible  of  the  true  direction  of  the  wind.  This  can  be  told  accu- 
rately enough  from  the  surface  ripples  on  the  water,  when  these 
can  be  seen.  At  other  times,  it  must  be  estimated  from  the  appar- 
ent direction  and  force  of  the  wind  and  from  the  general  direction 
of  the  sea,  remembering,  however,  that  this  does  not  always  run 
with  the  wind  blowing  at  the  time. 

The  wind  is  rarely  fresh  in  a  fog,  but  may  blow  with  any  force 
in  falling  snow  or  heavy  rainstorm,  either  one  of  which  is  more 
to  be  dreaded  than  a  fog. 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION.  459 

Exception  may  be  taken  to  the  rules  laid  down  above,  on  the 
ground  that  by  turning  immediately  toward  a  fog-signal,  we  run 
a  risk  of  introducing  danger  where  none  would  otherwise  exist. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  this  action  is  recommended  only 
for  the  vessel  which,  in  case  there  proves  to  be  danger,  must  keep 
clear,  and  and  keep  clear  by  this  very  manoeuvre;  also,  that  a  vessel 
turning  and  backing  at  the  same  time,  gains  very  little  ground 
to  the  right  or  left  of  her  original  course,  and  finally  that,  as 
already  noted,  the  best  we  can  hope  to  do  in  a  fog  is  to  take  the 
course  which  gives  the  greatest  probability  of  safety  in  view  of 
the  evidence  available. 

§VI. 

SPEED  IN  A  FOG. 

This  subject  has  been  treated  as  a  matter  of  Law,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Rules  of  the  Road.  It  will  be  treated  here  as  a 
matter  of  Seamanship. 

It  has  been  shown  in  §  III,  that  a  vessel  running  at  very  high 
speed,  can,  with  comparative  ease,  avoid  collision  with  a  slow 
vessel  crossing  her  path,  provided  that  she  makes  out  this  vessel 
at  a  fair  distance  and  is  sure  that  it  is  crossing. 

But  in  a  fog,  while  a  signal  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable 
distance,  it  can  never  be  located  with  precision,  and  there  is  no 
means  of  telling  whether  the  vessel  from  which  it  comes  is  cross- 
ing or  not.  The  advantages  of  high  speed  are  confined  to 
cases  in  which  the  crossing  vessel  is  actually  seen;  and  in  a  fog, 
a  vessel  seen  is  usually  so  close  aboard  that  a  steamer  running  at 
full  speed  would  strike  her  before  helm  or  engines  could  be 
touched. 

The  claim  usually  put  forward  by  the  defenders  of  high  speed 
is  that  a  steamer  handles  better  at  high  than  at  low  speed.  This 
is  true  enough  as  regards  time,  but  altogether  false  as  regards 
space;1  and  in  avoiding  collision,  space,  and  not  time,  is  the  con- 
trolling factor.  Time  enters  into  the  question,  it  is  true,  but  in 
another  way  than  this,  and  a  way  that  is  all  in  favor  of  low  speed. 
The  great  hope  of  safety  in  a  fog  lies  in  the  sound  signals  prescribed 
by  law.  These  are  required  to  be  sounded  once  in  two  minutes. 
But  in  two  minutes,  a  vessel  running  fifteen  knots  will  pass  over 

1  See  Chapter  XIII,  §  II,  where  it  is  shown  that  the  space  in  which  a 
vessel  turns  does  not  greatly  vary  with  her  speed. 


460  MANCEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 

half  a  mile,  while  two  vessels  approaching  each  other,  will  draw 
together  by  a  mile. 

As  there  are  many  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  in  which  sig- 
nals cannot  be  heard  a  mile,  it  might  easily  happen  that  two  ves- 
sels running  at  this  speed  would  find  themselves  in  collision  with- 
out either  one  having  heard  the  signal  of  the  other.  Moreover, 
a  signal  once  heard  gives  very  little  information.  It  tells  of 
danger,  and  is  a  command  to  stop  the  engines;  but  it  can  rarely 
be  located,  even  as  to  the  side  from  which  it  comes,  until  it  has 
been  repeated  once  or  twice;  and  even  after  it  is  located  approxi- 
mately, there  is  certain  to  be  some  delay  in  acting. 

At  five  knots,  the  time  available  for  repetition  of  the  signals,  for 
comprehension  of  the  situation,  for  decision  as  to  the  course  called 
for,  and  for  action  upon  this  decision,  is  three  times  as  great  as  at 
fifteen  knots;  and  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  insist  that  in  such  an 
increase  of  time,  there  is  an  enormous  increase  of  safety. 

Closely  connected  with  the  question  of  speed  in  a  fog,  is  that 
of  the  space  in  which  a  steamer  can  be  stopped  under  various 
conditions.  This  space  will  depend  upon  the  proportion  of  her 
available  power  which  is  in  use  for  going  ahead.  If  she  is  using 
full  power,  so  that  she  has  no  reserve  available  for  backing,  it  is 
found  that  she  can  be  stopped  in  from  three  to  five  times  her 
length;  that  is  to  say,  the  space  required  is  independent  of  her 
speed,  and  directly  proportional  to  her  length.  Thus  a  vessel 
two  hundred  feet  long  can  be  stopped  in  nine  hundred  feet,  while 
one  six  hundred  feet  long  may  require  nearly  three  thousand 
feet.  For  turbine  ships  the  distance  is  much  greater. 

But  a  vessel  in  a  fog,  running  at  reduced  speed,  can  have,  and 
should  have,  a  large  reserve  of  power  ready  for  instant  use  in 
backing,  the  only  limitation  upon  this  being  that  "  blowing  off  " 
shall  not  be  necessary.  The  greater  the  proportion  which  this 
reserve  bears  to  the  power  in  use  for  going  ahead,  the  shorter  will 
be  the  space  in  which  she  can  be  stopped  by  bringing  the  reserve 
into  play;  and  it  is  evident  that,  at  low  speed,  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  power  can  be  held  in  reserve  without  blowing  off,  than 
would  be  possible  at  high  speed.  With  such  a  reserve  ready  for 
immediate  use,  a  steamer  should  be  able  to  stop  in  two  lengths  or 
less;  and  if  she  turns  while  stopping,  this  distance  is  still  further 
reduced.  For  turbine  ships  the  distance  may  be  doubled. 

Since  both  the  space  in  which  a  ship  will  stop  and  that  in  which 


MANOEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION.  461 

she  will  turn  are  directly  proportional  to  her  length,  the  import- 
ance of  running  slow  and  with  a  large  reserve  of  power  is  greater 
in  the  case  of  a  large  steamer  than  of  a  small  one;  yet  the  largest 
steamers  afloat  are  the  very  ones  which  habitually  and  openly  set 
the  law  in  this  matter  at  defiance. 

A  reason  frequently  given  for  advocating  high  speed  in  a  fog 
is  that,  the  fog  belt  being  of  definite  width,  the  danger  of  collision 
will  be  reduced  by  getting  across  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  This 
is  like  saying  that  if  one  is  called  upon  on  a  dark  night  to  cross  a 
public  square  in  which  people  are  moving  about  in  all  sorts  of 
directions,  it  will  be  safer  to  run  across  at  full  speed  than  to  walk 
slowly.  It  can  easily  be  shown  that  in  neither  of  these  cases  is  the 
probability  of  collision  reduced  by  reducing  the  time  in  which  the 
danger  space  is  crossed. 


It  is  surprising  that  in  none  of  the  discussions  which  come  up 
from  time  to  time  upon  the  subject  of  fog-signals,  is  any  sugges- 
tion made  as  to  the  use  of  the  voice.  A  good  voice  can  be  heard 
without  difficulty  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  by  the  use  of  a  mega- 
phone this  distance  can  be  more  than  doubled.  It  would  seem 
that  advantage  might  often  be  taken  of  this  fact  to  establish 
communication  through  a  fog,  and  to  exchange  information  as 
to  courses  steered,  speed,  etc. 


One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  deciding  upon  a  course  of 
action  in  a  fog  comes  from  the  impossibility  of  determining  with 
certainty  the  direction  of  sounds,.  This  necessarily  reduces  the 
value  of  all  rules  which  involve  the  location  of  signals  heard. 
This  difficulty  is  being  much  reduced  by  the  development  of  in- 
struments for  determing  the  direction  of  sound  (Submarine  Sig- 
nal System)  and  of  radio  signals  (Radio  Compass)  both  of  which 
systems  have  been  described  in  Chapter  VIII. 


It  is  well  known  that  fogs  do  not  usually  extend  to  any  great 
height,  and  that  they  are  often  thin  at,  and  for  some  distance 
above,  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  probably  denser  at 
about  the  height  of  a  steamer's  bridge  than  at  any  other  point. 


462 


MANCEUVRING  TO  AVOID  COLLISION. 


By  stationing  lookouts  as  high  and  as  low  as  possible,  dangers 
may  sometimes  be  made  out  above  or  below  the  fog,  long  before 
they  can  be  seen  from  the  deck  or  the  bridge. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  decided  by  the  Courts  that  in  a  fog  a 
lookout  should  be  stationed  at  the  bow. 


It  is  important  to  remember  that  when  vessels  sight  each  other 
through  a  fog,  the  signals  of  Art.  28  of  the  Rules  of  the  Road  be- 
come available  and  must  be  used  if  the  course  is  changed  or  the 
engines  backed.  These  signals  must  not  be  used  when  the  ves- 
sels are  not  in  sight  of  each  other,  no  matter  how  close  they 
may  be. 


In  the  event  cf  collision,  it  is  a  natural  impulse  for  the  vessel 
which  has  rammed  the  other,  to  back  out  as  quickly  as  possible. 
This  is  often  the  worst  thing  that  could  be  clone,  since  her  bow 
must  be  for  the  moment  closing  more  or  less  perfectly  the  hole 
that  it  has  made.  Often,  by  keeping  the  engines  of  the  ramming 
ship  at  dead  slow  ahead,  it  will  be  possible  to  save  the  other  ship 
from  filling  and  sinking  long  enough  for  the  passengers  and  crew 
to  make  their  escape — perhaps  directly  to  the  deck  of  the  ram- 
ming ship. 

As  to  the  duties  of  both  ships  under  the  law,  see  §  VII  of  Chap- 
ter XIV. 

Collision  mats  (Plate  134),  supplied  to  all  men-of-war,  are 
rectangular  mats  made  of  two  or  more  thicknesses  of  canvas, 
quilted  together,  and  fitted  with  lines  from  the  corners,  for  getting 
the  mat  into  position  over  the  side  wherever  it  may  be  needed,  and 
holding  it  there.  This  calls  for  "  hogging  lines,"  leading  from  the 
lower  corners  under  the  keel  and  up  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
others  leading  up  to  the  rail  on  the  side  where  the  mat  is  placed ; 
also  for  "  distance  lines  "  from  the  corners  to  stretch  the  mat  for- 
ward and  aft.  To  get  the  hogging  lines  under  the  keel,  they  must 
be  dipped  over  the  stem  and  passed  aft  to  the  point  where  they 
are  needed.  It  was  at  one  time  the  custom  in  the  navy  to  carry 
n°ggmg  h'nes  under  the  keel  at  all  times,  but  this  was  found  to 
chafe  the  lines  and  to  rub  off  the  paint.  It  is  now  prohibited. 


Plate  No.    134. 


463 


FIG.1  -  MAT  ON  DECK,  READY  TO  GO  OVER 


Thrummed  S/rfe 
toward  Skin  of  Ship 


FI6.2-MAT  IN  PLACE 


COLLISION  MAT. 


464  MANOEUVRING  TO   AVOin  COLLISION. 

Hogging  and  distance  lines  are  usually  of  chain  or  wire  or 
both,  ami  rtre  always  galvanized. 

A  collision  mat  properly  placed  may  be  a  threat  help  to  a  ship 
which  is  dead  in  the  water,  but  its  usefulness  is  greatly  reduced 
if  she  attempts  to  steam  at  any  speed.  Its  principal  value  is  to 
make  other  repairs  possible — usually  from  the  inside  of  the  ship ; 
though,  of  course,  if  any  sort  of  structure  is  to  be  used  on  the 
outside,  the  mat  may  be  kept  in  place  untfcr  this  and  may  thus 
continue  to  be  efficient. 

It  might,  for  example,  he  practicable  to  construct  a  screen  of 
planks  to  be  hauled  down  over  the  outside  of  the  mat  and  bound 
in  place  by  lines  around  the  ship  and  under  the  keel.  If  the  hole 
is  near  the  turn  of  the  bilge,  the  planks  might  be  seized  together 
by  short  turns  of  rope  passing  through  holes  near  the  edges  of 
the  planks,  these  turns  acting  as  hinges  and  making  the  screen 
sufficiently  flexible  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  shape  of  the  hull. 
A  large  piece  of  canvas — perhaps  an  awning — might  be  put  on 
outside  of  all,  and  held  in  place  by  still  other  lines  passed  under 
the  keel. 

Having,  by  methods  of  this  kind,  checked  the  rush  of  water,  it 
will  usually  he  possible  to  build  up  a  structure  inside  the  ship 
which  can  he  braced  and  caulked  in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  of 
proceeding  to  port. 

If  a  water-tight  compartment  is  to  remain  flooded,  its  bulk- 
heads must  be  vcrv  securely  braced  from  adjoining  compartments. 


(4^5) 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

PILOTING. 

§i. 

The  navigation  of  a  ship  at  a  distance  from  land,  sometimes 
known  as  "  Prop  er  Piloting "  is  not  a  matter  of  Seamanship. 
This  chapter  will  therefore  deal  only  with  the  handling  of  ves- 
sels in  coasting  and  in  navigating  harbors  and  other  restricted 
waters  by  the  aid  of  soundings,  buoys,  lights,  ranges,  etc.  For 
safe  navigation  under  these  conditions,  it  is  important  that  the 
compass  x  error  should  be  accurately  known,  that  reliable  sound- 
ings should  be  had  at  frequent  intervals,  and  that  facilities 
should  be  provided  for  taking  bearings  quickly  and  plotting 
them  accurately.  The  Gyro  compass,  with  its  repeaters,  is  re- 
placing the  magnetic  compass  and  pelorus. 

The  compass  error  should  be  determined  for  the  courses  that 
are  to  be  used  in  coming  upon  the  coast,  at  the  latest  possible 
time.  The  leadlines  should  be  examined  and  their  marks  veri- 
fied. 

Good  leadsmen  are  rare  and  time  and  trouble  are  well  spent  in  train- 
ing a  few  of  tnem  who  can  be  relied  upon  when  exact  results  are  needed. 

The  Charts,  Sailing  Directions,  Light  and  Buoy  Lists,  etc., 
should  be  studied  and  care  taken  that  they  are  corrected  to 
date. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  chart  should  be  habitually  kept 
on  the  bridge  in  pilot  waters  and  for  this  it  is  convenient  not 
only  to  have  a  large  board  permanently  fixed  on  the  bridge, 
but  to  use,  in  addition  to  this,  one  or  more  smaller  portable 
boards  to  which  the  charts  are  tacked  and  which  can  be  moved 
about  at  will.  The  use  of  two  of  these  portable  boards  does 
away  with  the  necessity  of  ever  handling  a  loose  chart  on  the 
bridge,  as  each  chart  can  be  tacked  to  its  board  in  the  chart- 
house  and  kept  there  until  wanted.  The  portable  boafd  also 
does  away  with  the  necessity  for  going  to  the  fixed  board  when- 
ever it  is  desired  to  refer  to  the  chart — a  point  which  may  be  of 
great  importance  in  a  crowded  channel. 

1  Magnetic  compass. 


466 


Plate  No.    135. 


Horizontal  Danger  Angle. 
Fig.  1 


Determining  the  Position  by  Two  Bearings  with  the  Run  between. 
Fig.  2 


i    2     3    4    s 

Soalt  of  Miles 


|  Course  West  by  South 
\  Dlttance  Run,  3%  Milet 
8hfp  It  at  8  at  time  of  Seoond 


Fixing  the  Position  Graphically  by  Two  Bearings  with  the  Run  between. 

Fig.  3 


DETERMINING  pn<;mnM  m  n 


PILOTING.  467 

For  taking  bearings,  the  compass,  magnetic  or  gyro, — fitted 
with  a  proper  azimuth  circle — is  the  most  convenient  instrument 
that  can  be  used.  When  it  is  not  available,  the  pelorus  is  sub- 
stituted for  it.  (See  chapter  on  "Compass,  Log  and  Lead.") 

Sextant  angles  are  sometimes  to  be  preferred  to  compass 
bearings,  but  are  not  as  universally  available.  They  are  un- 
questionably more  reliable  than  compass  bearings  where  every- 
thing is  favorable  for  their  use,  if  only  because  they  involve  no 
such  uncertain  element  as  deviation;  but  they  require  three 
conspicuous  and  accurately  charted  objects  separated  by  favor^ 
able  angles ;  and  these  conditions  are  not  always  to  be  found.  All 
officers  should,  however,  be  familar  with  the  use  of  the  sextant 
for  measuring  horizontal  angles  and  of  the  three-arm  protractor 
for  plotting  them. 

Another  convenient  and  valuable  use  of  the  sextant  in  pilot- 
ing is  for  determining  distances  by  the  vertical  angles  sub- 
ended  by  light-houses,  etc.,  the  heights  of  which  are  known. 

Tables  are  published  which  give  at  a  glance  the  distance  of 
an  object  of  a  certain  height  corresponding  to  any  observed 
sextant  angle;  but  in  the  absence  of  such  a  table,  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  make  the  necessary  calculation.  A  common  application 
of  this  principle  is  the  "  vertical  danger-angle."  Having  to  pass 
a  light-house  or  some  similar  object  of  known  height,  we  decide 
at  what  minimum  distance  it  shall  be  passed,  determine  the 
angle  which  it  will  subtend  at  that  distance,  and  then,  by  fre- 
quent observation,  make  certain  that  the  angle  is  not  allowed 
to  exceed  this  value. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  height  of  the  observer's  eye  is  a  factor  in  this 
problem,  but  for  ordinary  purposes  this  may  be  disregarded. 

Evidently  the  same  angle  enables  us  to  keep  at  a  safe  distance 
inside  of  an  outlying  danger  if  we  have  to  pass  between  it  and 
the  coast; and  we  may  even  work  our  way  between  two  dangers 
in  this  manner. 

The  "  Horizontal  Danger-Angle "  is  used  where  there  are 
two  well-defined  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  a  hidden  danger.  In 
Fig.  j,  Plate  135,  suppose  A  and  B  to  represent  two  promi- 

1  See  the  Chapter  in  Lecky's  Wrinkles  in  Practical  Navigation,  on 
"  The  Station  Pointer  " — this  being  the  English  name  for  the  three-arm 
protractor. 


468 


PILOTING. 


nent  objects  which  are  plotted  on  the  chart,  and  c  an  outlying 
danger.  At  a  safe  distance  to  seaward  of  c,  place  a  mark  D, 
and  draw  a  circle  through  A,  B  and  D.  Draw  also  the  lines  A  D 
and  B  D  and  with  a  protractor  measure  the  angle  A  D  B.  This 
angle  is  the  "  danger-angle."  So  long  as  the  angle  between 
A  and  B  measured  at  the  ship  is  less  than  A  D  B,  the  ship  is  out- 
side the  circle  shown.  If  the  angle  becomes  greater  than  A  D  B, 
she  is  within  the  circle.  When  it  is  equal  to  A  D  B,  she  is  on 
the  circle. 

It  is  a  well-known  geometrical  proposition  that  "  all  the  angles  in- 
scribed in  the  same  segment  of  a  circle  are  equal."  In  other  words,  all 
the  angles  that  can  be  formed  by  lines  drawn  from  points  in  the  circum- 
ference to  the  extremities  of  the  chord  A  B  will  be  equal  to  each  other. 
As  we  pass  inside  the  circle,  the  angles  will  increase;  as  we  pass  outside 
they  will  decrease. 

In  running  along  the  land  with  prominent  marks  in  sight,  the 
position  should  be  plotted  frequently,  as  there  is  always  danger 
that  the  ship  will  be  set  in  by  a  current  of  which  the  chart  and 
Sailing  Directions  give  no  hint.  If  two  well-marked  points  are 
in  sight,  so  placed  that  their  lines  of  bearing  "  cut "  at  a  favor- 
able angle,  the  simplest  method  of  fixing  the  position  is  by 
cross-bearings.  If  only  one  suitable  object  can  be  seen,  its  line 
of  bearing  may  be  plotted  and  an  attempt  made  to  fix  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ship  on  this  line  by  an  estimate  of  distance,  by  a 
sounding  or  by  some  other  means.  If  the  object  seen  chances 
to  be  a  light  just  coming  above  the  horizon  (a  common  situa- 
tion), its  distance  may  be  determined  with  considerable  accu- 
racy from  its  height  and  that  of  the  observer's  eye.  It  hap- 
pens that  the  distance  from  any  given  height  to  the  visible  sea- 
horizon  is,  in  miles,  approximately  equal  to  the  square  root  of 
the  height  in  feet.  Thus,  if  an  observer  whose  eye  is  25  feet 
above  the  water-line,  sees,  just  on  the  horizon,  a  light  whose 
height  he  knows  to  be  100  feet,  he  will  not  be  far  wrong  in 
assuming  its  distance  as  15  miles. 

For  more  exact  results,  the  following  table  is  convenient: 


PILOTING. 


469 


TABLE  OF  DISTANCES  AT  WHICH  OBJECTS    CAN    BE   SEEN  AT    SEA, 

ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  RESPECTIVE  ELEVATIONS  AND  THE 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  EYE  OF   THE  OBSERVER. 


Heights 
iu  leet. 

Distances  in 
nautical  miles. 

Heights 
in  feet. 

Distances  in 
nautical  miles. 

Heights 
in  feet. 

Distances  in 
nautical  mileSo 

5 

2-565 

70 

9-598 

250 

18-14 

10 

3-628 

75 

9-935 

300 

19-87 

15 

4-443 

80 

10-26 

350 

21-46 

20 

5-130 

85 

10-57 

400 

22-94 

25 

5-736 

90 

10-88 

450 

24-33 

30 

6-283 

95 

11-18 

500 

25-65 

35 

6-787 

100 

11-47 

550 

26-90 

40 

7-255 

110 

12-03 

600 

28-10 

45 

7-696 

120 

12-56 

650 

29-25 

50 

8-112 

130 

13  08 

700 

30-28 

55 

8-509 

140 

13-57 

800 

32-45 

60 

8-886 

150 

14-22 

900 

34-54 

65 

9-249 

200 

16-22 

1000 

36-28 

Example. — A  tower,  200  feet  high,  will  be  visible  to  an  observer  whose  eye 
is  elevated  15  feet  above  the  water,  21  nautical  miles  nearly  :  thus  from  the 
table : 

15  feet  elevation,  distance  visible  4-44  nautical  miles. 
200  "  «  16-22         " 


20-66 

Abnormal  refraction  may  introduce  an  error  here.  And  on  a  coast 
where  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  are  excessive,  neglect  to  allow  for  this 
might  be  a  serious  matter. 

If  the  light  is  above  the  horizon,  the  observer  may  move  down- 
ward until  he  finds  the  height  that  brings  it  to  the  water-line. 

Two  observations  of  a  single  object  will  give  a  "  fix,"  if  the 
course  and  distance  run  in  the  elapsed  time  are  noted.  In  run- 
ning on  a  steady  course  with  such  an  object  in  sight  we  have  a 
series  of  simple  triangles  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the 
course  with  the  successive  lines  of  bearing  (Fig.  2,  Plate  135). 
In  these  triangles,  we  have  given  the  side  R  s,  representing  the 
distance  run  between  any  two  bearings,  and  the  angles  made  by 
these  bearings  with  the  course;  ART  and  AST.  The  triangles 
might,  of  course,  be  solved  simply  enough  by  ordinary  mathe- 
matical processes,  but  these  are  not  suited  for  work  on  the 
bridge.  The  table  which  follows  gives  the  solution  without 
calculation.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  copy  of  this  posted  on 
a  board  and  hung  in  the  chart-house. 


470 


PILOTING. 


TO  FIND   THE    DISTANCE    OF   AN   OBJECT   BY    TWO    BEARINGS, 
KNOWING  THE  DISTANCE  RUN  BETWEEN  THEM. 

RuLE.-Under  the  number  of  points  contained  between  the  course  and  second 
bearing,  and  opposite  to  the  difference  between  the  course  and  first  bearing,  will  be 
found  a  number  which  multiplied  by  the  miles  made  good  will  give  the  distance  of 
the  object  (in  miles)  at  the  time  the  last  bearing  was  taken. 

N.  B.— Due  allowance  should  be  made  for  current. 

Difference  between  the  Course  and  Second  Bearing  in  Points  of  the  Compass. 


4 

41 

5 

5* 

6 

« 

7 

* 

8 

8* 

9 

9* 

10 

10* 

11 

11* 

12 

12* 

Pts. 
^ 

Difference  between  the  Course  and  First  Bearing 
in  points  of  the  Compass. 

1-00 

0-81 
1-23 

0-69 
1-00 

o-«) 
0-85 

0-54 
0-74 

0-49 
0-67 

0-46 
0-61 

0-43 
0-57 

0-41 
0-53 

0-40 
0-51 

0-390-38 
0-490-48 

0-380-38 
Q-47^-47 

0-39 
0-47 

0-40 
0-48 

0-41 
0-49 

0-43 
0-51 

1-45 

1-17 
1-66 

1-00 
1-35 

0.88 
1.14 

0-79 
1-00 

0-72 
0-90 

0-67 
0-82 

0-63 
0-76 

0-600-58 
0-72JO-69 

0-570-56 
0-660-65 

0-56 
0-64 

0-56 
0-64 

0-57 
0-64 

0-58 
0-65 

3f 

1-85 

1-50 
2-02 

1-27 
1-64 

Ml 
1-39 

1-00 
1-22 

0-92 
1-09 

0-15 
1-00 

0-80 
0-93 

0-760-74 
0-880-84 

0-72 
0-81 

0-71 
0-79 

0-71 

0-78 

0-71 

0-78 

4 

2-17 

1-77 
2.30 

1-50 
1-87 

1-31 
1-58 

M8 
1-39 

1-08 
1-25 

1-00 
1-14 

0-94 
1-06 

0-90 
1-00 

0-87 
0-95 

0-850-83 
0-920-90 

5 
5* 

2-41 

1-96 
2-50 

1-66 
2-03 

1-46 
1-72 

1-31 
1-51 

M9 
1-35 

1-11 
1-24 

1-05 
1-15 

1-00 
1-08 

0-97 
1-03 

6 
6* 

2.56 

2-08 
2-60 

1-76 
2-11 

2-61 

1-55 
1-79 

2-12 
2-60 

1-39 
1-57 

1-80 
2-11 

2-56 

1-27 
1  41 

1-58 
1-79 

2-08 
2-50 

1-18 
1-29 

1-41 
1-57 

1-76 
2-03 

2-41 

1-11 

1-20 

1-29 
1-41 

1-55 
1-72 

1-96 
2-30 

7 
8^ 
9 

ib~ 

10J 

Example.— A  lighthouse  bore  WNW.  The  ship  ran  6  knots,  West,  and  the  light- 
house then  bore  NW.  JN.  Required  the  distance  of  the  lighthouse  at  the  time  of 
the  second  bearing. 

Angle  between  the  course  and  first  bearing  =  2  points. 

"    second    "      =4* 
Multiplier  from  table  =0'81 
Distance  =  6  X  0'81        =  4'86  nautical  miles. 

In  the  absence  of  a  table,  the  problem  may  be  solved  graphi- 
cally by  plotting  the  lines  of  bearing  on  the  chart  and  deter- 
mining by  the  aid  of  rulers  and  dividers  where  the  given  course 
must  cut  these  lines  to  make  the  distance  between  them  equal 
the  run  of  the  ship  (Fig.  3,  Plate  135). 

There  are  several  convenient  applications  of  the  above-des- 
cribed principles  to  practical  cases,  which  call  for  neither  a 
Table  nor  a  Chart.  If  the  second  observation  is  taken  when 
the  angle  between  the  line  of  bearing  and  the  course  (A  s  T)  is 
exactly  double  what  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  first  observation 


PILOTING.  471 

(ART),  the  distance  of  the  ship  from  the  object  at  the  time  oi 
the  second  observation  is  equal  to  the  run  of  the  ship  between 
the  observations. 

Again,  knowing  the  distance  A  s,  and  the  angle  AST,  we  may 
by  reference  to  the  Traverse  Table,  determine  the  distance  at 
which  the  point  A  will  be  when  abeam. 

It  will  be  understood  that  in  all  observations  involving  the  run  of  the 
ship,  allowance  must  be  made  for  any  current  that  may  be  known  to 
exist. 

If  the  first  bearing  is  taken  when  the  point  A  is  exactly  on  the 
bow  and  the  second  when  it  is  abeam,  the  distance  at  the  time 
of  the  second  observation  will  be  equal  to  the  run  of  the  ship 
between  observations.  This  method  of  fixing  the  distance 
from  an  object  when  abeam  is  called  the  method  of  "  Bow  and 
Beam  Bearings  "  and  is  usually  carried  out  with  all  prominent 
landmarks  passed.  There  is  no  reason  why  both  this  method 
and  the  preceding  one  should  not  be  made  matters  of  routine 
and  all  observations  connected  with  them  entered  in  a  "  Coast- 
ing Record  "  to  be  kept  in  the  chart-house. 

In  this  connection,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  importance  of  re- 
cording all  observations  accurately  at  the  time  they  are  made,  and  of 
noting  the  reading  of  the  patent  log  for  every  observation  that  has  to  do 
with  the  navigation  of  the  ship,  whether  this  be  a  sight,  a  sounding  or  a 
bearing. 

Advantage  should  be  taken  of  every  opportunity  for  getting 
a  line  of  position  by  means  of  two  objects  "  in  range  "  with  each 
other.  This  calls  for  no  measuring  of  bearings  and  is  at  once 
the  most  convenient  and  the  most  accurate  line  that  can  be 
obtained.  If,  at  the  instant  that  the  range  is  closed,  a  bearing 
of  another  object  be  noted,  or  the  sextant  angle  measured  be- 
tween another  object  and  the  range,  the  position  is  fixed  at 
once. 

A  convenient  way  of  determining  the  compass-error  for  the  compass- 
heading  at  the  instant  is  to  take  the  bearing  of  a  well  defined  and 
accurately  charted  range. 

As  a  general  rule,  where  coasts  are  well  charted,  well  lighted 
and  well  buoyed,  the  safest  way  to  navigate  them  is  to  keep 
close  enough  to  see  and  clearly  identify  the  landmarks  in  regu- 
lar succession,  running  from  one  mark  to  another  with  careful 
bearings  on  them  all,  taking  advantage  of  every  opportunity 


472 


PILOTING. 


to  fix  the  position,  and  watching  especially  to  see  if  the  ship  is 
being  set  in  toward  danger  as  she  often  will  be  by  currents 
which,  in  many  cases,  there  is  no  reason  to  anticipate.  In  this 
way,  the  position  is  always  known  within  a  few  miles  and  it  is 
much  safer  than  to  keep  off  so  far  that  marks  cannot  be  seen, 
until  the  time  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  close  with  the 
coast;  for  when  this  time  comes,  you  may  be  far  out  of  your 
reckoning  and  a  little  mistake  in  standing  in  may  have  serious 
results.  Another  reason  for  keeping  hold  of  the  marks  is  that 
if  the  weather  becomes  thick,  you  know  your  position  with 
certainty  up  to  the  last  moment  and  so  have  a  "  departure  " 
upon  which  you  can  rely  for  running  in  the  fog.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  in  a  fog,  dangers  should  be  given  a  wider  berth  than 
in  clear  weather,  but  even  in  a  fog  it  is  safer  to  feel  the  way 
along  by  careful  soundings  and  by  the  help  of  the  sound  signals 
provided  for  the  purpose  than  to  cut  adrift  from  everything. 
(See  Section  III  of  this  Chapter.) 

On  coasts  which  are  not  well  surveyed,  no  chances  should  be 
taken. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  buoys  are  often  out  of  place 
and  that  light  vessels  may  be  so;  and  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  fix  the  position  by  means  of  permanent  landmarks. 
Even  when  buoys,  etc.,  are  changed  intentionally  and  with  due 
notice,  it  may  happen  that  the  notice  is  not  received.  A  vessel 
approaching  New  York  some  years  ago  at  the  end  of  a  passage 
from  the  Pacific  went  aground  in  thick  weather  because  Sandy 
Hook  light-vessel  had  been  moved  (three  months  before)  and 
notice  of  the  change  had  not  been  received. 

In  approaching  a  harbor,  it  is  important  to  know  not  only 
the  state  of  the  tide  as  to  height,  but  the  direction  and  force  of 
the  tidal  currents  that  may  be  expected.  (See  Section  II.) 
After  the  channel  is  actually  entered,  the  direction  of  the  current 
may  be  known  from  its  effect  upon  buoys  and  upon  vessels  at 
anchor,  and  all  indications  of  this  kind  should  be  carefully 
noted.  It  will  rarely  happen  that  the  currents  run  perfectly 
true  to  the  direction  of  the  channel;  and  where  they  draw  across, 
the  ship  will  be  set  over  to  one  side  unless  a  proper  allowance 
is  made  by  heading  a  little  higher  than  the  course  that  is  to  be 
made.  In  cases  of  this  kind  it  is  very  helpful  to  use  a  range; 
and  if  none  is  laid  down  on  the  chart  an  effort  should  be  made 


PILOTING.  473 

to  pick  one  out  ahead.  The  objects  seen  need  not  be  recog- 
nized to  be  of  use  for  this. 

The  line  on  which  the  ship  is  running  should  be  laid  down  on 
the  chart  and  the  position  plotted  frequently  by  such  means  as 
are  available.  This  will  give  warning  if  she  sags  to  either  side. 

A  ship  handles  better  with  the  tide  against  her  than  when 
running  with  it.  If  obliged  to  come  in  with  a  fair  tide,  the  speed 
should  be  kept  as  high  as  circumstances  permit,  to  insure  good 
control  by  the  rudder.  An  exception  to  this  rule  exists  when  a 
sharp  turn  is  to  be  made,  as  hereafter  explained  and  as  illustrated 
in  Plate  136. 

In  approaching  a  strange  harbor,  there  may  be  difficulty  in 
recognizing  the  landmarks  and  aids  to  navigation  as  laid  down 
on  the  chart.  Under  such  circumstances  the  ship  should  be 
stopped,  and  if  necessary  anchored,  until  the  situation  is  made 
out  clearly.  If  in  doubt  about  the  reliability  of  surveys,  or  if 
the  channel  is  not  buoyed,  it  is  well  to  send  a  boat  ahead  to 
sound  it  out  and  mark  it  temporarily.  In  running  among  coral 
reefs,  danger  may  be  made  out  from  aloft  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  intricate  passages  may  be  threaded  in  this  way 
in  perfect  safety,  provided  the  sun  is  at  the  back  of  the  observer. 

On  a  coast  where  careful  soundings  have  been  made  and 
charted,  the  sounding  machine  gives  a  valuable  means  of  locat- 
ing the  position.  This  will  be  described  in  another  section 
upon  "  Navigating  in  a  Fog." 

§11.    CURRENTS. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  danger  connected  with  piloting  is 
that  arising  from  currents,  the  force  and  direction  of  which  are 
not  known.  This  danger  is  greater  in  a  fog  than  under  other 
circumstances,  but  is  one  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  at  all 
times  when  navigating  in  the  neighborhood  of  dangers. 

In  most  cases  there  is  no  way  of  foretelling  with  certainty  the 
direction  and  force  of  the  current  to  be  anticipated  at  a  given 
place  and  time,  but  this  ought  not  to  be  true  of  such  currents  as 
are  tidal  in  their  nature.  These  are  closely  connected  with  high 
and  low  water;  but  whereas  very  elaborate  tables  are  published 
giving  the  time  of  high  and  low  for  all  parts  of  the  world,  there 
is  so  little  information  published  with  regard  to  tidal  currents 
that  many  of  the  people  to  whom  such  information  would  be  of 
value,  remain,  after  years  of  sea-faring,  under  the  impression 


PILOTING. 

that  "  slack  "  water  corresponds  to  "  high  "  and  "  low,"  that  a 
falling  tide  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  a  current  running  out, 
and  a  rising  tide  by  one  running  in. 

This  is  so  far  from  being  true  that  at  many  places  high  and 
low  water  correspond  with  the  maximum  strength  of  tidal  cur- 
rent. This  commonly  occurs  where  a  large  basin  is  to  be  filled 
through  a  relatively  narrow  mouth,  as  in  the  case  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  where  a  narrow  body  of  water  lies  open  to  the  sea  at 
both  ends,  as  in  the  English  Channel. 

"  We  must  take  care  not  to  confound  the  time  of  the  turn  of  the  tide 
stream  with  the  time  of  high  water.  Mistakes  and  errors  have  often 
been  produced  in  tide  observations  by  supposing  that  the  turn  of  the 
tide  stream  is  the  time  of  high  water.  But  this  is  not  so.  The  turn  of 
the  stream  generally  takes  place  at  a  different  time  from  high  water, 
except  at  ihe  head  of  a  bay  or  creek.  The  stream  of  flood  commonly 
runs  for  some  time,  often  for  hours,  after  the  time  of  high  water.  In  the 
same  way,  the  stream  of  ebb  runs  for  some  time  after  low  water. 

"  The  time  at  which  the  stream  turns  is  often  different  at  different 
distances  from  the  shore;  but  the  time  of  high  water  is  not  necessarily 
different  at  these  points. 

"  In  the  center  of  all  open  channels  when  the  tide  runs  right  through, 
the  streams  nearly  invariably  overrun  the  times  of  high  and  low  water 
by  about  three  hours.  In  such  a  locality  the  stream  due  to  the  flood  will 
commence  three  hours  before  high  water  and  continue  to  run  for  three 
hours  after  high  water,  in  the  same  direction. 

"  In  tidal  rivers  a  modified  form  of  the  same  phenomenon  occurs, 
»".  e.,  the  stream  runs  up  for  some  time  after  the  water  has  begun  to  fall, 
and  runs  down  after  the  water  has  begun  to  rise." 

"  Near  the  sides  of  a  channel  of  any  width,  and  whose  sides  are  shallow, 
the  direction  of  the  tidal  stream  is  rotatory.  On  the  left  hand,  looking 
up  the  channel  with  the  flood  stream,  the  direction  of  rotation  is  with  the 
hands  of  a  watch ;  and  on  the  right-hand  side,  in  the  contrary  direction  in 
the  following  manner:  At  low  water,  the  stream  will  be  running  down 
the  channel ;  at  half  tide,  it  will  be  flowing  toward  the  shore ;  and  at  half 
ebb,  it  will  be  ebbing  directly  away  from  the  shore.  In  the  upper  parts  of 
estuaries  or  tidal  rivers.,  where  shallow  water  prevails,  the  duration  of 
the  flood  stream  is  commonly  shorter  than  that  of  the  ebb.  The  higher  up 
the  estuaries,  the  greater  will  this  difference  become.  This  is  apparently 
due  to  the  retardation  of  the  advancing  tide  caused  by  friction  over  the 
shoals,  and  when  the  range  of  tide  is  great,  the  water  becomes  heaped  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  estuary,  finally  rushing  up  the  higher  part  in  a  wave, 
which,  in  extreme  instances,  has  a  more  or  less  vertical  face  and  is  called 
a  "bore."  The  Yangtse,  Amazon  and  Seine  are  cases  in  point.  In  such 
a  case,  the  tide  rises  perhaps  half  its  height  in  a  few  minutes  and  the  whole 
duration  of  flood  stream  will  be  confined  to  two  or  three  hours  or  even 
less,  the  remainder  of  the  twelve  hours  being  occupied  by  the  downward 
or  ebb  stream."  Whewell,  "Treatise  on  Tides." 


PILOTING.  475 

It  is  only  on  an  open  coast  line  or  in  a  shallow  basin  that  slack 
water  corresponds  with  high  and  low. 

In  a  Lasin  like  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  wrave  of  high  water  .travels 
up  until  it  reaches  and  is  reflected  back  from  the  head  of  the 
bay.  There  results  from  this  a  rather  complicated  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  bay,  with  two  points  of  high  and  two  of  low,  water, 
with  points  of  slack  midway  between  the  adjoining  high  and  low. 

In  a  place  like  the  English  Channel,  which  lies  open  to  the 
tides  at  both  ends,  the  currents  flow  from  both  sides  toward  and 
away  from  a  certain  point,  which  in  the  case  of  the  English 
Channel  is  near  Dover.  In  this  case,  moreover,  the  tide  turns 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  channel  at  practically  the  same 
moment.  Similar  phenomena  occur  in  Long  Island  Sound  and 
East  River,  which  constitute  together  a  single  body  of  water 
open  to  the  tide  at  bo.th  ends.  Here  the  tidal  currents  meet  and 
separate  at  Throg's  Neck.  It  is  slack  water  at  practically  the 
same  time  along  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  Sound,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  East  River,  where  it  is  slack  at,  approximately, 
one  hour  and  twenty  minutes  after  high  and  low  at  Governor's 
Island,  the  current  running  from  both  sides  toward  Throg's  Neck 
for  six  hours  preceding  slack  water  high,  and  from  the  same 
point  for  the  six  hours  between  slack  water  high  and  slack  water 
low. 

Local  conditions  may  greatly  modify  the  rules  as  laid  down 
above.  The  currents  are  always  weaker  near  shore  than  in 
the  middle  of  the  channel,  and  often  run  in  the  opposite  direction, 
sometimes  with  considerable  force.  A  striking  illustration  of 
this  is  to  be  seen  in  Wallabout  Bay,  an  offset  from  the  East  River 
(New  York  harbor)  on  which  the  New  York  Navy  Yard  has  its 
water  front.  At  the  strength  of  the  flood  tide,  when  the  current 
in  the  river  is  running  up  (to  the  northeast)  with  a  velocity  of 
several  knots  an  hour,  a  strong  counter  current  runs  along  the 
face  of  the  "  Cob-dock  "  at  the  Navy  Yard.  Between  the  two 
currents  an  eddy  is  formed,  which,  as  the  currents  slack,  flattens 
out,  growing  longer  and  narrower,  and  finally  disappearing  as 
slack  water  is  approached.  There  is  no  corresponding  phenome- 
non while  the  ebb  current  is  running,  although  the  contour  of  the 
river  results  in  some  puzzling  irregularities  in  the  direction  of 
the  current. 


476  PILOTING. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  extract  from  Whewell  quoted 
above,  tidal  currents  do  not  always  run  in  and  out  along  the  same 
line,  but  in  many  places  swing  through  a  complete  circle,  run- 
ning, at  different  stages  of  the  tide,  from  every  point  of  the 
compass.  This  is  well  illustrated  at  Charleston  Entrance,  South 
Carolina.  Here  the  first  of  the  flood  runs  to  the  southwest, 
the  middle  of  the  flood  to  west,  and  so  on  until  it  has  worked 
around  to  a  little  east  of  north,  at  which  point  the  flood  ends. 
A  little  later  the  ebb  current  begins,  running  to  northeast,  turns 
to  east  by  the  middle  of  the  ebb,  and  so  works  around  to  south, 
where  it  ends.  Other  very  striking  illustrations  occur  at  various 
points  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  British  Islands,  and  the  adjoin- 
ing coasts  of  Continental  Europe,  where  the  currents  are  strong 
and  often  apparently  erratic. 

In  so  far  as  the  currents  of  the  British  Islands  are  tidal  in 
character,  they  have  been  very  carefully  studied,  and  the  results 
are  given  in  the  "  Tide  Tables  for  British  and  Irish  Ports,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Hydrographic  Department  of  the  British  Admi- 
ralty. 

Similar,  though  less  complete,  information  for  United  States 
waters  is  published  in  the  Tide  Tables  issued  by  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey.  All  of  this  information  should  be  familiar  to 
officers  having  occasion  to  navigate  the  waters  in  question. 

By  far  the  most  dangerous  currents  with  which  the  navigator 
has  to  deal  are  those  which,  whether  tidal  or  not  in  their  origin, 
are  encountered  beyond  the  limits  where  tidal  currents  are  usually 
looked  for. 

Opposite  the  mouth  of  a  large  basin  like  Delaware  or  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  the  tidal  current  setting  in  or  out  is  often  felt  many 
miles  to  seaward,  and  vessels  in  the  neighborhood  of  such  basins 
should  be  very  watchful.  Vessels  passing  twenty  miles  outside 
of  the  Delaware  Capes  have  been  set  in  toward  the  shoals  by  as 
much  as  three  knots  an  hour,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this 
phenomenon  accounts  for  many  of  the  wrecks  which  occur  every 
year  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  most  of  which  occur  where 
vessels  are  standing  to  the  northward  in  thick  weather. 

In  places  where  long  shoals  extend  far  out  from  land,  there  is 
almost  always  a  current  setting  across.  For  reasons  which  are 
not  clear,  such  a  current  almost  invariably  cuts  in  at  more  or  less 
of  an  angle  toward  the  coast.  This  has  been  frequently  noted  on 


riLoxiNG.  477 


Lookout  and  Frying  Pan  Shoals,  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
which  are  the  scenes  of  frequent  wrecks. 

Where  a  long  stretch  of  straight  coast,  like  that  from  Hatteras 
northward  to  Cape  Henry,  would  seem  to  preclude  the  probability 
of  a  current,  there  is  often  a  very  marked  set,  chiefly  up  or  down, 
but  always  with  a  more  or  less  pronounced  tendency  toward  the 
coast.  i 

These  phenomena  are  the  more  dangerous  because  due  to 
causes  which  are  too  obscure  to  be  identified ;  being  probably  con- 
nected in  some  cases  with  gales  or  with  long  continued  winds 
from  a  certain  quarter,  which  have,  perhaps,  ceased  to  blow ;  or 
to  winds  prevailing  farther  to  seaward  and  causing  a  general  set 
toward  the  coast.  The  important  point  is  that  the  navigator 
should  always  be  prepared  to  find  a  current  setting  him  in  some 
direction  whenever  he  is  near  a  coast  of  any  considerable  extent, 
even  though  his  Sailing  Directions  give  no  hint  of  such  danger, 
and  no  reason  for  it  is  apparent. 

Even  when  everything  points  to  a  current  from  a  certain  direc- 
tion, there  are  many  chances  that  it  will  be  found  running  in 
some  other  direction.  The  Gulf  Stream  northwest  of  Cuba  and 
in  the  Florida  Straits — perhaps  the  most  strongly  marked  ocean 
current  in  the  world — is  occasionally  found  running  directly 
across  the  axis  of  the  straits ;  and  sometimes  after  a  prolonged 
"  Norther  "  may  be  found  running  south  and  west  toward  the 
Yucatan  Channel  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

It  has  been  stated  in  §  I  that  a  vessel  handles  better  when  run- 
ning against  a  current  than  when  running  with  it.  To  this  there  is 
one  exception.  Where  a  sharp  turn  has  to  be  made,  the  ship  will 
make  it  better  on  a  fair  tide — in  fact,  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt 
such  a  turn  against  a  strong  head  tide.  This  will  be  clear  from 
Plate  136.  In  Figs.  I  and  2,  a  long  steamer  is  shown  attempting 
to  round  a  turn  against  the  current.  As  her  bow  reaches  out 
beyond  the  point,  it  is  caught  by  the  current  on  the  wrong  side, 
and  swept  off  the  wrong  way,  giving  her  a  rank  sheer  across 
(Fig.  i).  A  moment  later  her  stern  feels  the  back  water  sweep- 
ing out  from  the  far  side  of  the  bend,  and  tending  to  cut  her 
stern  around  the  wrong  way.  Thus  there  are  two  forces  at  work, 
one  on  the  bow  and  the  other  on  the  stern,  to  keep  her  from 
making  the  turn.  In  Figs.  3  and  4  are  shown  the  corresponding 
forces  when  the  tide  is  fair.  Here  everything  favors  the  turn, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  ship  from  coming  around. 


478 


Plate  No.    136. 


Fig.  1, 


Fig. 3. 


Fig  4 


Fig.  6. 


TURNING  A  SHARP  BEND  WITH  AND  AGAINST  CURRENT. 


PILOTING.  479 

Some  years  ago,  a  large  schooner  anchored  in  the  Piscataqua  Rivei 
below  Henderson's  Point,  parted  her  cable  in  the  middle  of  the  nighl 
and  went  up  the  river  with  a  five-knot  current.  At  that  time  the  river 
made  a  narrow  right-angle  bend  around  the  Point,  and  the  turn  was 
regarded  as  difficult  enough  under  the  most  favorable  conditions. 
The  schooner,  with  all  hands  on  board  asleep,  rounded  the  point  with- 
out touching,  and  brought  up  on  a  shoal  a  mile  and  a  half  further  up 
the  river. 

Where  two  ships  are  passing  at  a  bend,  it  will  be  easier  for 
them  to  pass  clear  if  the  one  going  with  the  current  turns  inside 
the  other.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  are  privileged  to  pass  in 
this  way,  if  contrary  to  the  Rules  of  the  Road,  nor  indeed  that 
they  are  justified  in  trying  to  pass  at  a  bend  in  this  way  or  in 
any  other.  If,  however,  they  are  going  to  pass,  and  if  the  rules 
permit  them  to  pass  in  this  way,  it  will  be  comparatively  easy  to 
pass  without  accident  while  the  other  way  would  be  very  danger- 
ous. See  Figs.  5  and  6,  Plate  136. 

§  III.    NAVIGATING  IN  A  FOG. 

The  phase  of  this  subject  which  has  to  do  with  the  avoidance 
of  collision  is  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  "  Manoeuvring  to  Avoid 
Collision,"  where  it  is  shown  that  the  law  requiring  ships  to  run 
at  "  moderate  "  speed  is  perfectly  reasonable  as  a  matter  of  sea- 
manship, and  that  a  ship  running  at  such  speed,  and  having,  as 
she  should  have,  a  reserve  of  power  for  backing  hard,  can  be 
stopped  in  from  one  to  three  times  her  length.  It  is  clear  that 
the  same  considerations  which  make  this  reasonable  for  the 
avoidance  of  collision  make  it  equally  so  for  the  avoidance  of 
stranding ;  but  there  is  another  point  to  be  considered  here,  which 
is  that  the  effect  of  currents  in  throwing  the  ship  out  of  her 
reckoning  will  be  greater  at  a  low  than  at  a  high  speed,  their 
effect  varying,  in  fact,  inversely  with  the  speed.  This  should 
always  be  taken  into  consideration  and  may  under  some  circum- 
stances constitute  a  reason  for  running  at  higher  speed  than 
would  otherwise  be  justifiable. 

Experiments  with  fog-signals  have  proved  that  such  signals 
are  often  inaudible  at  distances  much  within  that  at  which  they 
should  be  heard ;  and  furthermore  that  a  signal  which  has  been 
heard  at  a  certain  distance  may  be  lost  as  it  is  approached,  there 
being,  apparently  "  zones  of  silence "  surrounding  the  signals, 
in  which  the  waves  of  sound  are  deflected  upward.  This  has 
been  shown  to  be  a  matter  of  sufficient  practical  importance  to 
be  a  source  of  real  danger. 


Plate  No.    137. 


SIGNIFICANT  SOUNDINGS,    FIXING  POSITION  IN  A   FOG 


PILOTING.  481 

Through  the  development  and  very  general  introduction  of  the 
Gyro  Compass,  the  Radio  Compass,  the  Submarine  Signalling 
System  and  the  Sounding  Machine,  all  of  which  are  described  in 
Chapter  VIII,  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  navigation  and  espe- 
cially of  navigation  in  a  fog,  have  been  enormously  reduced. 

With  these  should  be  associated  a  reliable  system  of  determin- 
ing the  speed  of  the  ship  (by  patent  log  or  revolutions  of  the 
screws),  and  from  these  the  distance  run  (with  course  made 
good)  for  any  desired  interval  of  time. 

It  is  often  possible  to  fix  the  ship's  position  with  surprising  ac- 
curacy by  sounding  alone,  the  soundings  being  plotted  on  tracing 
cloth  to  the  scale  of  the  chart  with  proper  courses  and  distances 
between,  and  the  cloth  moved  over  the  chart  until  a  position  is 
found  where  the  soundings  as  plotted  fall  in  with  the  depths  given 
on  the  chart.  It  is  convenient  to  draw  a  number  of  meridian  lines 
on  the  tracing-cloth  as  an  assistance  in  laying  off  the  courses  and 
in  keeping  these  true  to  the  chart  while  moving  the  tracing  about. 
The  lead  is  "armed"  for  each  sounding  and  the  sample  of  bottom 
brought  up  should  be  recorded  as  carefully  as  the  depth,  and 
given  equal  weight  in  locating  the  position. 

It  will  be  understood,  of  course,  that  this  method  of  navigating" 
is  available  only  on  coasts  that  have  been  thoroughly  surveyed 
and  accurately  charted. 

An  examination  of  the  chart  will  often  reveal  an  exceptional 
formation  of  the  bottom  which  may  be  as  characteristic  as  a 
conspicuous  peak  or  other  peculiar  formation  on  land,  and  as 
conclusive  in  establishing  a  position.  Two  important  illustra- 
tions of  this  are  shown  in  Plate  137.  Fig.  I  shows  the  soundings 
at  the  eastern  entrance  of  Long  Island  Sound.  Here  a  long, 
narrow  "  deep  "  makes  up  at  right  angles  to  the  line  connecting 
Montauk  with  the  southern  end  of  Block  Island. 

A  vessel  standing  in  here  in  a  fog  and  in  doubt  about  her 
exact  position,  could  run  slowly  to  the  eastward  in  7  and  8 
fathoms,  getting  soundings  in  quick  succession.  If  the  sound- 
ings increased  suddenly  from  7  fathoms  to  25  or  30,  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  decreased  almost  as  suddenly,  the  position 
would  be  fixed  as  if  the  fog  had  lifted  and  shown  the  land. 
Similarly,  a  vessel  standing  in  for  Boston  and  getting  soundings 
on  Stellwagen  Bank,  would  have  almost  a  perfect  fix  (Fig.  2). 


482 


PILOTING. 


It  often  becomes  necessary  in  a  fog  or  in  weather  too  thick 
for  sights,  to  run  along  a  coast  or  to  round  a  bend,  keeping  at 
a  certain  distance  from  land.  Where  the  soundings  run  with 
some  degree  of  regularity,  as  for  example,  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States,  a  certain  dep.th  of  water  (or  two 
limiting  depths)  may  be  selected  from  the  chart  and  the  ship 
kept  approximately  on  the  curve  of  this  depth  by  heading  out 
or  in  a  little  as  the  soundings  are  found  to  decrease  or  to  in- 
crease. Thus  a  steamer  having  to  run  in  thick  weather  from 
Boston  to  Key  West  could  round  Nantucket  shoals  in  depths 
from  28  to  35  fathoms,  then  striking  across  to  the  2O-fathom 
curve  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  could  follow  this  curve  with 
safety  to  Cape  Canaverel. 

In  running  a  channel  where  the  water  shoals  gradually  en 
each  side,  the  ship  may  be  kept  in  the  channel  by  zig-zagging 
slightly  from  side  to  side,  the  course  being  changed  whenever 
the  water  is  found  shoaling  dangerously.  The  advantage  of 
running  more  or  less  across  rather  than  attempting  .to  follow 
the  channel  directly  is  that  when  the  water  begins  to  shoal,  we 
know  in  which  direction  the  course  must  be  changed  to  deepen 
it,  whereas  if  we  attempt  to  follow  the  channel,  and  find  our- 
selves in  shallow  water,  we  have  no  means  of  telling  on  which 
side  the  channel  lies. 

When  in  the  neighborhood  of  high  land,  use  can  sometimes 
be  made  of  echoes  to  determine  roughly  the  distance  of  the  land 
and  whether  the  ship  is  opposite  a  bluff  or  a  break  in  the  con- 
tour of  the  coast. 

§IV.    BUOYAGE. 

The  International  Marine  Conference  of  1889  suggested  a 
uniform  system  of  buoyage  based  first  upon  color  and  secon- 
darily upon  shape.  The  following  extract  from  the  report  of 
the  committee  having  this  subject  in  charge,  puts  very  clearly 
the  principles  which  should  be  included  in  such  a  system.  These 
principles  have  been  .to  a  considerable  extent  adopted  by  the 
leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
appended  Notes  on  Buoyage. 

Extract  from  Report  of  Committee  on  Buoyage: 

"The  term  starboard  hand  shall  denote  that  side  of  ?  navigable  chan- 


PILOTING.  483 

n,?l  which  is  on  the  right  hand  of  the  mariner  entering  from  seaward; 
the  term  port  hand  shall  denote  that  side  which  is  on  the  left  hand  under 
the  same  circumstances. 

Color.— Buoys  defining  the  starboard  hand  shall  be  painted  a  single  red 
color. 

Buoys  defining  the  port  hand  shall  be  painted  a  single  black  color,  or  a 
parti-color. 

Buoys  defining  middle  grounds  shall  be  painted  with  horizontal  _bands. 

Form.— Wherever  form  is  used  as  a  distinctive  character. 

Buoys  defining  the  starboard  hand  shall  be  conical,  and  those  defining 
the  port  hand  shall  be  can  or  spar. 

Top  Marks. — Countries  where  form  is  not  used  as  distinctive  character 
for  the  buoys  may  adopt  as  another  distinctive  feature  for  the  buoys  on 
either  side  of  a  channel,  top  marks  resembling  a  cone  to  be  used  on  the 
starboard  side,  or  a  cylinder  on  the  port  side  of  a  channel. 

Numbers  and  Letters. — Numbers,  letters  and  names  may  be  painted  on 
the  buoys,  but  they  must  never  be  so  large  as  to  interfere  with  their 
distinctive  coloring. 

Whenever  numbers  and  letters  are  used  they  shall  be  in  consecutive 
order,  commencing  from  seaward. 

Buoying  a-nd  marking  of  wrecks. — (a)  All  buoys  and  the  top  sides  of 
vessels  used  for  the  marking  of  wrecks,  shall  be  painted  green  with  a 
suitable  white  inscription. 

(b)  Where  it  is  practicable,  by  day  one  ball  shall  be  exhibited  on  the 
side  of  the  vessel  nearest  the  wreck,  and  two  placed  vertically  on  the 
other  side;  three  fixed  white  lights  similarly  arranged  but  not  the  ordi- 
nary riding  lights,  shall  be  shown  from  sunset  to  sunrise." 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  above  are  recommendations 
and  not  laws.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  general  fea- 
tures of  these  recommendations  have  been  adopted  by  most  of 
the  Governments  which  have  established  uniform  and  consistent 
systems  of  buoyage. 

As  regards  the  marks  for  channels,  some  nations  distinguish 
the  starboard  and  port  sides  by  colory  some  by  shape,  and  some  by 
topmarks.  Some  use  two  characteristics,  but  place  more  emphasis 
on  one  than  on  the  other. 

In  German  waters,  conical  buoys  painted  black,  mark  the 
port  side  of  the  channel  in  entering,  and  spar  or  can  buoys 
painted  red,  mark  the  starboard  side. 

In  Norway,  Sweden  and  Russia  a  "  compass "  system  of 
marking  is  adopted ;  that  is  to  say,  the  colors,  shapes  and  top- 
marks  are  arranged  to  indicate  the  north,  south,  east  and 
west  sides  of  channels  and  shoals. 

Quarantine  buoys  are  invariably  yellow. 

Buoys  defining  the  limits  of  anchorages  are  usually  white. 
But  Belgium,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Denmark  use 
white  buoys  as  regular  navigational  marks. 


PILOTING. 

In  all  countries,  special  types  of  buoys,  beacons,  etc.,  are 
used  in  special  places  and  shown  on  charts.  Such  are  Bell- 
buoys,  Whistling-buoys,  Gas-buoys,  Electric-buoys,  etc. 
See' Appendix  ("  Buoyage  "). 

In  regular  systems,  starboard  hand  buoys,  if  numbered, 
have  even  numbers,  port  hand  buoys,  odd  numbers,  counting 
in  succession  from  seaward. 

In  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  the  Patagonian  Channels, 
the  buoys  are  placed  with  reference  to  vessels  passing  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  red  buoys  being  on  the  starboard 
hand  of  the  channel  with  reference  to  such  vessels  and  black 
buoys  on  the  port  hand. 

The  positions  and  character  of  buoys  should  be  given  on 
all  charts  and  in  all  Sailing  Directions,  and  the  latest  authori- 
tative information  available  should  always  be  consulted  be- 
fore entering  or  leaving  a  port  or  coming  on  a  coast. 

Buoyage 'of  United  States  Waters. 

The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  buoyage  of  the  coasts  and 
harbors  of  the  United  States  and  Insular  possessions : 

The  buoys  used  for  marking  channels,  dangers,  etc.,  are 
called  nun,  can,  ice  and  spar  buoys.  With  the  exception  of 
the  spar  buoy,  which  is  made  of  wood,  they  are  constructed 
of  sheet  iron  with  water-tight  compartments  so  that  an 
accidental  puncture  will  not  sink  them. 

In  conformity  with  section  4678  of  the  Revised  Statutes 
of  the  United  States,  the  following  order  is  observed  in  col- 
oring and  numbering  the  buoys  along  the  coasts,  or  in  bays, 
harbors,  sounds,  or  channels,  viz. : 

1.  In  approaching  the  channel,  etc.,   from   seaward,   red 
buoys,  with  even  numbers,  will  be  found  on  the  starboard 
side  of  the  channel,  and  must  be  left  on  .the  starboard  hand 
in  passing  in. 

2.  In  approaching  the  channel,  etc.,  from  seaward,  black 
buoys,  with  odd  numbers,  will  be  found  on  .the  port  side  of 
the  channel,  and  must  be  left  on  the  port  hand  in  passing  in. 

3.  As  a  rule,  starboard  hand  buoys  are  nuns,  and  port 
hand  buoys  cans,  but  spars  may  replace  either. 

4.  Buoys  painted  with  red  and  black  horizontal  stripes  will 
be  found  on  obstructions,  with  channel  ways  on  either  side 
of  them,  and  may  be  left  on  either  hand  in  passing  in. 

5.  Buoys    painted    with    white    and    black    perpendicular 
stripes,  will  be  found  in  mid-channel,  and  must  be  passed 
close-to  to  avoid  danger. 

^  6.  All  other  distinguishing  marks  to  buoys  will  be  in  addi- 
tion to  the  foregoing,  and  may  be  employed  to  mark  particu- 
lar spots,  a  description  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  printed 
list  of  buovs. 


PILOTING.  485 

7.  Perches,  with  balls,  cages,  etc.,  will,  when  placed  on 
buoys,  be  at  turning  points,  the  color  and  number  indicating 
on  which  side  they  shall  be  passed. 

8.  Day  beacons,  stakes  and  spindles   (except  such  as  are 
on  the  sides  of  channels,  which  will  be  colored  like  buoys) 
are  constructed  and  distinguished  with  special  reference  to 
each  locality,  and  particularly  in  regard  .to  the  background 
upon  which  they  are  projected. 

9.  Wherever  practicable,  the  towers,  beacons,  buoys,  spin- 
dles, and  all  other  aids  to  navigation  are  arranged  in  the  buoy 
list  of  the  Lighthouse  Board  in  regular  order  as  they  are 
passed  by  vessels  entering  from  sea. 

10.  The  navigator  should  keep  in  mind  that  the  buoys  in 
.thoroughfares  and  passages  between  the  islands  along  the 
coast  of  Maine  are  numbered  and  colored  for  entering  from 
the  eastward. 


486 


Plate  No.    138. 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  4 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK. 


(487) 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
HANDLING  A  STEAMER  ALONGSIDE  A  DOCK. 

§  I.     PRELIMINARY. 

It  is  clear  that  the  conditions  under  which  work  of  this  kind  is 
to  be  done  may  vary  almost  indefinitely  and  that  the  methods 
used  must  be  varied  correspondingly.  It  would  be  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  illustrate  all  or  even  any  considerable  number  of  the 
situations  which  arise  in  practice,  but  it  is  not  so  difficult  to 
analyze  in  a  general  way  the  various  factors  involved,  and  to 
show  their  application  to  a  few  special  cases. 

The  factors  are:  lines,  helm,  screw,  headway  or  sternway  of 
the  ship,  current,  wind. 

We  begin  by  considering  the  use  of  lines,  first  alone,  then  in 
combination  with  other  factors. 

CASE    I. 

If  the  ship  is  lying  dead  in  the  water  abreast  of  a  dock,  as  in 
Fig.  i,  Plate  138,  with  a  bow  line  leading  to  the  dock,  hauling 
on  this  line  will  turn  the  bow  in,  of  course,  but  it  will  also  throw 
the  stern  out,  the  ship  pivoting  about  the  center  of  gravity.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  stern  does  not  go  out  quite 
as  much  as  the  bow  comes  in;  for,  since  the  ship  is  not  held 
rigidly  at  the  pivoting  point,  the  mass  as  a  whole  will  respond 
more  or  less  to  the  force  acting  on  the  bow,  and  the  resultant 
motion  will  be  like  that  shown  in  the  figure. 

If  the  stern  is  held  by  a  line  to  the  dock,  as  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  138, 
the  pivot  is  transferred  to  the  stern  and  the  whole  length  of  the 
ship  comes  in  as  shown.  This  requires  much  greater  effort  than 
to  turn  the  ship  about  her  natural  pivoting  point  as  in  Fig.  I. 

If  the  bow  and  stern  lines  are  hauled  on  at  the  same  time,  the 
ship  may  be  breasted  in  bodily,  but  at  an  even  greater  expendi- 
ture of  work  than  in  the  preceding  case. 

If  either  of  the  lines  described  above  leads  off  at  an  angle  from 
the  beam,  it  constitutes  a  "  spring,"  which  may  be  defined  as  a 
line  diagonal  to  the  keel  and  exerting  a  force,  when  power  is 

1  See  also  Chapter  XXI,  "  The  Handling  of  Destroyers." 


488 


Plate  No.    139. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  4 


\ 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK, 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A    DOCK.  489 

applied  to  it,  both  in  the  direction  of  the  keel  and  at  right  angles 
to  that  direction. 

A  spring  is  used,  therefore,  for  moving  the  ship  ahead  or 
astern  and  breasting  her  in  at  the  same  time. 

CASE  2. 

If  the  ship  has  way,  either  ahead  or  astern,  her  momentum 
enters  into  the  problem  of  her  behavior.  We  have  here  another 
application  of  a  spring,  the  power  involved  in  this  case  being 
furnished  by  the  ship  itself. 

In  Fig.  3,  Plate  138,  suppose  that  the  steamer  shown  is  mov- 
ing parallel  to  the  face  of  the  dock  with  engines  stopped  and  helm 
amidships,  and  that  the  stern  spring  A  K  is  taut.  Disregarding 
the  resistance  of  the  water,  which  is  inconsiderable,  the  motion 
of  the  ship  will  be  that  resulting  from  her  momentum  along  the 
original  course  and  the  tension  along  A  K.  The  tension  on  A  K 
may  be  resolved  into  two  components;  one  retarding  the 
ship  along  the  line  of  her  original  course  and  thus  directly  oppos- 
ing the  momentum,  the  other  hauling  her  in  toward  the  dock  and 
tending  at  the  same  time  to  turn  her  about  the  center  of  gravity, 
drawing  the  stern  in  and  throwing  the  bow  out.  It  is  important 
to  note,  however,  that  the  momentum,  which  is  concentrated  at 
the  center  of  gravity,  forward  of  the  pivot,  opposes  the  turning 
and  tends  to  keep  the  ship  straight.  Thus  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  ship  does  not  turn  much  in  cases  of  this  kind,  but  comes  in 
nearly  parallel  to  the  dock  (Fig.  4,  Plate  138). 

CASE  3.     (Figs,  i  and  2,  Plate  139.) 

If  the  vessel  is  moving  as  before,  but  with  a  spring  from  the 
bow  instead  of  from  the  stern,  the  forces  acting  are  similar  to 
those  in  the  preceding  case,  but  with  an  important  difference. 
In  the  present  case,  the  momentum  acts  to  increase  the  turning 
effect  of  the  spring,  instead  of  opposing  it.  This  will  become 
clear  if  Fig.  2,  Plate  139,  and  Fig.  4,  Plate  138,  are  compared. 

The  result  of  this  difference  is  that  the  bow  of  a  ship  moving 
ahead  on  a  bow-spring  turns  sharply  in  toward  the  dock,  whereas 
the  stern  is  turned  in  very  little,  if  at  all,  by  a  stern-spring. 

If  the  ship  is  moving  astern,  instead  of  ahead,  the  conditions 
are  of  course  reversed,  a  stern-spring  turning  the  stern  in  sharply, 
while  a  bow-spring  has  little  effect. 


49O  HANDLING   A   STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A    DOCK. 

Evidently,  in  both  of  the  preceding  cases,  the  turning  moment 
is  greatest  when  the  line  is  made  fast  at  the  extreme  bow  or 
stern.  If  it  is  made  fast  at  the  center  of  gravity,  the  ship  should 
(theoretically)  spring  in  without  turning,  provided  her  draft  of 
water  is  the  same  forward  and  aft.  We  shall  presently  see  that 
if  the  helm  is  to  be  used  (as  in  practice  it  always  is)  the  maximum 
control  of  the  ship  will  be  obtained  when  the  line  is  made  fast  at 
some  point  intermediate  between  the  end  of  the  ship  and  the 
center  of  gravity. 

CASE  4. 

Suppose  that  the  vessel  of  Case  2  (Figs.  3  and  4,  Plate  138)  puts 
her  helm  to  starboard  with  a  view  to  throwing  her  head  in.  Since 
the  steering  effect  of  the  rudder  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  moving  the 
stern  of  the  ship,  and  since  the  stern  cannot  be  thrown  off  to 
starboard  because  it  is  held  by  the  spring,  it  follows  that  star- 
board helm  can  here  have  comparatively  little  turning  effect. 
This  assumes,  of  course,  that  the  line  is  made  fast  over  the  rud- 
der. Port  helm,  on  the  other  hand,  will  help  materially  to  throw 
the  stern  in. 

If  in  Case  3  (Figs.  I  and  2,  Plate  139)  the  helm  is  put  to 
starboard,  it  will  throw  the  stern  off  and  greatly  increase  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  bow  turns  in.  If  put  to  port,  it  will 
oppose  the  turning,  but  not  enough  to  overcome  it. 

If  in  any  case  we  make  fast  the  line  at  the  center  of  gravity 
while  the  ship  is  working  ahead,  we  shall  spring  the  ship  in 
bodily  but  can  at  the  same  time  steer  her  by  putting  the  helm 
over,  throwing  the  stern  to  either  side  as  desired ;  the  ship  swing- 
ing on  a  pivot  under  the  influence  of  the  helm,  while  coming 
bodily  in  on  the  spring. 

If  the  line,  instead  of  being  made  fast  amidships,  is  taken  to  a 
chock  between  the  midship  point  and  the  stern,  say  midway  be- 
tween, we  gain  a  considerable  steering  power,  without  entirely 
sacrificing  the  turning  tendency  of  the  spring.  In  practice,  the 
spring  is  usually  taken  to  this  point — or  to  the  corresponding 
one  between  the  midship  point  and  the  bow — and  this  is  found 
to  give  a  convenient  balance  of  forces  and  to  admit  of  working 
in  with  the  ship  under  good  control  (Fig.  3,  Plate  139). 

CASE  5. 

If  we  add  to  the  factors  already  considered,  the  effect  of  the 
screw,  going  ahead  or  backing,  we  have  the  conditions  of  actual 


HANDLING    A    STEAMER    ALONGSIDE    A    DOCK.  49! 

practice  in  cases  where  the  tide  is  not  strong  enough  to  be  con- 
sidered. 

So  long  as  the  screw  is  turning  ahead  it  has  a  powerful  steer- 
ing effect  through  the  action  of  the  discharge  current  against 
the  rudder,  driving  the  stern  off  to, the  side  to  which  the  helm  is 
put,  the  bow  being  held  in  by  a  spring.  In  backing,  its  effect 
may  be  utilized  to  throw  the  stern  to  one  side,  but  not  to  the 
other.  If  it  is  right  handed,  it  will  throw  the  stern  to  port  and 
cannot  be  prevented  from  this  even  by  hard  over  port  helm.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  single-screw  steamers  (right  handed)  are 
most  easily  put  alongside  with  the  port  side  to  the  dock.  They 
can  run  in  at  a  considerable  angle,  then  stop  and  back  and  so 
straighten  up  parallel  to  the  dock,  whereas  with  the  starboard 
side  in,  backing  would  throw  the  stern  further  off. 

Vessels  with  twin-screws  have  the  same  advantage  in  working 
around  a  dock  that  they  have  in  manoeuvring  elsewhere;  that  is 
to  say,  the  screws  can  be  utilized  to  turn  the  ship  even  when  she 
has  no  steerage-way,  and  when,  therefore,  the  rudder  has  little 
effect.  This  use  of  twin-screws — going  ahead  on  one  and  back- 
ing the  other — is  obvious  enough;  but  there  is  another  applica- 
tion which  can  be  made  of  them  which  is  often  overlooked.  As 
noted  above  (and  as  explained  at  considerable  length  in  the  chap- 
ter on  "  The  Steering  of  Steamers  "),  a  right-handed  screw,  in 
backing,  throws  the  stern  to  port,  while  a  left-handed  screw 
throws  it  to  starboard.  In  a  single-screw  steamer  we  have,  in 
this  action  of  the  backing  screw,  a  powerful  force  acting  to  one 
side,  which  may  be  utilized  with  great  advantage  if  we  wish  to 
throw  the  stern  to  that  side.  If  it  happens  that  we  wish  to  throw 
the  stern  to  the  other  side  while  backing,  or  to  hold  it  steady, 
then  this  action  of  the  screw  is  a  disadvantage,  and  often  a  serious 
embarrassment.  But  in  a  twin-screw  steamer  we  have  both  a 
right-handed  and  a  left-handed  serew,  so  that  we  may,  in  backing, 
throw  the  stern  to  either  side  by  using  the  proper  screw.  It  is 
the  general  practice  to  put  the  right-handed  screw  to  starboard 
and  the  left-handed  screw  to  port.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to 
throw  the  stern  to  port  while  backing,  we  back  with  the  star- 
board screw  alone;  and  it  should  be  noted  that  not  only  does  the 
direct  action  of  the  screw  throw  the  stern  to  port,  but  the  lever- 
age due  to  the  position  of  the  screw  (to  starboard  of  the  center 
of  gravity)  acts  in  the  same  direction.  Similarly,  if  we  wish  to 
throw  the  stern  to  starboard,  we  back  on  the  port  screw  alone. 


492  HANDLING  A  STEAMER  ALONGSIDE  A  DOCK. 

EFFECT  OF  A  CURRENT. 

If  there  is  any  current,  it  must  of  course  be  reckoned  with  and 
may  be  the  most  important  factor  in  the  situation  because  the  one 
which  cannot  be  controlled.  Slack  water  is  the  most  favorable 
time  for  working  around  the  dock;  but  a  head  tide,  if  not  too 
strong,  may  be  used  to  advantage.  A  fair  tide  is  unfavorable, 
and  should  be  avoided  if  possible  in  coming  alongside.  A  weak 
tide  setting  on  to  the  dock  may  be  helpful,  but  a  strong  one  is 
very  dangerous.  A  tide  setting  off  increases  the  difficulty  of  the 
situation,  but  reduces  its  danger. 

In  considering  the  effect  of  the  tide,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  a  vessel  with  a  current  on  the  bow  not  only  has  her  headway 
checked,  but  is  set  bodily  off  to  the  opposite  side.  For  this 
reason,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  getting  too  much  of  a  cant 
across,  as  this  may  result  in  being  set  in  with  dangerous  violence. 

A  ship  held  stationary  in  a  current,  whether  by  her  own  power 
or  by  a  line,  may  be  canted  to  either  side  by  the  use  of  the  helm, 
exactly  as  if  she  were  moving  through  the  water.  Thus,  with 
a  head  tide,  a  line  may  be  run  out  from  the  bow  to  the  dock  well 
ahead,  and  the  ship  dropped  in  by  the  tide  alone,  the  speed  with 
which  she  comes  in  being  regulated  by  the  helm. 

§  II.    PRACTICAL  CASES. 

In  considering  the  handling  of  a  steamer  around  a  dock,  a  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  the  case  in  which  she  uses  her 
own  power  alone  and  that  in  which  she  is  assisted  by  one  or 
more  tugs.  All  very  large  vessels  are  new  handled  by  tugs  and 
it  would  be  the  height  of  imprudence  to  attempt  to  dispense  with 
them.  But  vessels  which  would  formerly  have  been  considered 
very  large  are  constantly  worked  in  and  out  with  their  own  re- 
sources alone.  Such  are  the  splendid  vessels  of  the  Sound  and 
Bay  Lines  of  the  United  States,  some  of  which  are  side-wheelers 
and  others  propellers.  These  vessels  run  on  schedule  lime  and 
without  reference  to  tides.  They  are  brought  alongside  their 
piers  often  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions,  and  rarely 
meet  with  an  accident.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  these 
vessels  are  especially  designed  for  this  business  of  docking  under 
all  conditions  of  wind  and  tide.  Most  of  them  have  guards  ex- 
tending much  farther  out  from  their  sides  than  any  6f  the  pro- 
jections which  might  interfere  with  docking. 


HANDLING    A    STEAMER    ALONGSIDE    A    DOCK.  493 

The  Marine  Superintendent  of  one  of  the  large  Atlantic  steam- 
ship companies  writes  to  the  author  on  this  subject  as  follows: 

"  In  my  opinion,  the  great  secret  in  handling  either  a  twin- 
screw  or  single-screw  steamer  in  approaching  a  pier,  is  not  to 
have  too  much  way  on  the  ship;  the  engines  should  be  slowed 
and  the  way  off  the  ship  so  that  she  can  be  kept  well  in  hand  at 
such  a  distance  from  the  pier,  that  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  go 
ahead  in  order  to  cant  the  ship's  head  either  one  way  or  the  other 
by  the  use  of  the  rudder,  it  can  be  done  without  the  ship's  over- 
running the  place  where  she  is  required  to  land.  The  ship  should 
be  kept  thus  in  command  until  she  gets  into  a  position  where  she 
can  be  stopped  entirely  by  moving  the  engines  astern,  without 
risk  of  her  bows  striking  the  pier,  or  of  her  getting  out  of  posi- 
tion by  her  head  canting  off  by  the  action  of  the  propeller  mov- 
ing half  or  full  speed  astern.  If  the  pier  is  approached  in  this 
manner,  after  a  little  practice  it  is  astonishing  how  close  even  the 
largest  vessels  can  be  brought  to  the  pier  without  danger  of  col- 
liding. Large  steam  vessels  should  always  approach  a  pier 
against  the  tide,  and  as  near  parallel  with  the  direction  of  the  tide, 
or  trend  of  the  river,  as  possible.  The  practice  of  heading  a 
ship  from  the  river  between  two  piers  is  a  very  doubtful  and  fre- 
quently dangerous  operation;  for,  although  the  tide  may  be  slack 
on  the  surface  it  may  be  running  smartly  either  flood  or  ebb  for 
a  few  feet  below." 

HANDLING  A  STEAMER  WITHOUT  TUGS. 

Having  to  go  alongside,  if  there  is  any  choice  in  the  matter, 
select  a  time  as  near  as  possible  to  slack  water;  which,  it  must 
be  remembered,  does  not  necessarily  or  usually  correspond  to 
high  or  low.  If  any  current  is  running,  manoeuvre  if  possible  to 
bring  it  ahead,  running  beyond  the  pier  and  turning  if  coming  in 
with  the  flood.  With  a  single-screw  steamer,  there  is  an  advan- 
tage in  putting  the  port  side  to  the  dock  (supposing  the  screw  to 
be  right  handed)  but  this  is  of  less  importance  than  is  the  direc- 
tion of  the  tide. 

A  vessel  does  not  go  alongside  without  some  preparation  hav- 
ing been  made,  and  there  are  usually  men  stationed  to  receive  and 
handle  her  lines.  If  not,  a  gang  must  be  sent  ashore  for  this 
purpose;  and  in  any  case,  a  boat  should  be  ready  for  lowering, 
with  the  men  either  in  it  or  standing  by.  Fenders  should  be  at 
hand,  lines  on  deck  and  clear  for  running,  with  heaving  lines 


494 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER    ALONGSIDE    A    DOCK. 


bent,  anchors  ready  for  letting  go,  capstans  and  winches  ready 
for  heaving,  boat-davits  and  every  thing  else  alongside  rigged  in 
or  cleared  away  as  far  as  possible.  Most  merchant  vessels  are 
designed  with  some  reference  to  going  alongside,  although  it  is 
impossible  in  any  ocean-going  vessel,  to  avoid  the  projection  of 
boat-davits  and  some  other  obstructions.  In  men-of-war  there 
are  also  guns  and  spdnsons  to  be  considered;  and  in  twin-screw 
ships,  whether  men-of-war  or  merchantmen,  the  screws  project 
many  feet  beyond  the  side  and  constitute  a  danger  which  must 
never  be  forgotten  for  a  moment.  To  keep  these  vessels  off, 
there  are  usually  provided  floats  or  "  camels  " ;  and  these  must 
be  hauled  into  position  by  the  shore  gang  at  the  points  where 
they  are  seen  to  be  needed. 

The  simplest  case  that  can  arise  is  that  in  which  a  right- 
handed  screw  vessel  is  to  be  put  alongside  at  slack  water  arid 
port  side  to  the  dock.  Here  she  is  run  in  at  a  small  angle  to  the 
face  of  the  dock,  and  the  engines  backed  in  time  to  throw  her 
stern  in  and  straighten  her  up.  This  does  not  mean  that  she 
should  come  in  at  -such  speed  and  at  such  an  angle  that  if  the 
signal  to  back  is  misunderstood  or  if  the  engines  are  slow  in 
responding,  the  bow  will  crash  into  the  dock.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  dock  she  is  brought 
in,  and  the  lower  the  speed  used,  the  better;  but  as  some  back- 
ing will  probably  be  called  for  and  as  the  effect  of  this  will  be 
to  throw  her  stern  in,  a  little  allowance  should  be  made  for  it. 

Another  way  of  making  a  landing  under  the  above  conditions 
is  to  get  out  a  line  from  the  quarter,  and,  going  ahead  very 
slowly,  spring  her  in  on  this,  using  the  helm  to  hold  her  parallel 
to  the  dock.  A  line  used  in  this  way  must  be  carefully  attended 
and  checked  slowly  as  the  tension  on  it  approaches  the  danger 
point  It  should  preferably  be  taken  from  a  chock  about  half 
way  between  the  midship  point  and  the  stern,  as  this  gives  good 
control  of  the  ship  by  the  helm  as  she  comes  in. 

Under  the  same  conditions,  if  the  port  side  is  to  the  dock,  she 
might  be  sprung  in  by  backing  on  a  bow  line,  but  this  is  not  so 
good  a  way,  since  the  control  of  the  ship  in  backing  is  altogether 
unsatisfactory.  If  the  starboard  side  is  to  the  dock,  the  effect  of 
backing  Would  be  to  throw  the  stern  off,  so  if  this  method  is  to 
be  used,  a  stern  spring  will  be  needed  in  addition  to  the  bow 
spring  (Fig.  4,  Plate  139).  The  use  of  two  springs  like  this 
is  verv  common. 


Plate  No.    140. 


495 


Fig.  8. 


WORKING  AROUND  A  DOCK,  TURNING  A  Tow. 


496  HANDLING   A   STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A   DOCK. 

A  twin-screw  ship  may  be  backed  down  on  a  bow  line  and 
sprung  in  with  comparative  ease,  the  helm  being  used  to  keep 
•her  fair  with  the  dock,  and  the  right-  and  left-handed  screws 
used  as  has  been  explained  above. 

Here  it  will  be  helpful  to  use  a  bow-breast  with  the  spring  as  in 
Fig.  I,  Plate  140,  coming  in  with  a  decided  cant  toward  the  dock, 
and  getting  the  lines  to  the  dock  as  shown,  the  breast  being  taken 
from  as  far  forward  as  is  convenient.  Now  by  backing  on  the 
off  screw  we  drop  alongside. 

It  sometimes  happens  .that  a  ship  is  going  into  a  slip  with  very 
little  room,  as  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  140,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to 
check  her  without  canting  her.  The  bow  spring  shown,  if  used 
alone,  would  cut  her  bow  in  sharply.  Here  we  may  check  her 
with  two  forces  which  will  act  together  for  checking  her  way, 
but  oppose  each  other  for  canting.  These  are  the  spring  on  the 
inner  bow,  and  the  screw  (backing)  on  the  outer  quarter.  This 
is  often  a  very  valuable  combination  of  forces. 

If  there  is  a  head  tide,  the  vessel  may  be  brought  up 
with  hardly  more  than  headway  enough  to  stem  it  until  a  bow 
spring  is  run,  then  allowed  to  drop  back  on  this  by  the  tide  and 
so  come  in  to  her  berth.  Care  will  be  needed  to  see  that  she 
does  not  get  too  strong  a  cant  across,  as  this  would  set  her  in 
with  dangerous  force.  She  can  be  steered  without  difficulty  by 
the  helm,  giving  a  turn  ahead  with  the  screw  if  necessary  from 
time  to  time.  In  this  way  a  vessel  may  drop  in  from  a  consider- 
able distance  out.  She  may  even  dispense  with  the  line  for  com- 
ing in,  taking  the  tide  a  little  on  the  bow  and  letting  this  set  her 
in  bodily;  care  being  taken,  as  before,  that  she  does  not  come  in 
;  too  fast,  the  helm  and  engines  being  used  to  straighten  her  up 
when  necessary. 

It  does  not  always  happen  that  the  tide  sets  parallel  to  the  face 
of  the  dock.  More  frequently,  it  sets  on  at  more  or  less  of  an 
angle,  and  the  angle  often  varies  with  the  stage  of  the  tide.  At 
Old  Point  Comfort,  for  example,  the  current  at  one  stage  of  thj 
ebb  runs  along  the  face  of  the  dock,  while  at  another  stage  it  sets 
directly  on.  Between  the  two  extremes,  it  turns  slowly  froni 
one  of  these  directions  to  the  other.  Similar  phenomena  to  this 
are  common  in  all  places  where  fairly  large  bodies  of  water  are 
involved  and  especially  where  the  channel  bends  or  where  sev- 
eral channels  meet.  Another  point  to  be  remembered  is  that 
the  surface  current  often  has  a  very  different  direction  from  that 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A   DOCK.  497 

which  is  running  underneath.  Considerations  like  these  make  it 
clear  that  local  knowledge  is  essential  for  docking  ships  with 
safety,  and  suggest  that  in  places  where  the  phenomena  of  cur- 
rents may  prove  to  be  complicated,  a  stranger  having  to  dock  his 
ship  should  seek  the  assistance  of  a  pilot  with  full  knowledge  of 
local  conditions. 

If  it  should  be  necessary  to  make  a  landing  with  a  f  a  i  r  t  i  d  e  , 
preparations  must  be  made  to  get  out  a  stern  line  promptly,  and 
the  vessel  should  be  brought  abreast  her  berth  (or  a  little  astern 
of  it)  with  a  slight  cant  of  the  head  outward  (Fig.  i,  Plate  141). 
This  will  prevent  danger  of  the  current  catching  her  stern  on 
the  inside  and  sweeping  her  off  while  the  line  is  being  made  fast, 
as  might  happen  if  her  head  were  canted  in. 

It  is  an  invariable  rule  that  with  a  fair  tide,  the  ship  must  be 
sprung  in  with  a  stern  line,  never  with  a  bow  line  alone;  and 
the  same  rule  applies  in  springing  her  in  by  her  own  headway. 
In  either  of  these  cases,  the  effect  of  a  bow  spring  would  be  to 
throw  the  stern  off,  while  a  stern  spring,  for  reasons  which  have 
been  explained  in  Section  I,  brings  her  bodily  alongside. 

If  the  dock  is  not  clear  ahead  and  astern  of  the  berth  to  be 
occupied,  other  means  must  be  employed.  The  vessel  may  be 
laid  abreast  her  berth  as  close  in  as  practicable,  and  hauled  in  one 
end  at  a  time  by  lines  taken  to  winches.  In  this  case,  if  there  is 
no  tide,  the  stern  should  be  hauled  in  first,  the  bow  line  being 
slack  and  the  bow  allowed  to  swing  out  as  the  ship  turns.  This 
because  it  is  always  harder  to  haul  in  the  stern  than  the  bow, 
owing  to  the  drag  of  the  after  body  and  the  screw.  The  stern, 
having  been  hauled  in  somewhat,  is  held  from  swinging  out  by  a 
breast  line,  and  the  bow  is  hauled  in.  The  operation  is  then  re- 
peated if  necessary,  the  stern  being  held  in  each  time  while  the 
bow  line  is  manned,  but  the  bow  being  allowed  to  swing  out  a 
little  each  time  as  the  stern  comes  in.  Thus  the  working  in  of 
the  stern  is  a  matter  of  turning  rather  than  of  dragging  in  bodily, 
while  with  the  bow,  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

If  circumstances  admit  of  going  ahead  somewhat,  the  follow- 
ing method  is  perhaps  the  simplest  that  can  be  employed.  A 
spring  is  run  from  a  point  well  forward  but  still  abaft  the  center 
of  gravity,  and  a  breastline  from  a  chock  near  the  stern  to  a  point 
on  the  dock  nearly  abeam  (Fig.  2,  Plate  141).  The  screw  is 
started  ahead  slow  with  rudder  hard  right1  (supposing  the  port 
side  is  to  the  dock)  and  the  stern  swings  in  on  the  spring, 

1  Helm   hard   aport. 


498 


Plate  No.    141 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK 


Plate  No.    142, 


499 


Fig.  1 


B°5 


Fig.  2 


J 


\>  <f       <*\ 


^-o 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK 


50O  HANDLING   A   STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A    DOCK. 

from  the  effect  of  the  port  helm.  When  she  is  canted  as  much 
as  is  thought  best,  the  stern  breast  is  hauled  taut  and  held,  and 
the  helm  shifted  to  hard  a-starboard,  the  engines  being  kept 
ahead  slow.  The  starboard  helm  now  tries  to  drive  the  stern 
off,  but  the  breast  holds  it,  and,  as  the  ship  forges  ahead  on  the 
spring,  the  bow  turns  in  and  is  held  by  a  bow  breast.  The  helm 
is  presently  shifted  to  hard  aport  (the  engines  all  the  time  going 
ahead)  and  the  stern  comes  in  again.  The  operation  is  repeated 
as  often  as  may  be  necessary;  care  being  taken,  if  a  current  is 
running,  to  avoid  getting  too  much  of  a  cant. 

Still  another  way  of  working  into  a  restricted  berth  is  shown 
in  Figs.  3  crnd  4,  Plate  141.  This  supposes  that  there  is  no  tide. 
Come  in  at  such  an  angle  as  may  be  necessary  to  clear  the  danger 
astern,  putting  the  bow  close  enough  to  get  a  line  ashore  to 
some  point  as  P,  abaft  the  point  where  the  bow  is  to  be  when  se- 
cured. Go  ahead  with  left  rudder,1  which  will  throw  the  stern  in, 
leaving  the  bow  line  slack  until  the  stern  clears  the  danger ;  then 
hold  on  the  bow  line,  still  going  ahead  with  starboard  helm.  This 
brings  her  into  her  berth. 

Under  many  circumstances,  as  for  example  when  proposing 
to  lie  for  some  time  at  an  exposed  dock,  an  anchor  should  be 
let  go  outside  and  some  distance  ahead  of  the  berth  to  be  oc- 
cupied, and  the  ship  dropped  or  hauled  in  from  this  by  the  aid 
ot  bow  and  stern  lines  to  the  dock.  With  a  head  tide,  a  judicious 
use  of  the  lines  and  the  helm  will  make  it  possible  to  drop  in 
with  little  or  no  hauling,  but  she  must  be  straightened  up  toward 
the  end  to  avoid  coming  in  too  heavily.  If  an  anchor  is  needed 
from  the  quarter,  this  must  be  laid  out  later  by  a  boat. 

With  a  fresh  breeze  or  a  current  setting  on  to  the  dock,  it  may 
be  possible  to  drop  in  by  letting  go  an  anchor  abreast  of  the 
berth  with  a  spring  from  the  quarter  made  fast  to  the  ring  (Fig. 
T,  Plate  142)  ;bow  and  stern  lines  being  used  as  before. 

Fig.  2,  Plate  142,  shows  a  vessel  secured  to  the  face  of  a  dock 
with  bow  and  stern  lines,  bow  and  stern  breasts,  and  with  off- 
shore moorings  for  holding  her  off. 

§  III.    WORKING  INTO  A  SLIP. 

Where  a  vessel  is  to  be  worked  around  into  a  slip,  she  usually 
makes  a  landing  first  at  the  outside  of  the  pier  and  is  then  turned 
1  Starboard  helm. 


HANDLING    A    STEAMER    ALONGSIDE    A    DOCK.  5OI 

either  ahead  or  astern  around  the  corner,  swinging  on  a  spring 
from  near  the  end  of  the  dock.  It  is  easier  to  put  the  bow  in 
than  the  stern,  because  of  the  use  which  may  be  made  of  the  helm 
for  steering  around  and  into  the  new  berth.  Account  must  be 
taken  of  the  current,  and  allowance  made  for  the  fact  that  its 
principal  effect  will  be  felt  upon  the  part  of  the  vessel  which 
swings  out  into  the  stream — not  upon  the  part  inside  the  slip. 

We  consider  first  the  case  in  which  there  is  no  current  (Fig.  3, 
Plate  142).  The  vessel  goes  ahead  sufficiently  tp  bring  her  bow 
well  beyond  the  end  of  the  pier,  and  a  line  is  taken  from  the  bow 
to  a  point  on  the  pier  near  the  corner  around  which  she  is  to 
turn.  If  the  line  is  made  fast  close  to  the  end  of  the  pier,  the 
tension  on  it  is  nearly  a  straight  pull,  and  the  turning  effect  is 
very  slight.  It  should  therefore  be  taken  a  short  distance  up 
the  slip,  to  give  a  good  turning  effect  with  comparatively  little 
strain  upon  the  line.  If,  however,  it  is  taken  up  too  far,  the  ship 
will  make  a  large  sweep  in  coming  around,  going  over  to  the 
farther  end  of  the  slip.  The  same  effect  will  be  produced  if  the 
bow  is  allowed  to  lap  too  far  beyond  the  pier  before  the  spring 
takes  the  strain.  The  effects  of  different  conditions  here  may  be 
foreseen  in  any  given  case  by  remembering  that  the  point  of  the 
ship  at  which  the  line  is  made  fast  will  follow  the  arc  of  a  circle 
around  the  bollard  on  the  pier. 

The  spring  may  be  greatly  assisted  and  the  tension  on  it  re- 
lieved, by  making  use  of  the  helm  to  swing  the  stern  out  at  the 
beginning  and  to  steer  her  into  place  after  she  is  pointed  fairly  in. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  turn,  the  bow  of  the  vessel  will  hug 
the  corner  of  the  pier,  owing  to  the  lead  of  the  spring  and  the 
disposition  of  the  ship  to  turn  about  her  own  center  of  gravity, 
throwing  her  stern  out  and  her  bow  in.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
turn,  the  same  factors  act  to  throw  her  off,  although  if  rather  a 
short  spring  is  used,  her  bow  will  always  be  held  in  more  or  less 
closely.  If  it  is  not  desired  to  hold  her  close  in — because  of  boats 
or  guns  which  might  be  endangered — her  bow  should  be  allowed 
to  lap  well  over  beyond  the  pier  before  beginning  to  turn,  and  a 
longer  line  used.  The  line  should  also  be  made  fast  farther  aft 
on  the  bow,  and  taken  farther  up  the  slip,  and  the  helm  put  hard 
over  in  the  beginning.  All  of  these  points  will  tend  to  prevent 
binding  against  the  corner  as  she  turns  (Fig.  4,  Plate  142). 

If  the  spring  used  is  a  short  one,  it  will  presently  have  a  lead 
too  nearly  in  line  with  the  keel  to  continue  its  turning  effect  at 


502 


Plate  No.    143. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  4 


Tide 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK, 


HANDLING   A   STEAMER  ALONGSIDE   A  DOCK.  5°3 

a  favorable  angle,  and  will,  if  continued  in  use,  be  subject  to  an 
undue  tension  (A  Fig.  i,  Plate  143).  It  should  be  replaced  be- 
fore this  point  is  reached  by  another  line,  B,  having  a  better  lead. 

In  making  use  of  two  lines  in  a  case  of  this  kind,  where  the 
lines  must  cross,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  line  which  will 
be  first  let  go,  under  the  other. 

A  stern  line  is  commonly  used  as  shown  at  c,  but  in  this  par- 
ticular case,  there  being  no  current  and  the  vessel  being  under 
control  by  the  helm,  this  line  is  not  important. 

In  backing  around  into  the  slip,  the  same  principles  hold;  but 
here  the  helm  is  not  of  much  assistance,  although  it  should  be 
used  and  will  help  somewhat.  In  this  case,  a  bow  line  (E)  is 
needed  to  keep  control  (Fig.  2,  Plate  143). 

If  there  is  a  current,  it  must  of  course  be  allowed  for.  If  pro- 
posing to  work  against  it,  as  in  Fig.  3,  Plate  143,  we  must  re- 
member that  the  ship  will  be  set  down  hard  against  the  corner 
of  the  pier  until  she  is  fully  inside  the  slip,  and  that  a  great  deal 
of  power  will  be  required  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the  current 
acting  against  the  quarter  as  the  stern  is  thrown  out  into  the 
stream.  Here  there  will  be  an  advantage  in  using  a  compara- 
tively long  spring  and  allowing  the  bow  to  project  well  beyond 
the  pier  before  beginning  to  turn.  The  tendency  to  swing  out 
from  the  pier  will  be  counteracted  by  the  tide.  It  will  be  espe- 
cially important  under  these  conditions  to  shift  the  spring  before 
it  leads  too  nearly  fore  and  aft.  A  vessel  held  as  in  Fig.  4, 
Plate  143,  for  example,  would  probably  not  turn  at  all,  while  she 
would  put  a  tremendous  strain  upon  the  spring.  The  whole  situ- 
ation is  modified  by  substituting  the  line  B  for  A.  The  vessel 
can  now  gather  headway  (going  ahead  with  her  engines),  and 
work  into  place.  The  second  line,  (B),  having  been  run,  A  is 
eased  away  until  B  has  the  strain,  after  which  A  may  be  shifted 
up  the  dock,  and  take  its  turn  later  as  replacing  B. 

A  large  vessel  could  not  be  turned  in  this  way  against  a  strong 
tide  without  the  aid  of  tugs  to  pull  her  stern  around. 

If  the  tide  is  fair,  as  in  Fig.  I,  Plate  144,  the  danger  is  that  as 
the  stern  swings  out  into  the  stream  it  will  be  swept  around  with 
such  force  that  the  stern  line  cannot  hold  it.  This  line  (tech- 
nically the  "  swinging "  line)  should  be  a  good  one  and  care- 
fully attended  by  several  men.  The  spring  should  be  short  and 
taken  from  a  check  not  very  far  forward.  It  will  then  help  to 


504 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE    A   DOCK. 


hold  her  up,  at  the  same  time  that  it  springs  her  around.  As  she 
swings  out,  the  swinging  line  must  at  first  be  eased  away  roundly; 
but  there  will  presently  come  a  time  when,  as  she  moves  into  her 
berth,  this  line  slacks  up,  and  the  slack  must  be  gathered  in  rap- 
idly to  prevent  her  being  swept  down  across  the  slip.  At  the 
same  time,  the  spring,  having  done  its  work  by  pointing  her  fairly 
in,  is  let  go,  and  she  is  steered  inside,  bow  and  stern  lines  being 
used  to  hold  her  in  to  the  pier.  These  lines  should  be  shifted 
frequently  and  used  principally  as  breasts,  not  as  springs.  If  her 
stern  has  swung  too  far  over,  it  may  be  sprung  in  by  the  original 
swinging  line  or  by  another  spring  run  for  this  purpose. 

With  a  large  ship  and  a  strong  tide,  this  method  is  not  to  be 
thought  of,  as  the  stern  line  would  inevitably  part  and  the  stern 
sweep  down  across  the  slip  with  every  probability  of  serious  disaster. 

If  the  ship  is  to  be  backed  into  the  slip,  the  principles  involved 
are  the  same,  but  the  difficulties  are  somewhat  greater  because 
of  the  comparative  lack  of  control  by  the  helm.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  even  in  backing,  the  helm  is  of  some 
value  and  should  always  be  used.  Even  in  cases  where  the  ship 
is  not  moving  through  the  water,  the  suction  current  of  the  back- 
ing screw  is  drawn  in  against  the  rudder,  with  an  effect  which 
may  be  utilized  to  more  or  less  advantage. 

For  hauling  into  a  dry  dock',  slack  water  is  very  im- 
portant, because  of  the  narrow  space  available  and  the  exactness 
with  which  the  ship  must  be  pointed  and  held.  A  current  from 
any  direction  is  troublesome,  but  one  running  across  is  especially 
so 

Yet  if  high  water  is  essential  it  may  be  necessary  to  accept  some 
inconveniences  in  this  matter.  Ah  officer  whose  ship  is  to  be 
docked  should  make  himself  familiar  with  the  currents  with  which 
he  will  have  to  deal — and  this  none  the  less  because  the  docking 
is  usually  directed  by  local  authorities. 

For  hauling  into  the  dock,  the  ship  must  be  pointed  fair  by 
such  means  as  the  situation  of  the  dock  and  the  facilities  provided 
may  suggest.  At  large  establishments,  tugs  are  usually  at  hand 
for  hauling  the  stern  around.  In  the  absence  of  these,  lines  are 
run  from  the  quarter  for  hauling  it  around,  while  the  bow  is  held 
by  good  lines  from  either  side  of  the  entrance.  A  line  for  haul- 
ing in  is  taken  to  the  head  of  the  dock,  and  extra  lines  are  used 
wherever  they  may  be  necessary. 


Plate  No.    144. 


505 


Tide 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK, 


HANDLING.  A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A  DOCK. 

To  WIND  A  STEAMER  AT  A  DOCK. 

To  turn  a  vessel  end  for  end  as  she  lies  at  the  dock  is  a  ma- 
noeuvre of  considerable  difficulty  in  cases  where  there  are  no 
means  of  hauling  off  the  bow  or  stern. 

It  may  be  done  in  a  tide-way  as  follows:  Suppose  the  port 
side  is  to  the  dock  and  that  it  is  desired  to  put  the  starboard  side 
there  (Figs.  3  and  4,  Plate  144).  Select  a  time  when  the  tide  is 
running  feebly  from  ahead.  Cast  off  all  moorings  but  a  breast  for- 
ward and  a  spring  aft.  Back  on  the  stern  spring  and  ease  away 
the  bow  breast,  letting  the  tide  catch  her  on  the  inner  bow.  As  she 
cants  out,  let  go  forward  and  hold  en  to  the  after  spring.  Run  a 
line  from  the  starboard  quarter  fairly  well  forward,  passing  it 
around  the  stern  and  holding  the  bight  up  clear  so  that  it  cannot 
foul  the  screw.  Make  fast  the  other  end  of  this  line  well  up  the 
dock.  The  tide  will  set  her  out  from  the  dock  at  the  same  time 
that  it  swings  her.  As  soon  as  the  screw  is  clear,  go  ahead  slow 
with  right  rudder,1  taking  care  not  to  throw  the  stern  in  against 
the  dock,  and  to  keep  the  line  from  the  starboard  quarter  clear  of 
the  screw.  She  will  forge  ahead,  slacking  the  inner  (port)  spring, 
which  may  be  let  go  and  gotten  out  of  the  way.  By  a  careful  use 
of  the  helm  and  engines,  the  stern  may  be  worked  up  the  face  of 
the  dock  but  well  clear  of  it,  until  abreast  of  the  point  where  it  is 
to  rest  when  the  vessel  has  been  turned.  The  slack  of  the  star- 
board spring  is  then  taken  in  and  the  line  made  fast.  As  she 
turns,  bringing  the  tide  more  and  more  on  her  broadside,  she  will 
drop  down  until  this  line  holds  her  stern,  when  she  will  begin  to 
swing  more  rapidly.  As  her  bow  turns  in  toward  the  dock,  the 
engines  may  be  backed  if  necessary  to  hold  her  stern  up  to  its 
place,  and  even  to  throw  it  off  a  little  from  the  dock  if  she  is 
coming  in  too  fast.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  let  the  tide  meet  her 
a  little  on  the  inner  bow  as  she  swings  in,  and  so  to  check  her 
somewhat.  It  is  supposed,  of  course,  that  proper  fenders  are  in 
use;  and  here  it  may  be  remarked  that  in  all  cases  of  handling 
large  steamers  around  docks,  fenders  should  be  used  of  such 
length  that  as  the  ship  comes  in  on  them,  the  pressure  on  her 
side  will  be  distributed  over  a  large  number  of  frames,  not  local- 
ized at  a  single  point. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  wind  a  ship  when  there  is  no  tide  to 
turn  her,  it  may  be  done  in  much  the  same  way  as  above,  but 

1  Helm  aport. 


HANDLING    A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE    A   DOCK.  507 

with  a  little  more  use  of  engines,  helm,  and  lines.  Her  bow  must 
first  be  canted  out  a  little  by  such  means  as  may  be  available. 
This  may  be  by  backing  on  a  stern  spring,  by  pivoting  on  a 
float,  or  by  any  other  method  which  may  be  suggested  by  the 
conditions  of  the  case.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  screw 
clear.  Having  canted  the  bow  out  slightly,  go  ahead  slow,  and 
as  she  moves  out  from  the  dock  give  her  as  much  port  helm  as 
she  will  stand  without  swinging  the  stern  in  too  far.  In  this 
way  work  her  up  along  the  dock,  canting  her  out  more  and  more. 
In  the  meantime,  a  line  is  run  from  the  starboard  quarter  but  well 
forward  toward  the  midship  point.  This  must  be  carefully  at- 
tended to  keep  it  clear  of  the  screw.  When  she  has  turned  out 
sufficiently  to  give  this  line  a  clear  lead,  it  is  held  on  and  acts  as 
a  spring.  Going  ahead  on  the  engines  with  rudder  hard  right1 
will  now  turn  her  head  rapidly,  and  she  may  be  worked  around 
and  into  place  without  much  difficulty.  The  fact  that  the  spring  is 
made  fast  near  the  midship  point,  gives  a  good  leverage  for  the 
steering  effect  of  the  rudder,  whichever  way  it  is  put. 

If  the  starboard  side  is  to  the  dock  and  it  is  proposed  to  wind 
her,  it  may  be  better  to  back  around,  as  the  effect  of  the  screw 
(right  handed)  will  be  to  throw  the  stern  out  and  to  turn  her  as 
is  desired.  In  this  case,  take  a  line  around  the  bow  to  the  port 
side  a  little  forward  of  the  midship  point.  Leave  this  slack  in 
the  beginning.  Go  ahead  on  a  starboard  bow  spring  until  the 
stern  is  canted  out  slightly,  then  back  with  rudder  hard  left,2 
holding  on  to  the  port  bow  line.  The  stern  will  swing  around 
rapidly,  the  spring  holding  her  up  and  in.  When  she  is  nearly 
around  she  may  be  worked  in  at  any  point  desired  by  going 
ahead  or  backing  on  the  engines,  using  the  helm  to  steer  her  to 
her  place. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  wind  a  vessel  in  making  a  landing. 
Say  the  tide  is  fair  and  the  dock  to  starboard,  that  it  is  desired  to 
put  the  port  side  in,  and  that  there  is  not  room  to  run  beyond  the 
pier  and  turn  (Fig.  i,  Plate  145).  Make  as  much  of  a  sweep  as 
space  permits,  putting  the  bow  in  near  the  place  where  it  is  to  be, 
and  run  a  line  from  the  port  side  a  little  forward  of  the  midship 
point.  Back  slow  with  helm  hard  a-starboard  and  let  her  swing 
on  the  line.  When  she  is  nearly  around,  she  may  be  steered  into 
place  by  going  ahead  on  the  engines  and  using  the  helm. 

If  the  tide  is  running  out  and  it  is  desired  to  turn,  the  condi- 
tions being  otherwise  identical  with  those  of  the  preceding  case, 

1  Helm  hard  aport.  2  Helm  hard  a-starboard. 


5o8 


Plate  No.    145. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


HANDLING  STEAMERS  AROUND  A  DOCK 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER  ALONGSIDE   A  DOCK.  509 

run  up  to  the  other  end  of  the  berth  and  get  out  a  line  from  the 
port  side  a  little  abaft  the  midship  point,  taking  it  around  the 
stern  and  keeping  the  bight  up  clear  of  the  screw.  Go  ahead 
with  left  rudder1  and  she  will  turn  on  the  spring  and  work  into 
place  (Fig.  2,  Plate  145). 

It  is  possible  to  wind  a  small  steamer  by  putting  her  stem 
against  the  dock  and  going  ahead  with  helm  hard  over  to  the 
side  which  will  throw  the  stern  out  and  swing  it  around.  A  large 
steamer  handled  in  this  way  would  probably  cut  through  the 
dock. 

Freight  and  passenger  steamers  frequently  have  to  hold  their 
bows  in  against  the  dock  for  discharging  cargo  from  the  forward 
deck.  In  such  cases  they  use  a  spring  as  in  Fig.  3,  Plate  145, 
and  keep  their  engines  turning  slowly  ahead  with  the  helm  hard 
over  to  the  side  which  will  throw  the  stern  off.  A  steamer  will 
lie  this  way  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time  even  though  the  tide 
may  be  ahead.  If  the  tide  is  aft,  a  stern  line  is  used  to  assist  in 
holding  her. 

GETTING  CLEAR  OF  A  DOCK. 

In  preparing  to  get  clear  of  the  dock,  all  lines  should  be 
singled,  and  as  many  as  can  be  spared  got  out  of  the  way; 
all  permanent  fasts  let  go  and  hauled  to  the  dock,  spur-shores 
cleared  away,  and  men  stationed  by  the  line  which  will  be  the 
last  cast  off. 

It  is  convenient  to  select  a  time  when  a  feeble  current  is  run- 
ning along  the  face  of  the  dock,  to  set  the  bow  or  stern  out  (the 
line  at  the  other  end  being  kept  fast),  thus  getting  a  cant  for 
working  out,  either  ahead  or  astern.  In  the  absence  of  such  a 
current,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  a  breeze  setting  off  from  tfre 
dock,  cr  the  bow  may  be  swung  in  more  or  less  by  going  ahead 
slow  on  a  bow  line  with  helm  hard  over  to  the  off-shore  side. 
She  may  then  be  backed  off  clear. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  all  cases,  but  especially  with  twin- 
screws,  to  keep  the  screw  clear  of  the  dock. 

With  a  current  or  a  fresh  breeze  setting  onto  the  dock,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  provide  some  means  of  hauling  out,  and  for  this 
purpose  a  tug  is  most  convenient,  unless  it  happens  that  a  line 

1  Starboard  helm. 


5IO  HANDLING  A   STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A  DOCK. 

can  be  run  to  a  buoy  or  to  a  neighboring  dock.  If  an  anchor  has 
been  dropped  in  coming  alongside,  it  will  of  course  be  useful 
now.  In  ,the  absence  of  any  other  means,  a  stream  anchor  may 
be  laid  out  without  much  trouble. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  get  clear  of  a  dock  where  the  cur- 
rent always  runs  strongly  in  one  direction,  as  in  a  river.  Officers 
having  this  to  do  as  a  part  of  their  regular  business  become  very 
expert  at  it.  A  case  in  point  is  the  Peiho  River,  at  Tientsin. 
The  river  is  only  just  wide  enough  for  the  steamers  trading  there 
to  swing  from  shore  to  shore,  and  the  tide  runs  four  or  five  knots 
and  never  slacks.  Steamers  lie  alongside  with  head  up  stream, 
port  side  to  dock,  and  when  ready  to  turn  for  going  out,  having 
a  full  head  of  steam,  they  cast  off  all  but  a  line  from  the  star- 
board (off-shore)  quarter,  and  swing  out  into  the  stream.  The 
bow  sweeps  around  with  great  rapidity  athwart  the  current,  and 
down  the  stream.  At  just  the  right  instant,  while  heading  three 
or  four  points  across  and  down,  the  starboard  quarter  line  is 
cast  off  and  the  engines  started  full  speed  ahead  with  helm  hard 
oven 


§IV.  HANDLING  A  LARGE  VESSEL  WITH  THE  AID  OF 
TUGS. 

In  seme  cases  tugs  are  used  for  actually  towing  the  larger  ves- 
sels; in  others,  merely  for  turning  them,  holding  them  up  against 
the  tide,  etc. 

A  tug  having  to  tow  a  large  vessel  in  docking  is  usually  placed 
on  the  quarter  which  will  be  away  from  the  dock,  with  a  line  for 
going  ahead  and  another  for  backing,  both  of  which  are  taken 
from  the  bow  of  the  tug  to  some  convenient  point  on  the  other 
vessel.  A  breast  line  is  also  run  from  the  stern  of  the  tug  to  pre- 
vent her  from  swinging  off  (Figs.  4  and  5,  Plate  145).  A  tug 
placed  like  this  is  favorably  situated  for  turning  to  either  side  by 
going  ahead  or  backing. 

In  some  cases  it  is  found  convenient  to  place  a  tug  on  the 
off-shore  bow.  This  is  in  case  the  vessel  must  be  brought  to  the 
pier  with  a  considerable  cant  inward.  The  tug  on  the  bow  is 
well  placed  for  bringing  her  in  like  this  and  for  hauling  the  bow 
out  at  the  last  moment  while  the  stern  is  being  worked  in. 

In  docking  large  ocean  liners,  a  number  of  tugs  (frequently  as 
many  as  six)  are  used  for  turning  the  vessels  and  for  holding 


Plate  No.    146. 


\ 


Fig.   1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


DOCKING  A  LARGE  STEAMER, 


512  HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE    A   DOCK. 

them  against  the  tide  as  they  work  into  their  slips;  but  such 
headway  or  sternway  as  is  needed  is  generally  given  by  the  en- 
gines of  the  vessels  themselves. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  working  around  a  dock,  much 
use  is  made  of  the  helm;  and  if  the  vessel  has  twin-screws,  these 
are  used  also,  in  connection  with  the  tugs,  for  turning  her. 

The  tugs  may  take  lines  from  the  bow  or  quarter,  or  they  may 
point  their  stem-fenders  against  the  side,  and  push.  Spring  and 
check  lines  are  used  as  in  the  cases  already  described,  but  are 
not  trusted  to  the  same  extent  for  checking  the  vessel  or  for 
springing  her  around.  They  must  be  large  and  very  carefully 
attended.  If  allowed  to  lead  fore  and  aft  or  nearly  so,  they  will 
almost  inevitably  carry  away  as  the  ship  forges  aheid  upon  them. 
They  should  therefore  be  frequently  shifted  as  she  moves  along 
the  dock,  being  kept  approximately  at  right  angles  to  the  side. 

The  following  description  of  berthing  a  large  Atlantic  liner 
on  the  New  York  side  of  the  North  River  is  contributed  by  an 
officer  of  many  years'  experience  in  such  work.  As  the  tide  is 
running  flood  (to  the  northward)  the  ship  is  berthed  on  the 
south  side  of  the  pier  (see  Plate  146). 

On  the  flood  tide,  the  ship  comes  up  the  river  on  the  Jersey  side 
and  is  turned  completely  around,  above  the  pier,  by  the  aid  of  tugs 
which  are  placed  with  their  fenders  against  the  port  bow  (Fig.  i, 
Plate  146).  After  the  ship  is  turned  nearly  parallel  with  the  tide  or 
with  the  trend  of  the  river,  one  tug  is  usually  kept  alongside  on  the 
port  bow,  in  case  the  ship's  head  should  require  to  be  canted  to 
starboard,  the  other  tugs  backing  away  ready  to  be  placed  on  the 
port  quarter.  As  soon  as  the  ship  is  near  enough  to  her  pier,  heav- 
ing lines  are  sent  off  to  her  by  a  small  rowboat  and  by  means  of  these 
the  bow-lines  are  run.  These  lines  are  led  some  distance  up  the 
slip.  Another  heaving  line  is  carried  to  the  ship  and  a  hauling  line 
of  about  3"  manila  is  sent  from  the  ship  to  the  pier,  where  it  is  made 
fast  with  a  long  bowline  through  the  eye  of  an  11"  manila  hawser 
which  is  faked  on  the  end  of  the  pier,  near  the  southeast  corner. 
When  ready,  the  3"  rope  is  taken  through  a  forward  pipe  to  one  of  the 
ship's  winches,  the  hawser  hove  on  board  and  the  eye  hove  over  the 
bitts.  This  line  is  for  helping  to  slew  her  around  into  the  slip.  The 
ship  is  then  allowed  to  go  as  far  ahead  as  possible  before  the  strain  is 
permitted  to  come  on  the  spring  (Fig.  2,  Plate  146).  Great  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  ship  does  not  get  too  much  of  a  cant  towards  the 
pier,  with  the  tide  too  broad  on  the  starboard  bow,  as  it  is  most  im- 
portant that  these  heavy  vessels  should  not  be  permitted  to  approach 
the  corner  of  the  pier  sideways  at  any  great  rate  of  speed,  but  gradu- 
ally. We  have  had  instances  of  ships  taking  the  corner  of  the  pier 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A   DOCK.  513 

with  apparently  only  a  moderate  force  and  denting  plates  and  bend- 
ing frames  to  such  a  degree  that  it  was  a  question  of  thousands  of 
dollars  to  place  the  hull  of  the  ship  in  its  original  condition.  We 
use  for  a  fender  a  spruce  built  log,  about  40  feet  long  by  30"  by  24". 
This  log  is  fitted  with  chains  and  ropes  so  that  it  can  be  handled 
from  the  pier  and  placed  in  any  position  required.  It  is  laid  across 
the  corner  of  the  pier  for  the  ship  to  land  on  at  the  water  line,  so 
that  instead  of  one  or  two  of  the  ship's  frames  taking  the  pier,  she 
is  landed  on  a  dozen  or  more.  As  soon  as  the  ship  takes  the  fender, 
signal  is  given  to  the  tugs  and  they  commence  to  push  her  port 
quarter  out  into  the  stream.  One  tug  is  usually  placed  on  the  star- 
board quarter  attached  to  a  hawser,  while  two  or  more  push  on  the 
port  quarter.  With  a  twin-screw  ship  it  is  necessary  to  have  at 
least  this  one  tug  on  the  starboard  quarter  to  prevent  her  quarter 
from  taking  the  corner  of  the  pier  with  a  flood  tide  running,  en- 
dangering fouling  the  port  propeller.  The  bow  ropes  by  this  time 
are  passed  some  150  or  200  feet  up  the  pier.  When  all  is  ready,  the 
signal  is  given  to  the  bridge,  starboard  engine  "  Slow  Ahead,"  rudder 
left.1  The  ship  gradually  swings  toward  a  line  at  right  angles  with 
the  trend  of  the  river  with  her  bow  pointing  into  the  slip.  As  she 
comes  around,  the  check  is  slacked  away  to  permit  her  to  go  ahead, 
and  bow-lines  are  shifted  as  required  (Fig.  3,  plate  146). 

The  after  ropes  are  run  by  the  small  rowboats,  sometimes  by  tugs, 
as  soon  as  her  quarter  nears  the  end  of  the  pier.  As  she  moves  into 
her  berth,  the  bow  and  stern  lines  are  kept  as  nearly  abreast  as 
possible,  by  short  fleets,  and  the  ship's  stern  kept  as  close  to  the  pier 
as  is  prudent,  always  taking  into  consideration  the  care  that  must  be 
observed  not  to  foul  the  port  propeller.  The  engines  can  move  the 
ship  ahead  or  astern  as  much  as  necessary.  There  is  a  12"  check 
rope  on  the  pier  near  the  berth,  ready  to  be  hauled  on  board  into 
one  of  the  after  chocks  on  the  lower  deck.  There  is  also  a  wire 
pennant  passed  out  from  one  of  the  chocks  from  the  lower  or  spar 
deck,  with  an  eye,  in  which  is  to  be  hooked  the  block  of  a  three- 
fold purchase  block  leading  from  the  pier. 

When  she  has  sufficient  way  to  reach  her  berth,  she  is  placed  in 
proper  position  by  lines  and  tackles  which  are  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  shore  gang  on  the  pier. 

The  warps  used  on  these  vessels  are  7"  and  8".  The  lines  them- 
selves must  never  be  passed  forward  from  the  stern  chocks,  but 
heaving  lines  used  when  it  is  necessary  to  pass  forward  any  distance 
away  from  the  quarter,  as  great  care  must  be  taken  that  these  warps 
are  not  allowed  to  foul  the  propellers.  In  handling  the  check  from 
the  end  of  the  pier,  the  shore  end  should  be  fleeted  as  often  as  pos- 
sible as  the  ship  goes  ahead,  in  order  that  the  strain  may  not  be 
brought  too  much  fore  and  aft.  Of  course  the  nearer  the  check  is 
kept  at  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  ship,  the  less  strain  will  be 
required  on  it  to  cant  the  ship's  head,  and  when  it  is  nearly  fore  and 
aft  almost  the  slightest  way  on  the  ship  will  carry  it  away,  unless  the 
greatest  care  is  observed. 

1  Helm  a-starboard. 


514 


HANDLING   A    STEAMER   ALONGSIDE   A   DOCK. 


Leaving  the  Slip. 

We  undock  these  ships  from  both  north  and  south  side  of  the 
pier  at  any  stage  of  tide. 

When  undocking  from  south  side  of  the  pier,  with  tide  running 
strong  ebb,  an  u"  line  is  taken  from  the  port  quarter  to  one  of  the 
largest  tugs  (Fig.  4,  Plate  146).  Extra  men  are  placed  on  the  tug 
to  assist  in  handling  this  rope.  Two  or  three  moments  before  the 
sailing  time,  the  tug  starts  ahead  to  the  northward  and  pays  out 
perhaps  75  or  80  fathoms  of  scope.  As  the  stern  of  the  ship  is  about 
100  feet  inside  the  end  of  the  pier,  this  hawser  is  rove  through  a 
thimble  spliced  into  a  4  tail  rope.  This  slip  rope  is  taken  around  the 
post  at  the  south  corner  of  the  pier  with  three  or  four  turns,  and  the 
end  held  by  some  of  the  shore  gang,  to  prevent  the  bight  of  the 
hawser  from  flying  into  the  crowd  that  is  usually  on  the  dock  at 
sailing  time.  When  the  ship  is  far  enough  astern  for  the  bight  of  the 
hawser  to  clear  the  corner  of  the  pier,  the  slip  rope  is  let  go.  The 
end  of  the  hawser  attached  to  the  ship  is  fitted  with  a  lashing  eye 
(old  cargo  falls  are  used  for  the  lashings)  and  the  eye  hove  over  one 
of  t$ie  bitts.  When  the  ship  is  turned  head  to  the  southward,  this 
lashing,  at  a  signal  from  the  bridge,  is  cut  on  the  ship;  the  eye  of 
course  flies  clear  of  the  vessel  and  prevents  any  danger  of  fouling 
the  propeller.  In  addition,  one  or  two  tugs  are  used  to  push  on  the 
starboard  quarter.  As  soon  as  the  ship  is  partly  out  of  the  slip  these 
tugs  let  go  the  quarter  and  proceed  to  the  port  bow.  With  the  aid 
of  the  tugs  on  the  port  bow  and  the  one  attached  to  the  hawser,  the 
ship  of  course  is  swung  with  her  head  to  the  southward,  and  when 
far  enough  around  the  tugs  are  let  go  and  ship  proceeds. 

With  the  flood  tide,  two  or  three  tugs  are  ready  to  put  their  stems 
against  the  port  quarter  of  the  ship.  As  soon  as  the  propeller  is 
well  clear  of  the  pier  these  tugs  are  to  ease  the  ship  off  the  corner 
as  much  as  possible.  For  sliding  out  we  have  a  built  spar,  50  or  60 
feet  long  by  20"  by  24".  This  spar  is  slung  abreast  of  a  plate  on  the 
ship's  side  that  is  clear  of  sidelights  and  coal  ports,  and  is  secured 
firmly  to  the  pier  by  chains  and  heavy  ropes.  The  outer  side  of  the 
spar  is  sheathed  with  2"  spruce  that  can  be  easily  replaced  as  it 
becomes  broken  or  splintered. 

For  handling  a  large  liner  when  her  own  engines  are  not  avail- 
able, at  least  six  tugs  would  be  used;  one  on  each  bow  (ahead) 
one  on  each  quarter  alongside  and  one  on  each  quarter  with  a 
single  line.  The  tugs  alongside  are  especially  for  stopping  the 
vessel's  way  when  necessary,  though  of  course  they  assist  also  in 
moving  her  ahead  and  in  turning. 


HANDLING  A    STEAMER  ALONGSIDE   A  DOCK.  515 

Turning  a  Vessel  While  Towing  Alongside. 

A  tug  towing  a  vessel  alongside  sometimes  has  occasion  to 
"  wind  "  the  .tow  for  putting  her  alongside  in  a  particular  way, 
or  for  getting  on  the  off  side  in  landing,  to  avoid  being  jammed 
between  the  tow  and  the  dock.  Plate  140. 

The  tug  first  gives  the  tow  a  sheer  with  the  helm  (Fig.  3). 
She  then  backs,  slacking  all  lines  except  the  backing  line  (Fig. 
4),  then,  a  little  later,  slacks  everything  and  puts  her  stem  against 
the  stern  of  the  tow  and  goes  ahead,  pushing  the  stern  around 
(Fig.  5)  ;  and  ends  by  making  fast  alongside  with  her  bow  to- 
ward the  stern  of  the  tow  (Fig.  6),  and  with  her  own  port  side 
to  the  tow  instead  of  the  starboard  side  as  in  the  beginning. 
This  manoeuvre  may  be  seen  every  day  in  New  York  harbor, 
where  tugs  handling  scows  have  to  get  on  the  off  side  of  the 
scows  for  landing  the  scows  alongside  while  themselves  keeping 
clear. 


(5i6) 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
PLACING  A  SHIP  IN  DRY  DOCK. 

The  operation  of  safely  placing  a  ship  in  dry  dock,  safely  sup 
porting  her  with  blocks  and  shores,  and  afterwards  floating  hei 
out  of  dock,  is  so  common  that  the  care  and  experience  necessary 
to  ensure  success  in  this  operation  are  not  generally  understood 
yet  it  is  possible  that  very  serious  damage  may  occur  during  th( 
operation,  if  intelligent  supervision  be  neglected. 

Every  ship  should  carry  a  docking  plan  which  shows:  tht 
length  on  the  load  water  line;  the  length  over  all;  the  location  o: 
all  the  under  water  valves;  the  locations  of  the  water-tight  bulk- 
heads, the  engines,  the  boilers,  the  turrets  (if  any),  and  such 
other  weights  and  fittings  as  are  peculiar  to  any  particular  ship 
the  length  cf  straight  keel,  together  with  dimensions  locating  ac- 
curately the  cut-up  (if  any)  of  the  dead  wood  aft,  together  with 
any  peculiarities  of  the  stern  post  and  rudder;  also  such  dimen- 
sions as  will  show  the  curvature  of  the  forefoot,  especial  care 
being  taken  to  locate  the  exact  point  where  this  curvature  de- 
parts from  the  straight  line  of  the  keel.  The  docking  plan  of  a 
battleship  is  shown  on  Plate  147.  The  docking  plan  should  also 
contain  information  as  to  cross-sections  amidships  and  elsewhere, 
showing  the  beam  at  or  near  the  water-line,  the  shape  and  loca- 
tion of  the  keel,  the  docking  keels  and  bilge  keels,  the  struts,  the 
propellers  and  all  other  objects  below  the  water-line;  in  other 
words,  the  docking  plan  must  furnish  all  necessary  information 
concerning  the  under-water  hull  and  its  accessories,  also  dimen- 
sions as  to  projections  above  the  water-line  which  increase  the 
nominal  beam  of  the  vessel:  the  latter  information  is  frequently 
of  extreme  value  in  foreign  ports  whose  docks  have  their  dimen- 
sions tabulated  with  reference  to  merchant  vessels  only. 

In  our  navy  yards,  blue-prints  of  such  plans  are  usually  in  the 
possession  of  the  Naval  Constructor — elsewhere  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  such  plans  to  the  responsible  authorities  of  public  or 
private  docks — without  them,  the  efficiency  and  safety  of  the 
docking  are  absolutely  dependent  upon  the  skill  and  experience 
of  those  having  control  of  the  docks. 


PLACING   A   SHIP   IN    DRY   DOCK.  517 

The  dock  master  of  any  particular  dock  being  given  the  dock- 
ing plan  of  a  ship  to  be  placed  therein,  proceeds  as  follows :  know- 
ing the  ship's  draught,  the  maximum  depth  over  the  sill,  together 
with  the  current  and  tidal  variations  in  the  vicinity,  he  decides 
upon  the  time  the  vessel  should  enter  the  dock,  and  so  informs 
the  commanding  officer,  who  thereupon  makes  the  necessary  ar- 
rangements to  ensure  that  the  vessel  at  the  time  specified  shall 
be  absolutely  upright,  without  any  list  either  to  starboard  or  port. 

The  entrance  to  a  dry  dock  may  be  closed  by  hinged  gates,  a 
floating  caisson,  or  a  sliding  caisson;  the  first  and  last  methods 
are  often  used  in  foreign  docks,  but  in  home  docks,  a  floating 
caisson  is  most  commonly  found;  it  usually  has  a  ship-shape  form 
with  sufficient  stability  to  safely  float  upright  when  empty;  to 
sink  it,  valves  are  opened  which  admit  water  to  its  interior,  and 
to  raise  it,  all  outboard  valves  are  closed  and  the  water  it  contains 
is  pumped  overboard. 

The  dock  floor  carries  along  its  center  a  line  of  blocks,  called 
"  keel  blocks."  These  are  usually  of  wood  and  are  secured  to  the 
dock  floor  in  various  ways.  Their  distance  apart  varies  in  differ- 
ent docks,  but  it  is  customary  to  place  these  keel  blocks  much 
closer  together  under  turrets  and  other  heavy  local  weights  on 
war  ships,  than  is  done  with  ordinary  vessels.  Those  ships  hav- 
ing straight  keels,  but  whose  fore-foot  is  cut  away,  are  supported 
forward  by  building  up  the  corresponding  keel  blocks  to  suit  the 
contour  shown  en  the  docking  plan.  With  ships  having  docking 
keels,  a  double  line  of  keel  blocks  is  provided,  running  parallel 
to  the  center  line  and  at  the  proper  distance  therefrom,  given  on 
the  docking  plan.  At  intervals  along  the  bottom  of  the  dock 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  center  line,  are  the  bilge  ways,  along 
which  slide  the  bilge  blocks  which  can  be  moved  towards  or 
away  from  the  center  line  by  the  hauling  lines  which  are  manipu- 
lated from  the  dock  coping.  Each  bilge  block  is  built  up  of  a 
proper  height  and  level,  as  determined  from  the  docking  plan, 
so  that  after  the  vessel's  keel  rests  upon  the  keel  blocks,  the  bilge 
blocks  can  be  hauled  and  accurately  fit  against  the  bottom,  thus 
thoroughly  supporting  the  ship  before  the  water  has  been 
pumped  out  of  the  dock.  Care  is  taken  that  the  bilge  blocks 
are  not  hauled  so  that  they  will  bear  against  an  under-water  valve 
or  other  accessory  which  would  be  injured  by  heavy  local  pres- 
sure. In  foreign  docks,  bilge  blocks  are  rarely  used,  shores  being 
fitted  to  sustain  the  bottom  after  the  dock  is  empty. 


Plate  No.    147. 


PLACING   A    SHIP    IN    DRY    DOCK.  519 

To  maintain  the  vessel  upright  after  she  has  grounded  on  the 
keel  blocks,  and  before  the  bilge  blocks  are  hauled,  wale  shores 
are  used,  one  end  resting  against  the  ship's  side,  the  other  against 
the  dock's  side,  wedges  being  used  to  set  them  taut.  These 
shores  are  prepared  of  the  desired  length  and  placed  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  their  final  location  by  means  of  information  obtained 
from  the  docking  plan.  Certain  marks  are  also  made  on  the 
coping  which  will  accurately  locate  the  ship's  position  in  the 
dock,  in  order  to  ensure  that  as  the  water  is  pumped  out,  the 
under-water  hull  shall  exactly  coincide  at  the  proper  time  with 
the  various  blocks  and  shores  which  have  been  made  ready  to 
receive  it.  Plate  147  shows  the  plan  which  would  be  prepared 
for  a  particular  dock  after  receiving  the  docking  plan  of  the  ves- 
sel which  was  to  be  placed  therein. 

These  preparations  being  completed,  water  is  admitted,  the 
caisson  is  floated  and  removed,  and  the  dock  is  then  ready  to 
receive  the  ship.  After  the  ship's  bow  has  safely  entered  the 
mouth  of  the  dock,  the  responsibility  for  her  safety  rests  upon  the 
dock  master;  the  methods  of  securing  this  safe  entrance  are  con- 
sidered elsewhere.  The  dock  master  then  hauls  the  ship  into  the 
dock  until  certain  definite  objects  near  her  bow  and  stern  coin- 
cide with  the  marks  which  he  has  laid  out  upon  the  dock  coping 
in  accordance  with  the  docking  plan.  The  caisson  is  then  placed 
in  position,  the  pumps  which  empty  the  dock  are  started;  their 
operation  between  this  time  and  the  time  of  the  complete  empty- 
ing of  the  dock  being  controlled  by  the  judgment  of  the  dock 
master. 

In  the  meantime  the  necessary  arrangements  have  been  made 
to  ensure  the  ship  being  safely  centered  in  the  fore  and  aft  and 
athwartship  directions,  and  the  wale  shores  have  been  floated 
and  placed  approximately  in  their  proper  positions:  during  this 
period,  by  the  use  of  sighting  battens  or  other  means,  the  varia- 
tions of  the  ship  from  the  upright  are  finally  determined,  and  the 
necessary  measures  are  taken  to  correct  any  listing  to  starboard 
or  to  port. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  ship's  keel  first  touches  on 
the  keel  blocks  aft,  and  with  a  ship  having  a  large  amount  of 
drag,  special  precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent  listing,  because, 
under  these  circumstances,  stability  is  lessened  very  rapidly. 
The  grounding  of  the  keel  aft  upon  the  keel  blocks  is  indicated 
in  various  ways,  but  before  this  occurs,  the  dock  master  has  ar- 


PLACING   A    SHIP    IN    DRY    DOCK. 

ranged  the  wale  shores  so  that  any  inclination  towards  listing  or 
twisting  shall  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible.  The  entire  line 
of  wale  shores  is  not  set  up  tightly  until  the  forward  portion  of 
the  keel  is  bearing  upon  the  keel  blocks  prepared  to  receive  it. 
As  the  water  level  within  the  dock  becomes  still  lower,  the  bilge 
blocks  are  hauled,  and  the  ship  during  the  remaining  period  of 
her  stay  in  dock  is  supported  by  the  keel  blocks,  bilge  blocks, 
and  shores. 

After  the  dock  is  emptied,  the  ship's  bottom  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  careful  examination  is  made  of  the  entire  bottom  as 
regards  fouling,  corrosion  and  damage.  All  outboard  valves, 
propeller  struts,  propellers,  shaft  bearings,  rudder  pintals  and 
gudgeons,  strake  edges,  butts,  etc.,  are  carefully  examined.  It  is 
usually  necessary  to  re-grind  the  underwater  valves,  and  to  re- 
pack the  stuffing  boxes  of  valves  and  of  the  rudder;  if  the  plating 
butts  show  lines  of  rust,  they  should  be  re-calked;  if  the  rivet 
heads  show  serious  corrosion,  the  rivets  should  be  removed  and 
new  ones  driven;  if  there  is  serious  corrosion  or  pitting,  the  plat- 
ing should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  brushed  before  re-painting ; 
in  cleaning  the  bottom  from  fouling  substances,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  paint  underneath  is  disturbed  as  little  as  possible; 
zinc  rings  and  zinc  plates  at  the  openings  of  outboard  valves,  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  propellers,  should  be  renewed  if  their  cor- 
rosion shows  galvanic  action.  The  bottom  is  then  given  fresh 
coats  of  anti-corrosive  and  anti-fouling  compositions,  which 
should  be  applied  whenever  possible,  on  dry  surfaces. 

If  special  repairs  have  been  anticipated  or  are  found  to  be  nec- 
essary after  the  dock  is  empty,  the  necessary  action  is  taken  im- 
mediately, because  the  length  of  time  a  ship  remains  in  dock 
must  be  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

The  particular  precautions  which  must  be  taken  in  docking 
ships  which  are  not  in  ordinary  condition,  must  depend  upon  the 
judgment  of  the  dock  master. 

During  the  period  that  a  ship  is  in  dock,  no  change  of  any 
kind  in  the  distribution  of  her  weights  should  be  made  without 
the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the  dock  master,  because  the  ship 
when  being  floated  might  suddenly  change  her  trim  so  as  to  cause 
serious  damage  to  herself  or  to  the  dock. 

The  painting  of  the  bottom,  and  all  under-water  repairs  being 
completed,  a  time  for  flooding  the  dock  is  agreed  upon  by  the 
commanding  officer  and  the  dock  master.  The  former  stations 


PLACING   A    SHIP    IN    DRY    DOCK.  521 

men  at  the  outboard  valves  and  elsewhere,  as  he  deems  proper 
to  ensure  that  water  does  not  enter  the  ship,  and  the  latter  sta- 
tions men  at  the  various  shores  and  lines  and  elsewhere,  to  pre- 
vent as  far  as  possible,  any  injury  to  dock  or  ship,  from  a  change 
of  weights  or  an  unexpected  alteration  in  tide  or  wind. 

The  water  in  the  dock  enters  continuously  under  the  dock 
master's  control.  When  it  has  risen  to  a  sufficient  height,  the 
bow  ordinarily  first  lifts  from  the  keel  blocks,  and  shortly  after- 
wards the  stern.  If  there  has  been  any  material  change  of 
weights  while  the  ship  has  been  in  dock,  she  will  suddenly  and 
violently  take  a  list  to  starboard  or  to  port,  with  consequent  dam- 
age to  herself  and  the  dock. 

The  ship  being  safely  afloat,  the  water  is  allowed  free  entrance 
until  the  level  within  the  dock  coincides  with  that  outside,  after 
which  time  the  caisson  is  floated  as  quickly  as  possible,  then  re- 
moved, and  the  ship  is  floated  out  of  dock. 


522 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
WEATHER  AND  THE  LAWS  OF  STORMS. 

§  I.    WEATHER,  WINDS,  CLOUDS,  RAINFALL. 

The  subject  of  weather  may  conveniently  be  studied  in  its 
general  features  by  reference  to  a  map  showing  normal  or  aver- 
age conditions  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Plate  148  gives 
such  a  map,  showing  normal  winds,  barometer  pressures,  and 
temperatures,  for  January  and  July,  throughout  the  world  with 
the  exception  of  the  extreme  polar  regions.  The  curves  in 
black  are  "  isobars  "  or  lines  of  equal  barometric  pressure.  It 
will  be  seen  that  these  lines  are,  in  the  main,  closed  curves 
about  areas  of  high  or  low  barometer; — the  distinction  between 
a  "  High  "  and  a  "  Low,"  as  these  areas  are  called,  depending 
not  upon  the  actual  height  of  the  barometer,  but  upon  the  way 
in  which  the  wind  circulates  about  the  area;  or,  more  accu- 
rately, upon  whether  the  characteristic  pressure  is  the  result 
of  descending  or  of  ascending  currents.  It  is  clear  that  a  high 
pressure  is  the  natural  accompaniment  of  descending  currents 
of  heavy  air,  and  vice-versa;  but  whereas  a  barometric  height 
of  30  inches  may  indicate  a  rising  current  at  one  place  and 
time — which  would  make  it  a  Low; — it  may  indicate  a  descend- 
ing current  at  another  place  and  time,  and  may  thus  be  a 
High.  It  tends  to  clearness,  therefore,  to  use,  instead  of 
"  high  "  and  "  low,"  the  terms  "  anti-cyclone  "  and  "  cyclone,  " 
which  define  the  wind  circulation  instead  of  the  pressure  re- 
sulting from  this  circulation.  As  thus  used,  the  term  cyclone 
has  no  necessary  connection  with  a  gale.  It  defines  simply  a 
condition  of  affairs  in  which  an  ascending  current  of  air  at  a 
more  or  less  clearly  marked  central  area  is  surrounded  by  an  in- 
flowing spiral  whirl  which  may  or  may  not  take  on  the  con- 
centrated and  intense  character  with  which  we  commonly  asso- 
ciate the  term  cyclone.  Similarly  "  anti-cyclone "  defines  a 
condition  of  affairs  in  which  a  descending  current  of  air  de- 
velops into  an  outward  flowing  spiral  whirl  with  a  motion  of 
rotation  opposed  to  that  of  the  cyclone  (Plate  149).  Both  of 
these  phenomena  will  be  more  fully  described  hereafter. 

The  relative  positions  of  the  warm  red  and  cold  blue  tints 


WEATHER  AND   THE   LAWS   OF   STORMS.  523 

on  Plate  148  show  January  as  winter  in  the  northern  and  sum- 
mer in  the  southern  hemisphere;  and  July  as  summer  in  the 
northern  and  winter  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  bound- 
ing lines  of  the  red  and  blue  tints  are  the  isotherms  (lines  of 
equal  temperature)  of  70°  F.  and  30°  F.  respectively.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  thermal  equator — as  the  middle  of  the  equa- 
torial hot  belt  may  be  called — does  not  coincide  with  the 
geographical  equator,  but  fluctuates  in  a  way  which  is  evi- 
dently influenced  by  the  seasons,  continents,  oceans,  and  winds. 

When  air  is  heated,  it  expands  and  becomes  lighter;  it  there- 
fore rises,  and  the  ascending  currents  cause  a  decrease  of  pres- 
sure. Another  important  result  follows  in  the  formation  of 
clouds  and  rain  due  to  the  presence  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the 
ascending  current.  As  the  air  rises  it  expands  more  and  more, 
cooling  at  the  same  time  through  the  absorption  of  heat  due  to 
this  expansion,  while  it  is  still  further  chilled  by  the  lower  tem- 
perature of  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  the  reduction  in  temperature,  mu'ch  of  the  aqueous 
vapor  is  condensed  into  clouds  or  precipitated  in  rain,  giving 
off  a  large  amount  of  heat,  which  tends  to  rarefy  the  air  still 
further  and  so  to  intensify  the  upward  draft. 

We  have  here,  briefly  outlined,  an  explanation  of  the  weather 
characteristics,  which  in  some  degree  mark  all  regions  of  low 
barometer  and  cyclonic  circulation,  whether  these  extend 
over  thousands  of  miles  of  ocean  and  continent  as  in  the  cases 
shown  on  Plate  148,  or  are  localized  in  the  narrower  and  more 
intense  form  of  tropical  hurricanes.  The  weather  of  all  such 
regions  is  characterized  by  more  or  less  cloudiness,  frequently 
accompanied  by  rain,  by  low  barometer,  and  by  winds  which, 
while  not  necessarily  violent,  are  usually  stronger  than  in  an 
anti-cyclone,  since  the  determining  cause  of  these  winds — an  up- 
ward rush  of  warm  air  with  the  attendant  features  that  have 
been  described — naturally  takes  on  a  somewhat  more  violent 
form  than  does  the  downward  current  of  cool  and  heavy  air 
which  is  the  determining  cause  of  anti-cyclonic  circulation. 

The  velocity  of  the  wind,  as  well  as  its  direction,  depends 
upon  relative  pressures  in  adjoining  areas;  being  determined 
by  the  steepness  of  the  "  barometric  gradient,"  or  the  amount 
of  difference  in  the  reading  of  the  barometer  for  a  given  dis- 
tance. This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  cyclone  and  anti-cyclone 
of  Plate  149,  in  which  the  distance  between  the  successive  iso- 


524 


Plate  No.    148. 


20  — 


LOO 120  140  160  l&O  160  IAO  120  1OO  6 


WINDS  AND  WEATHER  FOR  JANUARY  AND  JULY. 


Plate  No.    148. 


525 


40  20  0 


__        40 60 80 1QQ 120 140 


—  20 


40  20 


20  40 60  .  80 100 120 140 


WINDS  AND  WEATHER  FOR  JANUARY  AND  JULY. 


526 


WEATHl 


bars  indicates  the  steepness  of  the  barometric  gradient.  Where 
the  isobars  are  crowded  closely  together,  the  change  in  pres- 
sure is  very  great  for  a  small  change  in  position;  or  in  other 
words  the  gradient  is  very  steep.  At  such  places  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  is  high.  Where  the  isobars  are  separated  more 
widely,  they  indicate  a  gradual  change  in  pressure  or  a  gradual 
slope  to  the  gradient,  and  here  the  winds  are  more  moderate. 

To  compare  barometric  gradients,  they  are  commonly  re- 
duced to  hundredths-of-an-inch  per  15  sea  miles.  On  this  scale 
the  steepest  gradient  ever  observed  was  in  the  cyclone  that 
passed  over  False  Point,  India,  in  September,  1885.  This  gra- 
dient was  238;  which  means  that  in  a  distance  of  15  miles,  there 
existed  a  difference  in  barometric  reading  of  2rV<i  inches. 

It  will  be  observed  in  Plate  149,  that  the  wind  blows  partly 
across  and  partly  along  the  isobars,  forming  the  spiral  whirl 
which  has  been  elsewhere  described. 

The  following  description  and  explanation  of  a  sudden  shift 
of  wind  over  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  is  from  the  Pilot  Chart 
of  the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office  for  July,  1900  (Plate  150). 

It  illustrates  in  a  very  striking  way  the  relation  between  the 
direction  of  the  wind  and  the  barometric  pressure. 

During  the  course  of  March  17,  18  and  19  last,  the  steamers  along  that 
portion  of  the  transatlantic  routes  lying  to  the  eastward  of  the  meridian 
of  60°  experienced  a  sudden  shift  of  the  wind  from  S.E.  to  N.W.,  accom- 
panied by  a  marked  increase  in  force,  as  indicated  by  the  following  table. 
The  shift  progressed  steadily  eastward,  the  date  and  hour  at  which  it  was 
noted  aboard  the  several  steamers  distributed  along  the  lane  depending 
upon  the  position  of  the  various  vessels  at  the  time,  becoming  succes- 
sively later  as  the  longitude  diminished. 


Vessel. 

Date. 

Long., 
West. 

REMARKS. 

Nederland.. 

Mar.  17 

61    35 

Strong  to  fresh  breeze  (from  the  South)  ;  at  8  a.  m.  wind 

shifted  suddenly  to  NW. 

Maryland  .  .  . 

Mar.  17 

57    42 

Southerly  wind  until  midnight,  when  wind  veered  to 

NW.  strong. 

Minnesota  . 

Mar.  17 

56    29 

Southerly  wind  shifting  at  midnight  to  NW.  ;  moderate 

gale. 

Turcoman  .  . 

Mar.  18 

51    27 

At  3  p.  m.  wind  shifted  suddenly  from  South  to  N  N  W. 

and  blew  a  moderate  gale. 

Anchoria  .  .  . 

Mar.  18 

50    42 

Wind  SE.  ;  at  5  p.  m.  wind  hauled  to  W  SW.,  later  to  NW. 

Chester  

Mar.  18 

48    53 

At  11  p.  m.  wind  shifted  (from  S  SE.)  to  NW.,  moderate 

gale. 

Mokta  

Mar.  19 

48    22 

At  2  a.  m.  wind  shifted  from  S  SE.  to  N  NW. 

Hekla  

Mar.  19 

46    47 

Wind  S  SE.,  2,  until  5  a.  m.,  when  it  shifted  through  SW., 

West,  to  NW.,  8. 

British  King 

Mar.  19 

46    00 

At  8  a.  m.  wind  shifted  from  SE.  to  NW. 

Euxinia  

Mar.  19 

44    52 

At  noon  wind  suddenly  shifted  from  SE.  5,  to  N  NW.,  6. 

Symra  

Mar.  19 

44    04 

Wind  from  South  ;  at  1  p.  m.  wind  changed  to  W  NW. 

Helios  

Mar.  19 

42    10 

At  8  p.  m.  wind  changed  (from  SE.)  to  N  NW. 

Plate   No.    149. 


527 


Northern    •  Hemisphere 


* 


Equator. 


/ 

' 


Anti-Cyclone-, 
High  Barometer. 


Cyclonej 
Low  Barometer. 


FiG.1.  CHARACTERISTIC  WIND  CIRCULATION  ABOUT 
CENTERS  or  U\GH  AND  Low  BAROMETER  IN  EACU  HEMISPHERE. 


THE  HURRICANE-  OF* 

DECEJABER  25.W9I, 

MOOM,GJA.T. 


SYMBOLS. 

WIND.  WEATHER. 

Calm.  :   Rain. 

t.  Variable.     *  Snow,  *.  Ha/7. 
<f    N.£.force4.    &  Fog,      <»  Haze 


FIG.  2. 
CYCLONE  AND  ANTI- CYCLONE  IN  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC. 


528 


Plate  No.    150. 


Fig.  1     Barometric  Conditions  over  the 

North  Atlantic xausing  a  Sudden  Shift 

of  Wind. 


Fig.   1 


Air  flowing  toward  a"  Low  "and 
Diverging  according  to  Ferret's  Law 
to  form  a  Cyclonic  Whirl. 


Fig.  3 


From  Storms,  Storm-tracka  and  Weather  Forecasting' 
Published  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


Storm  Tracks  for  August. 

The  Storms  noted  during  10  years  are  grouped  according  to  their  places  of  origin, 
the  figures  opposite  the  brackets  indicating  the  number  for  each  group. 


STORMS  AND  STORM  TRACKS. 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS.  529 

The  meteorological  conditions  prevailing  throughout  this  part  of  the 
North  Atlantic  at  Greenwich  mean  noon  of  March  19  are  shown  upon 
the  chart  (Plate  150),  where  the  symbols  have  the  usual  significance — 
the  center  of  the  arrow  head  marking  the  position  of  the  observing 
vessel  at  the  time  of  observation,  the  arrows  flying  with  the  wind,  the 
number  of  feathers  indicating  the  force  of  the  wind,  etc.,  etc.  An  inspec- 
tion of  the  chart  shows  that  the  sudden  shift  of  the  wind  (which  several 
observers  in  their  extended  remarks  stated  was  not  announced  by  any 
decisive  variation  of  the  barometer,  the  mercury  standing  above  30  inches 
tthroughout)  was  due  to  the  passage  of  the  observing  vessel  across  the 
shallow  trough  of  low  pressure  which  intervened  between  the  two  areas 
of  high,  each  of  these  latter  areas  being  surrounded  by  a  well-developed 
system  of  anti-cyclonic  winds,  the  light  southerly  and  southeasterly  winds 
proper  to  the  rear  of  the  preceding  area  being  almost  instantaneously 
supplanted  by  the  strong  northerly  and  northwesterly  winds  proper  to 
the  front  of  the  following  area.  For  the  purpose  of  distinctness  the  out- 
line of  the  trough  is  indicated  by  cross-hatching. 

The  several  heavy  dotted  lines  join  the  points  at  which  the  shift 
occurred  at  the  same  hour,  the  latter  being  indicated  in  the  diagram. 
Thus  along  the  entire  length  of  the  most  western  of  these  lines  the  shift 
was  noted  at  8.00  A.  M.  of  March  18;  along  the  next  at  8.00  P.  M.  of 
March  18,  and  similarly  for  the  others.  Comparing  the  distance  inter- 
vening between  these  lines  it  is  seen  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  three 
degrees  of  latitude  or  180  nautical  miles,  giving  for  the  eastward  progress 
of  the  shift  an  average  velocity  of  15  miles  per  hour. 

The  indrawing  air  of  the  cyclone  obtains  its  moisture  by 
evaporation  from  the  sea  and  from  damp  earth,  or  from  areas 
of  ice  and  snow  if  it  passes  over  such.  Its  capacity  for  holding 
moisture  in  invisible  suspension  increases  with  the  temperature; 
and  -for  a  given  quantity  of  moisture  so  held,  there  is  a  per- 
fectly definite  temperature,  called  the  "  saturation  point "  or 
"  dew  point,"  below  which  the  air  cannot  be  cooled  without 
giving  out  some  part  of  its  moisture  in  the  form  of  cloud  or 
rain.  As  already  explained,  this  is  why  the  warm  moist  cur- 
rents from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  they  rise  into  the  cooler 
regions  of  the  upper  atmosphere,  produce  the  clouds  and  rain- 
fall of  cyclonic  weather.  It  is  the  reason  also,  for  the  compara- 
tively clear  skies  and  dry  weather  of  anti-cyclonic  regions; 
since  the  cool  dry  air  flowing  from  the  higher  regions  down- 
ward and  outward  has  its  temperature  raised  and  is  enabled 
to  take  up  into  invisible  suspension  much  of  the  moisture  that 
it  encounters,  thus  producing  a  comparatively  dry  atmosphere 
and  clear  skies.  Naturally  the  farther  we  move  from  the  center 
of  circulation,  whether  cyclonic  or  anti-cyclonic,  the  less 


530  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

marked  these  characteristics  become.  They  may,  moreover, 
be  modified  in  many  ways  by  local  conditions  of  the  land  or 
;sea  over  which  they  extend  or  over  which  they  have  passed; 
for  all  the  features  which  would  mark  the  weather  of  an  ideal 
globe  of  uniform  surface  are  modified  in  countless  ways  by  the 
unequal  distribution  of  land  and  water,  and  the  varying  physical 
features  of  both; — by  currents,  icebergs,  etc.,  in  the  oceans; 
and  by  deserts,  mountain  ranges,  and  areas  of  forest  or  clear- 
ing on  the  land. 

Thus  the  warm  moist  air  over  the  Gulf  Stream  is  chilled  and 
turned  into  fog  by  contact  with  the  cold  Labrador  Current  oft" 
the  Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Similarly  the  southwest  mon- 
soon, charged  with  vapor  from  the  tropical  latitudes  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  coming  in  contact  with  the  cold  heights  of  the 
Himalayas,  precipitates  its  moisture  in  torrents  of  rain  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  those  mountains  and  passes  on  over  the 
plains  to  the  northward  as  dry  as  if  it  came  from  a  desert.  The 
proximity  of  a  mountain  range  has  always  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  climate  and  weather. 

GENERAL  WIND  CIRCULATION. 

It  would  be  natural  to  expect  that  in  the  great  equatorial 
hot-belt,  the  phenomena  of  expansion  from  heat,  of  ascending 
currents  with  resulting  low  barometer,  of  condensation  and 
precipitation  of  moisture,  would  be  more  frequent  and  more 
marked  than  elsewhere.  Such  is  in  fact  the  case;  and  Plate  148 
shows  clearly  the  great  systems  of  steady  indrawing  Trades 
that  meet  in  the  region  of  equatorial  rains  and  calms,  and  the 
connection  of  these  with  the  great  and  generally  permanent 
areas  of  high  and  low  barometer  that  have  been  referred  to  as 
largely  determining  the  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  about 
the  globe. 

As  the  Trades  approach  the  equator  there  are  constant  little 
rising  currents  marked  by  the  characteristic  trade  wind  clouds; 
and  in  the  region  of  permanent  low  pressure,  calms,  clouds  and 
rain,  which  we  have  called  the  equatorial  belt,  but  which  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  "  Doldrums,"  they  meet  and  rise,  generally 
quietly  and  steadily  but  sometimes  in  the  great  eddies  or  whirl- 
winds with  which  we  are  familiar  as  tropical  cyclones. 

The  tendency  of  the  trades  toward  the  equator  from  the  north 
and  south  results  naturally  enough  from  the  conditions  which 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS.  531 

have  been  described  as  prevailing  in  the  equatorial  belt;  but 
explanation  is  required  of  the  westward  component  in  these 
winds,  as  well  as  of  the  unvarying  regularity  with  which  the 
winds  of  cyclones  turn  always  in  one  direction  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  and  in  the  opposite  direction  in  the  southern,  while 
for  anti-cyclones  these  directions  are  reversed. 

The  theory  which  is  commonly  accepted  accounts  for  all  of 
these  phenomena  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

As  the  earth  revolves  from  west  to  east  the  envelope  of  air 
surrounding  it  shares  its  motion,  but  may  in  addition  have  a 
motion  of  its  own.  If  we  imagine  a  particle  of  air  moving  from 
some  point  in  north  latitude  toward  the  equator,  it  is  clear  that 
the  particle  will  in  the  beginning  have  an  eastward  velocity 
equal  to  that  of  the  spot  from  which  it  starts;  but  that  as  it 
moves  toward  the  equator  it  will  find  the  earth  beneath  it  turn- 
ing more  and  more  rapidly  (in  linear  velocity)  and,  failing  to 
take  up  entirely  this  increased  velocity,  will  lag  behind  and 
manifest  itself  as  a  wind  from  the  northward  and  eastward. 
That  is  to  say,  it  will  be  continually  diverted  to  the  right  as  it 
moves  southward. 

A  particle  of  air  moving  from  the  equator  northward,  will, 
on  the  other  hand,  start  out  with  the  eastward  velocity  of  the 
earth  at  the  equator,  and  will  thus  outrun  the  more  slowly  mov- 
ing surface  over  which  it  passes  as  it  travels  northward.  Thus 
this  particle  will  also  be  diverted  to  the  right.  And  so  with 
every  particle  of  air  which  we  may  suppose  to  be  moving  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  along  any  line  except  one  due  east 
and  west.  To  some  extent  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  turn  to 
the  right.  In  Plate  150  are  shown  a  number  of  such  particles 
moving  toward  a  common  center  of  low  barometric  pressure, 
and  forming  inevitably  a  left-handed  swirl  (Fig.  2). 

Similar  considerations  will  make  it  clear  why  the  winds  flow- 
ing outward  from  a  "  high  "  revolve  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  why  all  these  conditions  are  reversed  in  southern  latitudes. 

The  following  simple  law,  first  enunciated  by  Buys-Ballot, 
puts  in  convenient  form  the  relation  between  pressure  and  wind 
circulation. 

When  facing  the  wind,  in  the  northern  hemisphere  the  pres- 
sure is  lower  on  your  right  hand  and  higher  on  your  left;  and 
conversely,  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  it  is  higher  on  the 
right  and  lower  on  the  left.  This  rule,  it  should  be  noted, 
applies  to  winds  in  general;  not  alone  to  storms. 


532  WEATHER   AND   THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

Observations  of  winds,  temperatures  and  pressures  extend- 
ing over  a  long  period  of  years  indicate  the  existence  in  the 
polar  regions  of  an  area  of  low  barometer  about  which  the 
winds  circulate  with  the  characteristic  cyclonic  direction,  giv- 
ing rise  to  the  "  Westerlies  "  or  "  Passage  Winds  "  of  the  re- 
gions north  and  south  of  the  Trades. 

It  is  clear,  of  course,  that  this  condition  cannot  be  due  to 
the  causes  which  produce  the  low  pressure  in  the  equatorial 
region;  and  the  commonly  accepted  theory  accounts  for  it  as  a 
result  of  the  centrifugal  force  acting  upon  the  mass  of  the 
atmosphere  as  it  is  whirled  about  by  the  earth's  rotation  on  its 
axis.  Whether  this  be  the  true  explanation  or  not,  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  the  pressure  is  low  at  the  poles  as  well 
as  at  the  equator  and  that  there  exists  an  intermediate  belt  of 
generally  high  pressure  in  the  neighborhood  of  30°  of  latitude, 
from  which  the  air  tends  to  draw — on  the  one  hand  toward  the 
equator,  on  the  other  toward  the  poles.  This  belt  of  high  pres- 
sure, of  comparative  calms,  and  of  baffling  winds,  while  not 
always  well  marked  over  the  continents,  can  be  clearly  traced 
across  the  ocean,  where  it  is  well  known  to  navigators  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Horse  Latitudes." 

The  winds  blowing  about  and  toward  the  poles  take  up  the 
characteristic  motion  which  has  been  explained,  and  there  re- 
sults, in  latitudes  above  (approximately)  35°  north  and  south, 
a  steady  flow  of  the  atmosphere  toward  the  east.  At  the  earth's 
surface,  this  flow  is  often  delayed,  arrested,  and  turned  back  to 
the  westward  by  local  and  temporary  causes,  but  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere  it  continues  without  interruption 
though  not  with  unvarying  velocity. 

In  this  continued  eastward  movement  of  the  air  is  to  be  found 
the  key  to  the  fluctuations  of  weather  which  (for  example) 
sweep  across  the  continent  of  North  America  and  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean;  as  well  as  the  possibility  of  predicting  from 
day  to  day  approximately  what  weather  may  be  expected  at 
any  given  place.  Disturbances  of  the  atmosphere — highs  and 
lows,  with  the  weather  features  which  have  been  described  as 
characterizing  them — sweep  across  the  continent  in  a  regular 
procession,  following  paths  which  may  vary  considerably,  but 
are  always  toward  the  eastward.  These  disturbances  may  orig- 
inate within  the  limits  of  the  continent  or  may  enter  it  from 
the  Pacific;  but  they  invariably  leave  it  by  the  Atlantic  sea- 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS.  533 

board  and  usually  by  way  of  the  New  England  coast  or  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (see  Plate  150).  An  examination  of  the 
weather  maps  published  by  the  United  States  Government  for 
several  successive  days  gives  an  interesting  view  of  this  pro- 
gression of  varying  weather  characteristics  toward  the  east, 
and  makes  clear  in  a  general  way  the  laws  upon  which  weather 
forecasting  is  based.  Plate  151  shows  a  map  of  this  kind.  The 
corresponding  map  for  the  following  day  would  show  the  suc- 
cessive highs  and  lows  as  having  moved  to  the  eastward,  carry- 
ing with  them  their  characteristic  features  of  wind-circulation, 
temperature,  cloud  or  clear  sky,  precipitation,  etc. 

The  following  description  of  the  daily  weather  map  is  from 
a  leaflet  published  by  the  Weather  Bureau: 

This  map  presents  an  outline  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  showing 
the  stations  where  weather  observations  are  taken  daily  at  8  A.  M.  and 
8  P.  M.,  seventy-fifth  meridian  time.  These  observations  consist  of  read- 
ings of  the  barometer,  thermometer  (dry  and  wet),  direction  and  velocity 
of  wind,  state  of  weather,  amount,  kind  and  direction  of  the  clouds,  and 
amount  of  rain  or  snow;  they  are  telegraphed  to  Washington  and  to 
many  of  the  Weather  Bureau  stations  throughout  the  country  for 
publication  on  the  maps.  Solid  lines,  called  isobars,  are  drawn  through 
points  having  the  same  atmospheric  pressure;  a  separate  line  being 
drawn  for  each  difference  of  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  the  height  of  the 
barometer.  Dotted  lines,  called  isotherms,  connecting  places  having  the 
same  temperature,  are  drawn  for  each  ten  degrees  of  the  thermometer. 
Heavy  dotted  lines,  inclosing  areas  where  a  decided  change  in  tempera- 
ture has  occurred  within  the  last  twenty-four  hours,  are  sometimes  added. 
The  direction  of  the  wind  is  indicated  by  an  arrow  flying  with  the  wind, 
or  opposite  to  the  ordinary  vane.  The  state  of  weather — whether  clear, 
partly  cloudy,  cloudy,  raining,  or  snowing — is  indicated  by  the  circular 
symbol.  Shaded  areas,  when  used,  show  where  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
since  the  last  observation. 

The  general  movement  of  storms  in  the  United  States  is  from  west  to 
east,  similar  to  a  series  of  atmospheric  waves,  of  which  the  crests  are 
designated  on  the  map  "  Highs,"  and  the  troughs  or  depressions  "  Lows." 
These  alternating  Highs  and  Lows  have  an  average  easterly  movement 
of  about  600  miles  per  day. 

High  winds,  with  rain  or  snow,  usually  precede  the  Low  area,  often 
extending  to  a  distance  of  600  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  center  of  the 
storm.  In  advance  of  the  Low  the  winds  are  generally  southerly,  and 
consequently  bring  high  temperature.  When  the  center  of  the  Low 
passes  to  the  east  of  a  place,  the  wind  at  once  shifts  to  the  west  or  north- 
west, bringing  lower  temperature.  The  temperature  on  a  given  parallel 
west  of  the  Low  may  be  reasonably  looked  for  on  the  same  parallel  to 
the  east  when  the  Low  has  passed,  and  frost  will  occur  along  and  north 
of  an  isotherm  of  about  40°,  if  the  night  is  clear  and  there  is  but  little 


534  WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF   STORMS. 

wind.  Following  the  Low  usually  comes  an  area  of  High,  bringing 
sunshiny  weather,  which  in  its  turn  is  followed  by  another  Low. 

By  bearing  in  mind  a  few  general  rules  as  to  the  direction  and  rate  of 
movement  of  the  Low  and  High,  with  the  blowing  of  the  wind  from  the 
High  toward  the  Low,  and  studying  the  map  carefully,  coming  weather 
changes  may  frequently  be  foreseen.  The  centers  of  Lows  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  move  across  isotherms,  but  follow  their  general  direction.  -Areas 
of  low  pressure  frequently  move  to  the  south  of  east  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Mississippi  and  then  change  direction  to  the  north  of 
east  over  the  eastern  half  of  the  country.  Storms  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
occasionally  move  to  the  west  or  north  of  west,  but  after  reaching  the 
coast,  they  generally  change  direction  and  move  to  the  northeastward. 
High  areas  move  to  the  southeast  and  are  usually  attended' by  fair  and 
cool  or  cold  weather.  A  cold- wave  is  always  accompanied  by  a  High. 

The  cloud  and  raip  area  in  front  of  a  Low  is  generally  about  the  size 
of  the  latter  and  oval,  with  the  west  side  touching  the  center  of  the  Low 
in  advance  of  which  it  progresses. 

When  the  isotherms  run  nearly  east  and  west  no  decided  change  in 
temperature  will  occur.  If  the  isotherms  directly  west  of  a  place  incline 
from  northwest  to  southeast,  it  will  be  warmer;  if  from  northeast  to 
southwest  it  will  be  colder.  Southerly  to  easterly  winds  prevail  west  of 
a  nearly  north  and  south  line  passing  through  the  middle  of  a  High,  also 
east  of  a  like  line  passing  through  the  middle  of  a  Low.  Northerly  to 
westerly  winds  occur  west  of  a  nearly  north  and  south  line  passing 
through  the  middle  of  a  Low  and  also  east  of  a  similar  one  through  the 
middle  of  a  High. 

An  absence  of  decided  waves  of  High  or  troughs  of  Low  pressure 
indicates  a  continuance  of  existing  weather  which  will  last  till  later  maps 
show  a  change,  usually  first  appearing  in  the  west. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  as  published  on  the  map  is  observed  with 
a  dry-bulb  thermometer,  and  also  with  a  wet-bulb  thermometer — that  is, 
one  whose  bulb  is  covered  with  a  moist  wrapping.  The  evaporation 
from  the  wetter  surface,  if  the  air  is  not  saturated  with  moisture,  is  more 
rapid  than  from  the  dry  bulb,  in  proportion  to  the  relative  amount  of 
aqueous  vapor  in  the  air.  The  difference  of  temperature  between  the 
readings  of  these  two  thermometers  suffices  to  compute  the  relative 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  The  temperature  of  the  wet  bulb  is  lower 
than  that  of  the  air  as  given  by  the  dry-bulb  thermometer,  on  account  of 
the  evaporation  from  its  bulb.  The  wet-bulb  temperature  is  sometimes 
called  the  sensible  temperature,  because  the  sensation  of  heat  on  the 
skin  agrees  more  closely  with  its  indications  than  with  those  of  the  dry 
thermometer. 

A  study  of  these  charts,  with  their  succession  of  highs  and 
lows  will  make  it  clear  why  bad  weather  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States  almost  invariably  begins  with  an  easterly 
wind  and  clears  with  a  cold  northwester. 

It  should  be  noted  that  highs  and  lows  must  of  necessity 


WEATHER   AND   THE    LAWS    OF   STORMS.  535 

accompany  each  other,  since  the  inward  draft  of  air  in  a  low 
implies  the  existence  of  a  neighboring  high,  from  which  the 
wind  flows  outward.  The  relation  between  the  two  is  shown 
in  Fig.  i,  Plate  149. 

After  the  circulation  of  the  winds,  the  most  interesting  and 
important  features  in  connection  with  weather  changes  are  the 
phenomena  of  precipitation,  and  temperature  changes.  It  has 
already  been  explained  why  there  is  a  tendency  toward  pre- 
cipitation in  the  upward  draft  of  a  low;  but  it  is  found  that  in 
the  case  of  the  lows  moving  to  the  eastward  across  the  United 
States,  the  precipitation  is  much  greater  along  the  forward  part 
of  the  storm  and  in  its  eastern  and  southern  quadrants  than  to 
the  northward  and  westward.  The  explanation  of  this  is  that 
the  winds  of  the  eastern  and  southern  quadrants  are  largely 
drawn  from  the  warm  regions  of  the  southern  states  and  from 
the  Gulf-  of  Mexico,  and  are  charged  with  moisture  which  they 
deposit  as  they  sweep  northward  and  rise  at  the  same  time  into 
the  cooler  regions  of  the  upper  atmosphere.  This  explains 
why,  in  north  latitudes,  rain  comes  with  an  easterly  or  southerly 
wind. 

The  winds  of  the  northern  and  western  quadrants  are  rela- 
tively dry  and  cold. 

The  same  explanation  suffices  in  a  general  way  to  account 
for  the  succession  of  cool  and  warm  waves  which  are  the  more 
or  less  marked  accompaniments  of  the  highs  and  lows.  It  has 
already  been  explained  that  a  low  is,  in  its  essential  nature,  an 
area  of  upward  tending  warm  air,  while  a  high  is  an  area  of 
downward-flowing  cold  air.  But  an  inspection  of  our  weather 
maps  will  show  that  in  addition  to  this  we  have,  on  the  for- 
ward side  of  an  advancing  low,  a  southerly  or  southeasterly 
wind,  drawing  up  from  the  warm  regions  of  the  tropics;  while 
the  front  of  a  high  is  made  up  of  northerly  winds  sweeping 
down  from  British  America. 

Where  a  low  originates  in  the  tropics,  it  moves  at  first  west- 
ward instead  of  eastward,  being  carried  along  by  the  general 
movement  of  the  atmosphere.  At  the  same  time  it  works  more 
or  less  toward  the  north  (or  south)  and  in  the  end  becomes 
involved  in  the  eastward  current  above  described.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  current  it  recurves  and  sweeps  off  to  the  east- 


536 


Plate  No.    151. 


WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF   STORMS.  537 

ward,  taking  its  place  in  the  procession  of  highs  and  lows  which 
have  already  been  discussed. 

The  laws  of  atmospheric  circulation  which  have  been  out- 
lined above  are  subject  to  many  exceptions  and  modifications, 
due  to  the  :i  regular  distribution  of  land  and  water  and  to  other 
circumstances  which  break  up  the  symmetry  of  an  ideal  globe. 
The  predominance  of  land  in  the  northern  as  compared  with 
the  southern  hemisphere  is  the  most  important  factor  in  modi- 
fying the  general  law. 

Of  the  modifications  thus  introduced,  the  most  marked  and 
important  is  the  enormous  change  over  the  continent  of  Asia 
from  winter  to  summer,  causing  the  phenomenon  known  as 
the  reversal  of  the  monsoons; — a  phenomenon  which  is  of  vital 
importance  to  half  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 

This  extensive  continental  area  is  excessively  heated  during 
the  summer  months  and  the  air  in  contact  with  its  surface  be- 
comes heated  and  rises,  creating  an  upward  draft  of  sufficient 
power  to  overcome  the  effect  of  the  similar  draft  in  the  equa- 
torial belt  and  to  turn  back  the  N.E.  trade  wind  on  its  track, 
converting  it  into  a  S.W.  "  monsoon  "  which  blows  steadily  and 
often  violently,  for  several  months  of  the  year;  after  which,  the 
continent  having  cooled  down  sufficiently  to  restore  the  normal 
balance  of  pressures,  the  trade  wind  again  sets  in; — under  the 
local  name  of  the  N.E.  monsoon. 

These  phenomena  are  strictly  analogous  to  the  alternation  of 
land  and  sea  breezes  which  characterize  the  summer  climate 
of  nearly  all  sea  coasts.  The  land  becomes  abnormally  heated 
during  the  day,  the  air  above  it  rises,  and  a  breeze  draws  in 
from  seaward  which  continues  until  toward  evening.  During 
the  night  the  land  radiates  its  heat  more  rapidly  than  the  water, 
the  relative  temperature  and  barometric  conditions  are  re- 
versed, and  the  land-breeze  springs  up  and  blows  throughout 
the  night. 

Reverting. once  more  to  Plate  148,  attention  may  be  called  to 
the  marked  contrast  between  winter  and  summer  conditions 
throughout  the  earth's  surface,  as  regards  not  only  tempera- 
tures, but  pressures  and  wind-circulation  as  well. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  winter  storms  of  the  North  Atlantic 
are  not  usually  tropical  in  their  origin,  but  begin,  as  a  rule, 


538  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

in  the  region  of  westerly  winds  and  sweep  across,  usually  well 
to  the  northward,  following  the  general  course  of  these  winds. 
They  are,  in  fact,  in  many  if  not  most  instances,  identical  with 
storms  which  have  already  swept  across  the  North  American 
continent;  and  in  some  cases  it  is  possible  to  trace  their  history 
far  back  over  the  Pacific. 

If  it  were  possible  to  add  still  more  data  to  Plate  148,  it  would 
be  of  interest  to  show  the  average  amount  of  cloud,  winter  and 
summer;  the  .precipitation  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow;  the 
regions  of  maximum  and  minimum  departure  from  normal  tem- 
perature and  pressure,  and  the  amount  of  such  departure;  and 
the  average  daily  range  of  the  thermometer  and  barometer,  to- 
gether with  the  daily  barometric  tides.  Were  such  data  added 
it  would  be  seen  that  the  cloudy  rainy  regions  are  those  of  the 
equatorial  calm  belt  and  the  high  latitudes  of  the  temperate 
zones,  where  low  pressures  indicate  ascending  currents;  and 
that  the  tolerably  clear  regions  are  the  belts  of  high  pressure 
along  the  3Oth  parallels,  with  more  cloudiness  over  the  oceans 
and  less  over  the  continents,  but  entirely  clear  skies  over  the 
great  deserts  and  in  the  lee  of  mountain  ranges  only.  The 
rainfall  data  would  show  clearly  the  influence  of  prevailing 
winds  in  carrying  moisture  from  the  oceans  to  the  continents, 
sometimes  far  inland  over  level  land,  sometimes  only  as  far  as 
a  mountain  range  that  chills  and  precipitates  the  aqueous 
vapor.  The  winds  carry  the  temperatures,  too,  of  the  oceans 
they  traverse,  and  thus  modify  weather  and  climate,  with  a 
tendency  toward  warmth  rather  than  cold,  inasmuch  as  the 
condensation  of  the  vapor  which  they  carry  sets  free  large 
quantities  of  latent  heat.  Where  storm  tracks  are  numerous 
the  rainfall  is  heavy;  witness  the  case  of  cyclones  which  carry 
moisture  with  them  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  foothills  of 
the  Himalayas  producing  rainfalls  of  30  and  even  40  inches  a 
day,  which  may  be  contrasted  with  an  average  daily  rainfall  of 
^  inch  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  great  variations 
from  normal  temperature  and  pressure  that  occur  in  the  stormy 
high  latitudes  of  the  temperate  zones  contrast  forcibly  with  the 
uniformity  and  regularity  within  the  tropics.  The  daily  range 
of  the  thermometer  depends  on  whether  it  is  winter  or  summer, 
clear  or  cloudy;  that  of  the  barometer,  on  the  position  of  the 
region  relative  to  the  tracks  and  number  of  passing  cyclones 


WEATHER   AND   THE    LAWS    OF   STORMS.  539 

and  anti-cyclones.  The  barometric  tides,  slight  in  themselves 
but  moving  in  the  equatorial  regions  with  the  regularity  of 
clockwork,  with  daily  forenoon  and  evening  maxima  and  early 
morning  and  evening  minima,  are  often  obscured  in  higher  lati- 
tudes by  the  far  greater  changes  due  to  passing  storms,  and 
are  modified  a  little  everywhere  by  the  effect  of  continents  close 
by.  All  of  these  phenomena,  so  closely  inter-related,  may  be 
studied  in  connection  with  the  fundamental  data  represented 
graphically  in  Plate  148. 

THE    BAROMETER. 

It  will  be  evident  from  what  precedes,  that  the  barometer  is 
beyond  comparison  the  most  important  of  the  instruments  avail- 
able for  forecasting  weather,  and  that  it  is  deserving  of  much 
more  exact  attention  than  it  commonly  receives  on  shipboard. 
It  should  be  carefully  placed  where  it  will  hang  vertically  and  be 
subject  to  a  temperature  not  widely  different  from  that  of  the 
outside  air.  A  thermometer  should  be  attached  to  it  or  placed 
near  it,  and  the  temperature  indicated  by  this  thermometer  en- 
tered with  every  reading  of  the  barometer  recorded.  Compari- 
son should  be  made  from  time  to  time  with  a  standard  barome- 
ter in  ports  where  such  an  instrument  can  be  found.  For  this 
comparison  it  is  not  necessary  to  bring  the  instruments  to- 
gether, but  only  to  get  practically  simultaneous  readings  and  to 
apply  the  proper  corrections  for  temperature.  A  comparison 
carefully  made,  with  the  proper  corrections,  gives  an  instru- 
mental error  which  may  be  checked  from  time  to  time  as  op- 
portunity permits,  and  makes  it  possible  to  compare  the  read- 
ings of  the  instrument  with  data  published  on  Weather  Charts 
and  in  Sailing  Directions,  as  well  as  to  furnish  additional  re- 
liable data  for  publications  of  that  kind. 

It  will  add  to  one's  interest  in  keeping  a  good  barometric  log  to  know 
that  others  can  easily  check  its  accuracy,  both  at  once  and  years  hence. 
For  instance,  suppose  you  make  a  voyage  from  New  York  to  Liverpool, 
thence  to  Hamburg,  Cape  Town,  Melbourne,  and  Yokohama.  When- 
ever you  pass  within  a  few  miles  of  another  vessel,  or  of  any  port  or 
coast  of  a  country  where  daily  weather  maps  are  published  (such  as  the 
United  States,  England,  Germany,  France,  Cape  Colony,  Australia,  and 
Japan),  a  comparison  of  your  log  with  other  good  logs,  or  with  the  pub- 
lished observations  that  are  available  in  the  libraries  of  government  and 
other  offices  all  over  the  world,  will  give  any  one  that  chooses  to  make 
it,  a  perfect  check  on  your  record.  If  it  stands  the  test,  it  becomes  a 


540 


Plate  No.    152. 


PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  CLOUDS  (AFTER  KOPPEN). 


Plate  No.    152. 


PRINCIPAL  FORMS  OF  CLOUDS  (AFTER  KOPPEN), 


542 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 


good  check  on  other  logs  and  valuable  for  study.  Very  few  aneroids  will 
stand  this  rigid  and  long-continued  test  of  reliability,  however  useful 
they  may  be  in  showing  changes  of  pressure  from  time  to  time  in 
practical  use  at  sea. 

To  draw  conclusions  from  the  reading  of  the  barometer  we 
must  know  the  normal  pressure  of  the  place  and  time  of  ob- 
servation. These  are  shown  for  mid-winter  and  mid-summer  in 
most  parts  of  the  world  on  Plate  148,  and  should  be  given  for  all 
places  and  seasons  in  Sailing  Directions.  The  importance  of 
this  point  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  a  corrected  pressure  of 
29.40  is  normal  for  high  southern  latitudes,  but  very  low  for 
corresponding  latitudes  north. 

The  normal  pressure  at  any  given  place  may  be  expected  to 
show  the  regular  daily  fluctuation  or  "  barometric  tide,"  already 
referred  to,  and  which  is  entirely  independent  of  variations  con- 
nected with  the  weather.  This  fluctuation  is  greatest  in  the 
tropics  and  disappears  in  very  high  latitudes  both  north  and 
south.  The  extreme  daily  range  in  the  tropics  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  iV  of  an  inch.  The  maxima  occur  about  10  o'clock, 
the  minima  about  4  o'clock,  A.  M.,  and  P.  M.  Apart  from  the 
daily  tides,  the  variations  in  barometric  pressure  are  slight 
within  the  tropics,  while  in  high  latitudes  they  are  very  marked. 

CLOUDS. 

The  relation  of  cloud-forms  of  various  kinds  to  weather, 
either  existing  or  in  prospect,  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance; but  unfortunately  our  knowledge  upon  this  subject 
is  still  very  limited.  The  usual  classification  of  cloud-forms  is 
shown  in  Plate  152,  and  the  following  notes  give  in  condensed 
shape  about  all  that  is  known  with  regard  to  their  significance. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  CLOUD-FORMS  (PLATE  152). 

The  following  cloud-forms  are  arranged  according  to  a  general  descend- 
ing scale  of  altitude,  observation  having  shown  that  there  are  five  main 
cloud  levels;  viz.:  cirrus  (highest),  cirro-cumulus,  alto-cumulus,  cumulus, 
and  stratus  (lowest). 

i.  Cirrus  (Ci.).— Detached  clouds,  delicate  and  fibrous  looking,  taking 
the  form  of  feathers,  generally  of  a  white  color,  sometimes  arranged  in 
belts  which  cross  a  portion  of  the  sky  in  great  circles,  and,  by  an  effect 
of  perspective,  converge  toward  one  or  two  opposite  points  of  the 
horizon.  (The  Ci.-S.  and  the  Ci.-Cu.  often  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
these  belts).  The  height  of  cirnis  is  from  5  to  6  miles. 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS.  543 

2.  Cirro-Stratus   (Ci.-S.). — A  thin,   whitish   sheet,   at  times   completely 
covering  the  sky   and   only   giving  it  a   whitish   appearance   (it  is   then 
sometimes   called   cirronebula),    or   at    others   presenting,    more    or   less 
distinctly,   a   formation   like  a  tangled   web.     This   sheet   often   produces 
halos  around  the  sun  and  moon.     Average  height  about  5^2  miles. 

3.  Cirro- Cumulus    (Ci.-Cu.). — Small    globular    masses,    or    white    flakes 
without  shadows,  or  having  very  slight  shadows,  arranged  in  groups  and 
often  in  lines.     Height  about  4  miles. 

4.  Alto-Cumulus  (A.-Cu.). — Rather    large    globular    masses,    white    or 
grayish,  partially  shaded,  arranged  in  groups  or  lines,  and  often  so  closely 
packed  that  their  edges  appear  confused.     The  detached  masses  are  gen- 
erally larger  and  more  compact  (changing  to  S.-Cu.)  at  the  center  of  the 
group;  at  the  margin  they  form  into  finer  flakes  (changing  to  Ci.-Cu.). 
They  often  spread  themselves  out  in  lines  in  one  or  two  directions. 

5.  Alto-Stratus  (A.-S.). — A  thick  sheet  of  a  gray  or  bluish  color,  show- 
ing a  brilliant  patch  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sun  or  moon,  and  which, 
without  causing  halos,  may  give  rise  to  coronae.     This  form  goes  through 
all   the   changes   like  the    Cirro-stratus,   but,   by   measurements   made   at 
Upsala,  its  altitude  is  one-half  less.     Height  about  3  miles. 

6.  Strato-Cumulus  (S.-Cu.). — Large  globular  masses  or  rolls  of  dark 
cloud,  frequently  covering  the  whole  sky,  especially  in  winter,  and  occa- 
sionally giving  it  a  wavy  appearance.     The  layer  of  Strato-cumulus  is  not, 
as  a  rule,  very  thick,  and  patches  of  blue  sky  are  often  visible  through 
the  intervening  spaces.     All  sorts  of  transitions  between  this  form  and 
the  Alto-cumulus  are  noticeable.     It  may  be  distinguished  from  Nimbus 
by  its  globular  or  rolled  appearance,  and  also  because  it  does  not  bring 
rain.     Average  height  about  i  mile. 

7.  Nimbus  (N.). — Rain  clouds. — A  thick  layer  of  dark  clouds,  without 
shape  and  with  ragged  edges,  from  which  continued  rain  or  snow  gen- 
erally falls.     Through  the   openings   of  these  clouds  an  upper  layer  of 
Cirro-stratus  or  Alto-stratus  may  almost  invariably  be  seen.     If  the  layer 
of   Nimbus   separates   into   shreds,   or   if  small   loose   clouds   are  visible 
floating  at  a  low  level,  underneath  a  large  nimbus,  they  may  be  described 
as  Fracto-nimbus  (Fr.-N.),  "  Scud  "  of  sailors. 

8.  Cumulus  (Cu.).— Wool-pack    clouds.— Thick    clouds    of    which    the 
upper  surface  is  dome-shaped  and  exhibits  protuberances  while  the  base 
is  horizontal.     These  clouds  appear  to  be  formed  by  a  diurnal  ascensional 
movement  which  is  almost  always  observable.     When  the  cloud  is  oppo- 
site the  sun,  the  surfaces  usually  presented  to  the  observer  have  a  greater 
brilliance  than  the  margins  of  the  protuberances.     When  the  light  falls 
aslant,  these  clouds  give  deep  shadows;  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  clouds 
are  on  the  same  side  as  the  sun,  they  appear  dark,  with  bright  edges. 

The  true  Cumulus  has  clear  superior  and  inferior  limits.  It  is  often 
broken  up  by  strong  winds,  and  the  detached  portions  undergo  continual 
changes.  These  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Fracto-cumulus 
(Fr.-Cu.). 

9.  Cumulo-Nimbus  (Cu.-N.). — The      Thunder-cloud;       Shower-cloud. — 
Heavy   masses   of  clouds   rising  in   the   form    of   mountains,   turrets,   or 
anvils,  generally  having  a  sheet  or  screen  of  fibrous  appearance  above 


544  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

("  false  Cirrus  "),  and  underneath,  a  mass  of  cloud  similar  to  "  Nimbus." 
From  the  base  there  usually  fall  local  showers  of  rain  or  of  snow  (occa- 
sionally hail  or  soft  hail).  Sometimes  the  upper  edges  have  the  compact 
form  of  Cumulus,  forming  into  massive  peaks  round  which  the  delicate 
"  false  Cirrus  "  floats,  and  sometimes  the  edges  themselves  separate  into 
a  fringe  of  filaments  similar  to  that  of  the  Cirrus  cloud.  This  last  form 
is  particularly  common  in  spring  showers. 

The^front  of  thunderclouds  of  wide  extent  frequently  presents  the  form 
of  a  large  bow  spread  over  a  portion  of  the  sky  which  is  uniformly 
brighter  in  color. 

10.  Stratus  (S.). — A  horizontal  sheet  of  lifted  Fog. — When  this  sheet 
is  broken  up  into  irregular  shreds  by  the  wind,  or  by  the  summits  of 
mountains,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Fracto-stratus  (Fr.-S.)- 

NOTE. — The  attention  of  mariners  is  especially  called  to  the  value  of 
observations  of  cirrus,  as  this  form  of  cloud  is  often  closely  connected 
with  barometric  depressions.  If  the  cirrus  occurs  in  radiating  bands 
crossing  the  sky,  the  point  of  convergence  of  these  bands  should  be 
noted;  if  in  the  form  of  a  cloud  bank,  or  sheet,  upon  the  horizon,  the 
center,  or  point  of  greatest  density  of  this  bank;  as  this  point  will  some- 
times serve  to  indicate  in  a  general  manner  the  direction  of  the  center 
of  any  cyclonic  disturbance. 


§  II.    THE  LAW  OF  STORMS. 

The  general  features  of  this  law  have  been  enunciated  in  the 
preceding  pages;  for  the  storms  with  which  the  law  deals  (in 
its  special  application  to  Seamanship),  are  simply  cyclones  or 
lows  like  those  already  described,  but  with  all  their  character- 
istic features  intensified  and  concentrated  within  comparatively 
narrow  limits. 

These  storms,  variously  known  as  "  Cyclones,"  "  Typhoons," 
"  Tropical  Hurricanes,"  etc.,  have  their  origin  over  the  ocean 
and  on  the  border-land  between  the  equatorial  hot-belt  and  the 
trade-wind  region,  where  unsettled  conditions  would  naturally 
be  expected  to  prevail.  Many  theories  have  been  put  forward 
to  explain  their  origin,  but  none  which  is  entirely  satisfactory. 
The  generally  accepted  theory  connects  the  development  of  the 
disturbance  with  the  existence,  as  a  preliminary,  of  excessively 
sultry,  rainy,  and  squally  conditions  in  the  lower  layers  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  coincidence  in  the  upper  layers,  of  tem- 
peratures lower  than  those  due  to  the  normal  decrease  of  tem- 
perature with  the  altitude.  This  is  evidently  a  condition  of  un- 
stable equilibrium  and  sooner  or  later  results  in  the  formation 
of  ascending  currents  and  a  general  overturning  of  the  atmos- 
phere, with  a  sudden  and  violent  inrush  of  air  from  all  the 


Plate  No.    153. 


545 


FIG.  I.  WIND  CIRCULATION  IN  HURRICANE, 
NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 


Fie.2. 

CROSS  -  SECTION  OF  HURRICANE,  SHOWING 
CLOUD-BANK-,   CENTRAL  CALM   AND  STORM-WAVE. 


546  WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF   STORMS. 

surrounding  regions.  This  action,  once  commenced,  is  in- 
creased in  intensity  by  the  formation  of  clouds  and  rain  in  the 
ascending  air,  resulting  in  the  liberation  of  heat,  which  acts  to 
increase  still  further  the  violence  of  the  upward-  and  inward- 
rushing  currents.  The  air  flowing  in  takes  up  the  characteristic 
cyclonic  rotation  which  has  already  been  described  and  ex- 
plained, and  the  hurricane  vortex  is  established,  with  extremely 
low  pressure  and  a  clear  calm  space  of  small  diameter  at  the 
center.  In  this  vortex  and  the  surrounding  whirl  there  are 
different  degrees  of  rotation  to  the  different  layers  of  the 
atmosphere,  beginning  at  the  base  with  an  inward  spiral  which 
diverges  by  perhaps  two  points  from  a  circle  (at  a  distance  from 
the  center)  and  ending  at  the  top — many  miles  above  the  base — 
with  currents  radiating  almost  directly  outward.  An  attempt 
is  made  to  indicate  this  circulation  in  Plate  153.  The  successive 
layers  of  air  are  marked  by  different  cloud-forms  resulting  from 
the  special  conditions  to  which  the  moisture  in  the  swirl  finds 
itself  subjected.  The  lowest  layer  above  that  at  the  surface  is 
marked  by  low  fast-flying  scud,  which  is  observed  to  move  in 
what  is  practically  a  circle;  above  this  and  diverging  slightly 
outward  is  a  layer  of  cumulus,  and  above  this  come  in  succes- 
sion alto-stratus,  cirro-cumulus,  and  in  the  rare,  cool  atmos- 
phere six  miles  and  more  above  the  surface,  the  long  feathery 
plumes  of  cirrus,  radiating  almost  directly  outward.  Natur- 
ally, these  successive  layers  of  cloud  are  not  distinguishable  by 
an  observer  actually  involved  in  the  storm,  as  his  view  is  bound- 
ed by  the  heavy  scud  over  his  head;  but  they  can  be  more  or 
less  clearly  made  out  from  a  distance,  the  cirrus  clouds  in  par- 
ticular being  distinguishable  above  the  heavy  bank  beneath, 
and  indicating  by  the  point  from  which  they  radiate,  the  bear- 
ing of  the  center  of  the  storm.  Great  activity  of  movement  in 
the  upper  clouds,  observed  while  the  center  is  still  distant,  indi- 
cates a  storm  of  great  severity.  If  the  cirrus  plumes  are  faint, 
fading  gradually  behind  the  slowly  thickening  veil,  the  storm  is 
an  old  one  of  large  area;  if  they  are  of  snowy  whiteness,  pro- 
jected against  a  clear  blue  sky,  it  is  young  and  of  small  area, 
but  of  great  intensity.  The  general  direction  of  translation  is 
at  first  toward  the  west,  but  with  a  slight  tendency  away  from 
the  equator  which  becomes  more  and  more  marked,  until  the 
storm  sweeps  around  altogether,  and,  in  the  region  of  westerly 
winds,  moves  off  to  the  eastward.  The  velocity  of  translation 


Plate  No.    154. 


547 


^A 
Bo«to030.0°. 

^<r*e 


Fig.  1 
Sept.  6,  8  A.  M. 


Marque  tie 


A»»d 


,.ft£-i«3?sfe£ 
•*-*- 


Fig.  2 
Sept.  9,  8  A.  M. 


GALVESTON  HURRICANE  SEPTEMBER  1900. 


548  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

varies  from  a  few  miles  an  hour  to  as  much  as  twenty-five  or 
thirty  miles,  being  greatly  affected  by  the  barometric  pres- 
sures prevailing  in  the  regions  towards  ivhich  it  is  advancing. 
Thus  a  storm  advancing  toward  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
,  United  States  may  find  prevailing  over  the  continent  and 
the  coasts,  an  area  of  very  high  barometer  against  which 
it  comes  up  as  against  an  elastic  but  impenetrable  barrier. 
It  may  thus  be  slowed  down  and  held  back,  or,  as  frequently 
occurs,  shunted  off  to  one  side  and  entirely  changed  in 
direction.  A  striking  example  of  this  kind  is  shown  on 
Plate  154,  where  a  cyclone  which  was  apparently  marked  out  for 
a  track  along  the  Atlantic  coast  found  its  path  blocked  by  a 
"  High  "  and  was  finally  driven  off  onto  the  west  Gulf  Coast, 
where  it  entirely  destroyed  the  city  of  Galveston.  This  effect 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  fixed  area  of  permanent  high  barometer 
shown  on  Plate  148,  as  overhanging  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean 
during  the  summer  months.  The  storms  of  this  season  follow 
around  the  outside  limits  of  this  area,  the  existence  of  which 
undoubtedly  counts  for  much  in  determining  their  course. 
Their  track,  in  fact,  is  usually  along  a  trough  of  low  pressure 
between  two  highs,  one  overhanging  the  ocean,  the  other  the 
land.  Other  factors  of  importance  in  determining  the  track 
of  the  storms,  are  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere, 
with  which  they  tend  to  move  along,  and  the  existence  of  such 
ocean  currents  as  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  North  Atlantic  and 
the  Japanese  Current  in  the  North  Pacific;  the  excessive  evapo- 
ration over  these  currents  tending  to  create  a  trough  of  low 
pressure  such  as  has  been  referred  to  above.  The  track  of  such 
a  storm  in  the  North  Atlantic  is  shown  in  Plate  155,  in  which 
are  brought  out  many  points  of  interest  and  importance  in 
connection  with  its  progress  and  development.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  shape  of  the  storm,  far  from  being  a  circle,  is  a  decided 
ellipse,  with  a  well-marked  trough  of  low  pressure  along  its 
major  axis.  In  the  early  stages  of  its  progress  the  storm  is  of 
small  area  but  great  intensity.  As  it  progresses,  it  spreads  out 
and,  usually,  loses  something  of  its  violence;  (as  is  indicated 
by  the  increasing  distance  between  the  isobars),  and  in  the  end 
sweeps  across  the  North  Atlantic  as  a  southeasterly  gale  with 
a  northwester  following  close  upon  it.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
storm  here  shown  is  a  summer  type,  but  in  the  final  part  of  its 
path  it  represents  also  the  winter  storms  of  the  North  Atlantic, 


Plate  No.    155. 


549 


OCEAN    CYCLONES    AND   ANTI-CYCLONES    OF   THE 
NORTHERN   HEMISPHERE. 

A  Diagram  of  Typical  Wind  Circulation  from  Anti-cyclones  to  and 
around  Cyclonic  Storm  Centers  in  Oceans  North  of  the  Equator,  and 
the  Tracks  along  which  Storms  Usually  Move. 


550 


WEATHER  AND  THE  LAWS  OF  STORMS. 


which  are  none  the  less  cyclonic  because  they  do  not  originate 
in  the  tropics. 

Strictly  speaking,  we  should  consider  this  chart  to  represent, 
not  the  progress  of  a  single  storm  on  a  number  of  successive 
days,  but  a  number  of  storms  existing  at  the  same  time.  This 
is  not  an  impossible  condition  of  affairs,  although  it  would  of 
course  be  an  unusual  one.  For  our  present  purpose,  however, 
we  may  imagine  that  the  "  high  "  which  is  shown  as  hanging 
over  the  western  part  of  the  area  included  by  the  chart  has  re- 
mained stationary  for  several  days  (a  phenomenon  which  is  not 
uncommon)  and  that  the  storm  has  made  its  way  through  the 
trough  between  this  high  and  the  permanent  anti-cyclone  to  the 
eastward. 

The  chart  illustrates  the  conditions  of  weather  characterizing 
each  portion  of  the  storm,  and  can  be  made  to  show  the  changes 
which  would  be  encountered  by  a  vessel  passing  through  the 
storm  along  any  given  line,  or  lying  to  and  allowing  the  storm 
to  pass  over  her.  An  inspection  of  this  chart  will  explain  most 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  bad  weather  in  the  North  At- 
lantic; showing  why  gales  commonly  begin  with  the  wind  at 
east  or  southeast  and  end  with  it  at  N.W.;  and  why  the  change 
from  one  quarter  to  the  other  often  comes  in  a  sudden  shift 
with  violent  squalls.  This  shift  is  due  to  the  passage  of  the 
trough  of  low  pressure  into  which  the  originally  circular  center 
has  been  stretched  out.  (Compare  with  Plate  150.) 

Among  the  weather  proverbs  most  firmly  believed  in  by  sea-faring  men 
is  the  one  which  insists  that  good  weather  is  not  to  be  expected  after  a 
storm  in  the  northern  hemisphere  if  the  wind  shifts  to  the  left,  or  backs. 
It  will  be  clear  from  what  precedes,  that  this  is  true  only  for  observers 
in  the  right-hand  semi-circle  of  the  storm.  In  this  semi-circle,  as  has 
been  shown,  the  wind  shifts  to  the  right  as  the  storm  passes,  and  goes 
to  Northwest  by  way  of  South,  Southwest  and  West.  In  the  left-hand 
semi-circle,  on  the  other  hand,  the  northwest  weather  of  the  clear  anti- 
cyclone follows  a  shift  to  the  left,  through  Northeast  and  North. 

It  happens,  however,  that  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coasts  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  greater  part  of  Europe  (including  England)  lie  to  the 
south  and  east  of  the  average  path  of  the  storms  to  which  these  regions 
are  subject;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  ordinary  tracks  of  vessels  in  the 
North  Atlantic.  Thus  it  happens  that  with  regard  to  a  very  large 
majority  of  the  storms  moving  over  these  regions,  observers  find  them- 
selves in  the  right-hand  semi-circle;  and  do,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  get 
their  clearing  weather  by  a  shift  of  the  wind  to  the  right.  This  is  not 
true  of  tropical  hurricanes,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  are 
few  in  number  in  comparison  with  the  storms  which  originate  in  higher 
latitudes.  (See  Plate  157.) 


WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF   STORMS.  551 

The  velocity  of  translation  of  storms  varies  within  wide  limits 
and  it  is  very  unsife  to  assume  even  an  approximate  value  for 
it  in  any  given  case.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  average 
velocity  per  hour  vithiri  the  tropics  is  between  15  and  20  knots; 
that  as  the  storms  turn  toward  the  north  (or  south)  they  slow 
down,  the  average  for  this  part  of  the  path  being  from  5  to  6 
knots;  and  that  as  they  recurve  and  start  off  to  the  eastward, 
the  velocity  usually  increases,  the  average  for  this  part  of  the 
track  being  something  like  25  knots.  The  maximum  velocity 
that  has  been  observed  does  not  much  exceed  30  knots.  The 
velocity  of  rotation  varies  from  50  to  100  miles  an  hour  and 
perhaps  even  more  than  this.  It  is  evident  that  on  one  side  of 
the  track,  or  in  one  semi-circle  of  the  storm,  the  velocity  of 
translation  will  be  added  to  that  of  rotation,  while  in  the  other 
semi-circle  it  will  be  subtracted.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant reasons  for  regarding  one  semi-circle  as  "  dangerous  " 
and  the  other  as  "  manageable."  Other  reasons  are  that  this  is 
the  side  toward  which  the  storm-track  curves,  and  that  on  this 
side  the  winds  and  currents  tend  to  set  the  vessel  toward  the 
front  of  the  storm-center. 

Rules  are  sometimes  laid  down  as  to  the  latitude  of  recurving 
of  storms  at  different  seasons  of  the  year;  but  such  rules  are 
even  more  dangerous  than  those  which  deal  with  the  velocity 
of  translation.  The  storm  tracks  plotted  on  Plate  157  give  all 
the  data  that  are  available  on  this  subject,  and  indicate  clearly 
enough  that  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  which  will  not  be  subject 
to  so  many  exceptions  as  to  render  it  altogether  valueless. 

Plate  153  illustrates  on  an  exaggerated  vertical  sectional  scale 
the  cloud  formation,  wind  circulation  and  storm  wave  of  a  hur- 
ricane. The  mountainous  central  mass  of  cloud,  composed  of 
heavy  nimbus  below  and  towering  leaden  cumulus  above,  often 
maintains  a  remarkable  fixity  of  bearing,  which,  together  with 
its  solid  rugged  appearance,  makes  it  look  like  distant  land. 
Such  a  cloud-bank  was  once  visible  from  Trinidad,  Cuba,  for 
five  entire  days. 

The  storm  wave,  or  general  rise  of  the  level  of  the  sea  near 
the  center,  due  to  the  inrushing  winds  and  low  pressure,  moves 
along  with  the  storm  until  perhaps  precipitated  in  a  great  flood 
upon  islands  and  coasts  in  its  path.  Such  a  flood,  the  night  of 


552  WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF   STORMS. 

October  31,  1876,  in  the  low  lands  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges, 
drowned  100,000  people  and  resulted  in  the  death  of  as  many 
more  through  famine  and  disease.  Very  strong  currents  are 
caused  both  by  the  wind  force  and,  apparently,  by  the  advance 
of  the  entire  storm,  which  seems  to  drive  the  sea  bodily  before 
it  as  well  as  drag  it  along  behind.  Near  the  coast  these  effects 
are  most  marked,  and  after  a  few  days  in  a  hurricane,  vessels 
often  find  themselves  50  or  100  miles  out  of  their  reckoning. 
The  widest  allowances  must  therefore  be  made  for  current, 
until  the  weather  clears  and  good  sights  can  be  obtained. 

INDICATIONS  OF  THE  APPROACH  OF  A  HURRICANE. 

EARLIEST  INDICATIONS. — The  distant  storm  usually  causes  an 
abnormal  rise  of  the  barometer,  with  cool,  dry,  fresh  winds  and 
cessation  or  reversal  of  the  ordinary  land  and  sea  breezes,  with 
a  very  transparent  atmosphere.  A  long  low  swell  is  often  no- 
ticed at  a  great  distance,  sometimes  hundreds  of  miles,  with 
occasional  high  hurricane  rollers.  The  direction  of  the  swell, 
when  unaffected  by  intervening  islands  and  neighboring  coasts, 
indicates  the  bearing  of  the  center;  as  do  also  the  light  feathery 
plumes  of  cirrus  cloud  that  radiate  from  a  point  of  the  horizon 
marked  by  a  whitish  arc. 

UNMISTAKABLE  SIGNS. — As  the  sky  becomes  hazy  with  a  thin 
uniform  cirrus  veil,  halos  are  noticed  by  day  and  night,  the 
barometer  begins  to  fall  slowly,  the  air  becomes  heavy,  hot  and 
moist,  with  red  and  violet  tints  at  dawn  and  sunset;  the  low 
but  solid  and  rugged  looking  cloud-bank  of  the  hurricane  ap- 
pears on  the  horizon  like  distant  land;  squalls  break  off  and 
diverge  from  it,  and  later  squalls  are  noticed  passing  across 
the  line  of  bearing  of  the  center  of  the  bank.  Fine  misty  rain 
forms,  seeming  to  grow  out  of  the  atmosphere;  a  heavy  cross 
sea  is  felt,  and  the  barometer,  while  falling  rapidly,  becomes 
unsteady. 

A  vessel  situated  in  front  of  and  near  the  path  of  a  cyclonic 
storm  will  commonly  experience  a  long,  heavy  swell,  a  falling 
barometer  with  heavy  rain,  and  increasing  winds,  the  direction 
and  changes  of  which  will  depend  upon  her  position  with  refer- 
ence to  the  center  and  the  track.  A  comparison  of  the  three 
positions  of  a  storm  plotted  in  Plate  156  will  show  that  whereas 
in  Fig.  i,  a  wind  from  N.E.  or  E.N.E.  marks  a  position  near 


Plate  No.    156. 


553 


LO 

do 
L. 


id 

bO 


a    i 

£    Q    >,£ 

Z  H  3  J 


f         \        IX  ^-^   "* —          ^*^      '^ 


^ 


I 

I 


O 

cO 


<D 


o: 


o; 


-  f -         / 


01 

§ 

o: 
a: 

r 

< 


<f> 

'\ 
r 

c 

V- 

<L> 

^: 
i- 
o 


(N 

Dl) 


554  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

B,  in  the  forward  right-hand  quadrant  (the  most  dangerous  part 
of  the  storm),  in  Fig.  3,  the  same  direction  of  the  wind  marks 
a  position  near  A  in  the  navigable  semi-circle  and  clear  of  all 
real  clanger;  while  in  Fig.  2,  it  marks  a  position  near  c,  almost 
in  the  track  of  the  storm.  This  shows  the  importance  of  con- 
sidering the  ship's  position  as  to  latitude  and  longitude,  in 
connection  with  other  data;  but  in  attempting  to  draw  con- 
clusions from  this  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  latitude  of 
recurving  can  be  known  only  in  a  very  general  way. 

RULES  FOR  MANOEUVRING. 

The  rules  for  manoeuvring  with  reference  to  a  storm  have  for 
their  objects:  1st,  to  determine  the  bearing  and  distance  of  the 
center  and  the  track  along  which  it  is  moving;  2nd,  to  avoid 
the  center  and,  if  possible,  to  keep  out  of  or  escape  from  the 
dangerous  semi-circle;  3d,  to  ride  out  the  storm  in  safety  if 
unable  to  escape  from  it. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  bearing  of  the  center  may  in  some 
cases  be  determined,  while  the  storm  is  at  a  distance,  by  observa- 
tions of  the  cloud-bank  and  especially  of  the  point  from  which 
the  cirrus  plumes  are  seen  to  radiate;  and  in  some  cases,  also, 
by  the  direction  of  the  long  swell  which  often  precedes  the 
storm.  But  these  indications  are  confined  to  the  early  stages 
of  the  storm's  advance,  within  the  limits  of  the  tropics.  Under 
other  circumstances,  the  only  indications  of  value  are  the  di- 
rection and  force  of  the  wind  and  the  action  of  the  barometer. 
The  old  rule  for  determining  the  bearing  of  the  center  was  to 
assume  it  as  eight  points  from  the  direction  of  the  wind;  to 
the  right  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  to  the  left  in  the 
southern.  It  is  now  known  that  this  eight-point  rule  is  true 
only  near  the  center  of  the  storm,  and  that  near  the  edge,  the 
center  may  bear  as  much  as  twelve  points  from  the  wind. 

The  following  perhaps  expresses  as  definitely  as  a  rule  can 
express  it,  this  relation  between  the  direction  of  the  wind  and 
the  bearing  of  the  center  of  the  storm. 

RULE. — When  the  approach  of  a  revolving  storm  is  first  clearly 
recognised,  the  bearing  of  the  center  may  be  assumed  as  between 
10  and  12  points  from  the  direction  of  the  wind.  When  the  char- 
acteristic features  of  the  storm  are  fully  developed,  the  wind  hav- 
ing the  force  of  a  gale  and  the  barometer  falling  steadily,  the  bear- 


WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS   OF   STORMS.  555 

ing  may  be  assumed  as  betiveen  eight  and  ten  points.  As  the 
storm  continues  to  increase  and  after  the  barometer  has  fallen  as 
much  as  half  an  inch,  the  bearing  may  be  taken  as  about  eight 
points. 

It  will  be  understood  that  neither  this  rule  nor  any  other  one 
can  take  the  place  of  an  intelligent  comprehension  and  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  which  have  been  explained  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages. 

For  data  as  to  the  path  of  the  storm,,  a  vessel  must  heave-to 
and  note  the  changes  in  the  bearing  of  the  center,  and  the  fall 
of  the  barometer. 

Plate  155  shows  the  changes  in  conditions  which  would  be 
noted  by  vessels  over  which  the  storm  is  passing  along  the 
different  lines  there  indicated.  The  hauling  of  the  wind  to  the 
right  indicates  that  the  vessel  is  in  the  right-hand  semi-circle; 
hauling  to  the  left,  that  she  is  in  the  left-hand  semi-circle. 

This  rule  holds  for  both  hemispheres;  but  whereas  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  the  dangerous  semi-circle  is  to  the  right, 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is  to  the  left.  In  either  hemi- 
sphere, if  the  wind  continues  from  the  same  direction  with  a 
steadily  falling  barometer,  the  chances  are  that  the  ship  is  in 
the  track  of  the  storm.  One  important  exception  should,  how- 
ever, be  noted.  When  a  hurricane  moves  along  the  edge  of  a 
trade-wind  or  monsoon  region,  the  prevailing  winds  are  intensi- 
fied over  a  wide  area,  without  appreciable  change  in  direction, 
giving  rise  to  what  are  known  as  "  intensified  "  trades  or  mon- 
soons. These  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  i,  Plate  158.  In  this 
figure,  a  vessel  at  A,  hove-to,  would  have  a  falling  barometer, 
and  no  change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  But  if  she  infers 
that  she  is  directly  in  front  of  the  center,  and  runs  before  the 
wind,  she  plunges  directly  into  the  vortex.  The  only  safe 
course  under  these  conditions  is  to  haul  off  to  the  right  (in  the 
particular  case  illustrated  in  the  figure),  carrying  all  the  sail 
that  is  safe  and  gaining  as  much  ground  to  that  side  as  is  pos- 
sible before  it  becomes  necessary  to  lie-to.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  this  applies  only  to  the  exceptional  case  of  a  hurricane 
encountered  on  the  border  of  a  trade-wind  or  monsoon  belt. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  on  which  tack  a  ship  heaves- 
to  while  watching  the  wind,  barometer,  and  clouds,  and  waiting 
for  the  situation  to  declare  itself.  Consider,  for  example,  the 
ships  of  Fig.  2,  Plate  158.  If  the  ship  B,  in  the  right-hand 


556 


Plate  No.    157. 


WEATHER  AND   THE    LAWS    OF   STORMS. 


557 


semi-circle,  heaves-to  on  the  starboard  tack,  the  wind  and  sea 
will  gradually  draw  aft.  If  she  heaves-to  on  the  port  tack,  they 
will  draw  ahead  and  she  is  liable  to  be  taken  aback,  perhaps 
in  a  sudden  and  violent  squall.  In  the  left-hand  semi-circle,  the 
conditions  are  reversed;  but  here  the  danger  is  not  in  any  case 
as  great  as  in  the  other  semi-circle.  The  rule  is,  therefore,  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  to  heave-to  in  the  beginning  on  the 
starboard  tack.  If  the  wind  shifts  to  the  right,  you  are  in  the 
dangerous  semi-circle  and  are  on  the  proper  tack.  If  circum- 
stances admit,  you  may  try  to  work  away  from  the  track  of  the 
center,  close-hauled  on  the  starboard  tack.  When  obliged  to 
lie-to,  do  so  on  the  same  tack. 

If,  being  hove-to  on  the  starboard  tack,  the  wind  hauls  to 
the  left  (ahead),  you  are  in  the  left-hand  or  manageable  semi- 
circle, say  at  A,  and  heading  away  from  the  track  of  the  center. 
Here  you  should  bring  the  wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and 
run  as  long  as  possible.  If  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on  the  port 
tack,  being  careful  to  make  as  little  headway  as  possible. 

If,  the  ship  being  hove-to,  the  wind  remains  steady  in  direc- 
tion and  the  barometer  continues  to  fall,  it  may  be  assumed, 
except  in  the  one  case  which  has  been  discussed  above,  that 
the  ship  is  in  or  near  the  path  of  the  storm; — say  at  c.  She 
should  run  with  the  wind  on  the  starboard  quarter  and  hold  the 
compass  course  thus  fixed  until  the  barometer  begins  to  rise. 

Most  of  the  above  rules  are  reversed  for  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. They  are  summarized  for  both  hemispheres  in  the 
following  table: 

NORTHERN   HEMISPHERE. 

Heave-to  on  Starboard  Tack  to  note  Shift  of  Wind. 


Wind  hauls  to  right 


«  «      left 


continues 

steady 


Ship  is  in  right  semi-circle 

DANGEROUS. 

Ship  is  in  left  semi-circle 
Manageable. 

Ship  is  in  path  of  storm 


Run  close  hauled  on  starboard 

tack. 
When  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so 

on  starboard  tack. 

Run  with  wind  on  starboard 

quarter. 
If  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 

port  tack. 

Run  with  wind  on  starboard 
quarter  and  keep  this  com- 
pass course. 

If  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 
the  tack  on  which  wind  and 
sea  will  draw  aft. 


558 


WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 


SOUTHERN    HEMISPHERE. 

Heave-to  on  Port  Tack  to  note  Shift  of  Wind. 


Wind  hauls  to  right 


»      left 


continues 

steady 


Ship  is  in  right  semi-circle 
Manageable. 

Ship  is  in  left  semi-circle 

DANGEROUS. 

Ship  is  in  path  of  storm 


Run  with  wind  on  port  quar- 
ter. 

If  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 
starboard  tack. 

Run    close    hauled    on    port 

tack. 
When  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so 

on  port  tack. 

Run  with  wind  on  port-quar- 
ter and  keep  this  compass 
course. 

If  obliged  to  lie-to,  do  so  on 
the  tack  on  which  wind  and 
sea  will  draw  aft. 


For  plotting  the  position  of  the  ship  within  the  storm  from 
time  to  time  it  is  convenient  to  construct  a  storm-card  like 
Fig.  2,  Plate  158.  This  should  be  on  tracing  cloth  and  on  a 
good  scale.  The  ship  is  then  drawn  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and 
the  storm-card  moved  over  it  in  accordance  with  the  motion  of 
the  center  as  determined  from  the  successive  observations  made 
as  above  described.  A  rough  estimate  may  generally  be  made 
of  the  distance  of  the  center,  from  the  character  of  the  weather, 
the  force  of  the  wind,  the  fall  of  the  barometer,  etc. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  circumstances  may  require 
the  modification  of  the  foregoing  rules  in  many  directions. 
One  of  the  most  frequent  reasons  for  such  modifications  is  the 
proximity  to  land.  The  influence  of  this  point  upon  the  course 
to  be  adopted  will  be  greatly  affected  by  the  way  in  which  it  is 
known  that  the  wind  will  shift.  There  is  less  danger  in  closing 
with  a  coast  if  it  is  certain  that  the  shifts  of  wind  will  be  off- 
shore and  not  on.  So  with  regard  to  seeking  an  anchorage. 
It  may  be  safe  to  anchor  in  an  open  roadstead  if  the  shifts  of 
wind  are  bound  to  be  such  as  to  give  a  lee;  it  would  be  hazar- 
dous to  anchor  if  the  reverse  were  the  case. 

Naturally,  also,  the  seaworthiness  of  the  ship,  her  speed,  and 
many  other  conditions,  are  factors  in  the  problem  of  manoeu- 
vring. 

The  latitude  in  which  the  storm  is  encountered  makes  a  dif- 
ference because  of  the  difference  in  intensity;  and  a  vessel  may 


Plate  No.    158. 


559 


Example  of   Intensified   Trade-Wind  Be\t. 


East 


N.E. 


North 


West 


5.W. 


A  C^done  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

SHIFTS  OF  WIND  IN  A   CYCLONE. 


CYCLONES. 


560  WEATHER   AND    THE    LAWS    OF    STORMS. 

safely  hold  her  course  through  a  storm  in  the  North  Atlantic 
which  she  would  take  every  means  to  avoid  in  the  tropics.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  easier  to  avoid  a  storm  in  the  tropics  than 
in  high  latitudes,  because  of  the  difference  in  the  area  which  it 
covers.  The  diameter  of  a  hurricane  in  the  tropics  rarely  ex- 
ceeds 300  miles,  while  in  high  latitudes  it  may  be  a  thousand 
miles  or  more. 

The  curvature  of  the  track  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 
Vessels  have  been  known  to  escape  from  a  slow-moving  hurri- 
cane toward  the  concave  side  of  the  track,  only  to  run  into  it 
again  after  it  had  recurved. 

The  preceding  directions  have  especial  reference  to  sailing 
vessels,  but  in  their  general  principles  they  are  perfectly  appli- 
cable to  steamers.  There  is,  however,  this  important  difference 
to  be  noted;  that  as  a  steamer  is  not  dependent  for  her  course 
upon  the  direction  of  the  wind,  she  is  much  freer  to  manoeuvre 
and  may  almost  always,  unless  in  the  neighborhood  of  land, 
keep  far  enough  from  the  center  of  the  storm  to  avoid  all 
serious  danger.  This,  however,  is  true  only  when  the  storm  is 
of  comparatively  limited  area  and  with  a  center  clearly  defined; 
as  in  positions  I,  2,  3  and  4,  of  Plate  155.  It  is  evident  that 
when  the  storm  has  spread  out  over  thousands  of  miles,  as  in 
positions  5  and  6,  with  an  elongated  trough  of  low  pressure  in 
place  of  a  sharply-defined  center,  it  is  hopeless  for  even  a 
steamer  to  attempt  to  avoid  it.  In  such  a  gale,  the  directions 
of  the  following  Chapter  (Handling  a  Steamer  in  Heavy 
Weather)  become  important;  and  if  applied  with  some  reference 
to  the  changes  in  weather  which  may  be  anticipated  from  a 
study  of  Plate  155,  they  furnish  all  the  directions  which  should 
be  needed  to  carry  a  steamer  through  any  gale  in  which  she 
has  a  fair  amount  of  sea-room. 

Another  point  of  difference  between  a  steamer  and  a  sailing 
vessel  has  to  do  with  the  rule  for  lying-to  in  the  manageable 
semi-circle.  The  rule  for  a  sailing  ship  is  to  lie-to  on  the 
"  coming-up  "  tack  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  brings  her  head 
toward  the  center.  For  a  steamer,  the  rule  in  general  is  to 
lie-to  always  with  the  head  away  from  the  center,  in  order  that 
such  headway  as  is  made  may  be  all  in  the  direction  of  safety. 

The  Pilot  Charts  of  the   North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific 


WEATHER   AND  THE   LAWS   OF   STORMS.  561 

Oceans,  issued  by  the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the  United  States 
Navy  Department,  should  be  familiar  to  all  mariners.  These 
are  in  substance  Monthly  Weather  Maps  of  the  Ocean  and  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  valuable  information  not  elsewhere  to  be 
found,  upon  a  great  variety  of  topics. 

WEATHER  AND  STORM  SIGNALS. 

Most  of  the  maritime  nations  of  the  world  publish  informa- 
tion of  weather  and  winds  to  be  expected  and  give  warnings 
to  mariners  by  signal  and  by  radio  of  the  approach  of  storms. 

In  the  United  States  the  system  of  weather-signals  is  very 
complete,  information  of  the  approach  of  storms  being  received 
from  various  stations  in  the  United  States  and  even  throughout 
the  West  Indies.  These  warnings  are  published  at  the  various 
seaports  by  the  display  of  flags  by  day  and  of  lanterns  by  night, 
and  by  bulletins  and  reports  furnished  to  newspapers.  (Plate 
159.)  Every  effort  is  made  to  give  these  warnings  as  early  as 
possible  at  all  points  where  they  may  be  of  service  to  mariners 
and  others. 

UNITED  STATES  STORM  SIGNALS. — Storm  signals  are  displayed 
by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  at  a  large  number  of  sta- 
tions situated  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States.  Most  of  these 
stations  are  equipped  for  signalling  by  the  International  Code, 
and  are  prepared  to  transmit  by  telegraph  and  radio  the  messages 
of  passing  vessels. 

The  warnings  adopted  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
for  announcing  the  approach  of  wind  storms  are  as  follows : 

Storm  Warning  (a  red  flag,  eight  feet  square,  with  black 
center,  three  feet  square) ,  indicates  that  a  storm  of  marked 
violence  is  expected.  This  flag  is  never  used  alone. 

Red  Pennant  (eight  feet  hoist  and  fifteen  feet  fly)  displayed 
with  the  flags,  indicates  easterly  winds ;  that  is,  from  the  north, 
through  east  to  south,  and  that  the  storm  center  is  approaching. 

White  Pennant  (eight  feet  hoist  and  fifteen  feet  fly)  displayed 
with  the  flags,  indicates  westerly  winds ;  that  is,  from  north 
through  west  to  south  and  that  the  center  has  passed. 

Red  Pennant  if  hoisted  above  the  storm  warning,  indicates 
that  winds  are  expected  from  the  northeast  quadrant;  when  be- 
low, from  the  southeast  quadrant. 

White  Pennant  if  hoisted  above  the  storm  warning,  indicates 


562 


Plate  No.    159. 


Easterly  Winds        Storm  Signals  Cautionary          Westerly  Winds 

Signal 


N.E.  Winds 


5. E.  Winds  Hurricane 

Warning 


N.W.  Winds  5.W.  Winds  Night  Warnings 


No.! 


No. 3 


Ra'ln  °r  5now  Locc^l  5now 

No.4  ,.       No.5 


TemperatureRagl  "Cold  Wave 

STORM  AND  WEATHER  SIGNALS. 


WEATHER    AND   THE   LAWS   OF    STORMS.  563 

that  winds  are  expected  from  the  northwest  quadrant;  when  be- 
low, from  the  southwest  quadrant. 

Night  Storm  Warnings — By  night  a  red  light  will  indicate 
easterly  winds;  a  white  above  a  red  light  will  indicate  westerly 
winds. 

Hurricane  Warning  (two  storm  warning  flags,  red  with  black 
centers,  displayed  one  above  the  other)  indicates  the  expected 
approach  of  a  tropical  hurricane  or  of  an  extremely  severe  and 
dangerous  storm. 

No  night  hurricane  warnings  are  displayed. 

A  yellow  flag  with  white  center  is  a  cautionary  signal. 

Signals  should  be  read  from  the  top  of  the  staff  downward. 
These  signals  indicate  the  weather  forecasts  for  the  twenty-four 
hours  commencing  at  8  o'clock  a.  m. 

UNITED  STATES  WEATHER  SIGNALS. — When  displayed  on  poles, 
the  signals  should  be  arranged  to  read  downward;  when  dis- 
played from  horizontal  supports,  a  small  streamer  should  be  at- 
tached to  indicate  the  point  from  which  the  signals  are  to  be  read. 

The  morning  forecasts  only  (i.e.,  those  issued  from  the  a.m. 
reports)  will  be  utilized  for  the  display  of  weather  signals,  and 
the  flags  displayed  will  represent  only  the  forecast  applicable  to 
the  twenty-four  hours  beginning  at  8  p.m.  of  the  day  the  flags 
are  hoisted.  (Plate  159.) 

If  more  than  one  kind  of  weather  is  predicted  for  the  period 
from  8  p.m.  to  8  p.m.,  the  conditions  first  named  in  the  fore- 
cast will  be  represented  by  the  uppermost  weather  flag  in  a  ver- 
tical hoist,  or  by  the  weather  flag  nearest  to  the  small  streamer 
indicating  the  point,  in  a  horizontal  hoist,  from  which  the  sig- 
nals are  to  be  read.  If  two  temperature  forecasts  are  made  for 
this  period,  the  first-named  only  will  be  represented  by  the  tem- 
perature flag  in  its  proper  position. 

When  cold-wave  signals  are  ordered,  or  when  the  regular 
forecast  contains  warnings  of  a  cold  wave,  the  cold-wave  sig- 
nal will  be  displayed  alone,  and  in  no  case  will  flags  represent- 
ing the  weather  element  be  displayed  on  the  same  staff  with  the 
cold-wave  signal. 

If  the  forecasts  contain  a  prediction,  "  moderate  cold  wave," 
"  decidedly  low  temperature,"  "  decided  fall  in  temperature," 
"  much  colder,"  etc.,  the  cold-wave  flag  will  not  be  displayed  but 
the  temperature  flag  will  be  hoisted  below  the  proper  weather 
flag. 


WEATHER   AND   THE   LAWS    OF    STORMS. 


Flags  will  be  invariably  lowered  at  sunset  of  the  day  the  hoij 
is  made,  and  no  flags  will  be  displayed  on  the  following  day  until 
the  receipt  of  the  next  succeeding  morning  forecast. 

Number  I  indicates  clear  or  fair  weather.  Number  2  indi- 
cates rain  or  snow.  Number  3  indicates  that  local  rains  01 
showers  will  occur,  and  that  the  rainfall  will  not  be  general. 
Number  4  always  refers  to  temperature;  when  placed  above 
numbers  i,  2  and  3  it  indicates  warmer  weather;  when  placec 
below  numbers  I,  2  and  3  it  indicates  colder  weather;  when  not 
displayed,  the  indications  are  that  the  temperature  will  reman 
stationary,  or  that  the  change  in  temperature  will  not  vary  more 
than  four  degrees  from  the  temperature  of  the  same  hour  of 
the  preceding  day  from  March  to  October,  inclusive,  and  not 
more  than  six  degrees  for  the  remaining  months  of  the  year. 
Number  5  indicates  the  approach  of  a  sudden  and  decided  fall 
in  temperature.  When  number  5  is  displayed,  number  4  is  always 
omitted. 

Examples : — Nos.  i  and  4,  "  Fair  weather.     Colder." 

Nos.  4  and  2,  "  Warmer.     Rain  or  snow." 
Nos.  4,  i  and  2,  "  Warmer,  fair  weather,  followed 

by  rain  or  snow." 
Nos.  i  and  5,  "  Fair  weather.     Cold  wave." 


(565) 


CHAPTER  XX. 

HANDLING  STEAMERS  IN  HEAVY  WEATHER. 
II. 

The  conventional  way  of  handling  a  steamer  when  the 
weather  is  too  heavy  for  her  to  proceed  on  her  course  is  to 
bring  her  up  until  she  has  the  sea  on  the  bow  and  to  hold  her 
there  by  the  engines  and  the  helm,  assisted  by  such  after  sail  as 
may  be  available.  In  this  position,  most  steamers  have  a  con- 
stant tendency  to  fall  off,  and  can  only  be  held  up  by  giving 
them  way  enough  for  the  rudder  to  exercise  considerable  steer- 
ing power.  They  are  thus,  to  some  extent,  forced  into  the  sea, 
and  the  more  it  is  necessary  to  force  them,  the  greater  the  strain 
to  which  they  are  subjected,  and  the  greater  the  probability  of 
their  taking  water  on  board  in  dangerous  quantities.  This 
method  of  riding  out  a  gale  has  been  handed  down  from  the 
days  of  bluff-bowed  sailing  ships  and  of  steamers  with  more  or 
less  complete  sail  power.  Such  ships  were  held  up  to  wind  and 
sea  by  their  ample  after  sail,  with  little  or  no  headway.  If  they 
fell  off — as  from  time  to  time  they  did — and  started  to  gather 
way,  the  hard  down  helm  and  after  sail  would  bring  them 
promptly  back  to  meet  the  sea.  Thus  they  came  up  and  fell 
off,  making  some  little  way  through  the  water,  but  none  of  it 
against  the  sea;  and,  in  the  main,  drifting  steadily  to  leeward. 
For  such  ships,  this  was  and  is  the  ideal  way  of  riding  out  a 
gale.  But  a  modern  steamer,  whether  man-of-war,  liner  or 
tramp,  carries  very  little  after  sail  and  is  commonly  long  and 
sharp.  The  propeller  acts  as  a  drag,  tending  to  hold  her  stern 
up  to  the  sea,  and  this  tendency  is  assisted  by  the  excess  of 
draft  which  such  steamers  usually  have  aft.  To  hold  such  a 
steamer  bows  on  to  the  sea,  she  must  be  forced  into  it — not  at 
great  speed,  perhaps,  but  sufficiently  to  strain  the  ship  severely 
and  to  suggest  grave  doubt  as  to  the  wisdom  of  this  method 
of  lying  to. 

The  opinion  is  gaining  ground  of  late  years  that  a  steamer 
of  this  type  should  run  slowly  before  a  sea  or  lie  to  with  the 


566  HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER. 

sea  astern  or  on  the  quarter;  and  this  view  is  supported  both  by 
theoretical  considerations  and  by  a  convincing  amount  of  prac- 
tical experience. 

If  we  watch  any  buoyant  object  floating  in  waves  which  are 
of  some  size  as  compared  with  the  object  itself,  we  shall  see  th'at 
so  long  as  it  floats  freely,  it  floats  easily,  with  no  indication  of 
strain  and  with  little  or  no  wash  on  its  upper  surfaces.  If  it  is 
forced  to  lie  in  some  other  position  than  that  which  it  naturally 
takes,  all  this  is  changed;  it  ceases  to  ride  easily,  and  the  waves 
break  over  it  more  or  less.  If  it  is  forced  through  the  water, 
even  on  the  heading  which  it  naturally  takes,  signs  of  strain 
become  apparent,  and  the  sea  washes  over  it.  If  it  is  forced 
against  the  sea,  the  wash  will  be  greater  than  on  any  other 
course,  and  as  the  speed  in  this  direction  increases,  it  dives  into 
and  cuts  through  the  waves  instead  of  riding  over  them. 

We  might  anticipate  for  this  that  the  easiest  position  for  a 
ship  in  a  heavy  sea  would  be  that  which  she  would  herself  take 
if  left  at  rest  and  free  from  the  constraint  of  engines,  helm  and 
sails.  For  steamers  of  the  type  we  are  now  considering  (mod- 
ern steamers  of  average  characteristics),  this  seems  to  be  gen- 
erally true.  Such  a  steamer,  if  left  to  herself  in  a  seaway  will 
usually  fall  off  until  she  has  the  sea  abaft  the  beam,  the  pro- 
peller acting  as  a  drag  and  holding  her  stern  up.  In  this  posi- 
tion she  will  roll  deeply,  but  easily,  and  will  drift  to  leeward, 
leaving  a  comparatively  smooth  wake  on  the  weather  beam  and 
quarter,  rolling  deeply,  but  141  most  cases  easily,  and  taking  little 
or  no  water  on  board.  If  oil  is  used  along  the  weather  side  and 
astern,  the  wake  can  be  converted  into  an  "  oil-slick  "  and  all 
danger  of  seas  breaking  on  board  effectually  prevented. 

If  she  rolls  dangerously,  she  may  be  kept  away  more,  either 
by  setting  head  sail,  by  using  a  drag  over  the  stern,  or  by  turning 
over  the  engines  just  fast  enough  to  give  her  steerage-way;  for 
it  seems  to  be  established  also,  as  the  result  of  experience,  that 
a  steamer  may  safely  run  with  the  sea  aft  or  quartering,  pro- 
vided she  runs  very  slowly.  Clearly  this  is  not  "  running  "  in  the 
old  sense  of  that  term,  according  to  which  a  vessel  going  before 
the  sea  was  forced  to  her  utmost  speed  with  the  idea  of  keeping 
ahead  of  the  waves,  which  were  expected  to  "  poop  "  her  if  they 
overtook  her.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  statements  of  a  large 
number  of  shipmasters  who  have  tried  the  experiment  of  slow- 
ing down  or  stopping  when  running  before  a  heavy  sea,  that 


HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY   WEATHER.  567 

this  manoeuvre,  so  far  from  resulting  in  the  disaster  which  many 
seamen  would  expect  from  it,  had  an  extraordinary  effect  in 
easing  the  ship  and  keeping  her  dry.1 

The  explanation  of  this  seems  to  be  that  a  ship  running  at 
high  speed  through  the  water  draws  a  wave  after  her  which  fol- 
lows under  her  counter  and  rolls  along  toward  the  waist  on 
either  side,  tending  continually  to  curl  over  and  break  on  board. 
This  wave  is  reduced  to  insignificant  proportions  in  running 
dead  slow. 

Another  point  which  enters  into  the  behavior  of  a  vessel 
going  before  the  sea  is  that  as  she  rolls  and  pitches  she  buries 
first  one  bow  and  then  the  other,  increasing  the  pressure  on  the 
bow  so  buried.  If,  now,  she  is  being  driven  through  the  water, 
her  head  will  be  forced  off,  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the 
other,  causing  her  to  yaw  badly  with  a  continual  tendency  to 
broach  to;  and  this  cannot  be  met  by  the  rudder,  because,  at  the 
very  time  the  bow  is  buried,  the  stern  is  lifted  more  or  less  out 
of  the  water,  and  the  rudder  loses,  for  the  moment,  its  steering 
power.  As  the  stern  is  lifted,  there  also  comes  a  racing  of  the 
propeller  which  is  in  itself  a  serious  danger  at  high  speed. 
Whether  these  points  be  sufficient  to  entirely  explain  the  fact 
or  not,  there  seems  no  question  that  the  dangers  connected 
with  running,  so  far  from  being  increased,  are  greatly  reduced 
if  not  altogether  removed,  by  slowing  or  stopping. 

It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  in  this  matter,  as  in  all 
others  connected  with  Seamanship,  due  regard  must  be  had  for 
the  peculiarities  of  the  individual  ship;  and  that  the  manoeuvre 
which  is  safest  for  a  majority  of  ships  may  be  dangerous  for  cer- 
tain ones.  Thus  a  ship  whose  cargo  is  of  a  kind  that  may  shift 
should  not  be  allowed  to  roll  excessively; — nor  should  a  battle- 
ship whose  heavy  guns  are  carried  high  above  the  center  of 
gravity.  The  same  is  true  to  some  extent  of  sailing  ships, 
whose  spars  may  be  endangered  by  rolling  too  deeply.  For 
such  vessels,  a  course  and  speed  should  be  maintained  which 
will  keep  theni  reasonably  steady,  even  though  this  may  involve 
some  strain  upon  the  hull  and  some  risk  of  shipping  water. 
But  on  whatever  course  the  vessel  may  be  kept,  this  rule  may 
be  regarded  as  of  universal  application; — that,  other  things 

1  See  §  III  of  this  Chapter  for  the  testimony  of  shipmasters  on  this 
subject. 


568  HANDLING   STEAMERS   IN    HEAVY   WEATHER. 

being  equal,  the  lower  the  speed  at  which  she  is  run,  the  easier  she 
will  be. 

Attention  may  be  called  here  to  an  important  relation,  not 
always  recognized,  between  a  ship  and  the  waves  in  "which  she 
floats.  For  every  ship  (in  a  given  condition  as  to  trim,  &c.),  there 
is  a  perfectly  definite  "  rolling  period  ";  a  period,  that  is  to  say,  in 
which  she  will  make  a  complete  roll,  without  regard  to  whether  she 
is  rolling  ten  degrees  or  forty.  So,  also,  in  the  case  of  a  seaway, 
there  is  usually  a  fairly  regular  interval  of  time  between  wave- 
crests  passing  a  given  point.  If  the  point  is  a  ship  in  motion, 
her  motion  may  increase  or  decrease  the  interval  between  the 
waves  so  far  as  she  herself  is  concerned;  but  this  will  not  change 
the  regularity  of  the  interval.  If,  now,  it  happens  that  this  in- 
terval coincides  with  that  required  for  the  ship  to  complete  a 
roll,  each  wave  as  it  passes  her  will  add  its  rolling  impulse  to 
the  accumulated  effect  of  those  which  have  preceded  it,  and  the 
ship  will  roll  more  and  more  deeply  until  she  reaches  the  maxi- 
mum roll  of  which  she  is  capable.  She  will  not  roll  over,  if  prop- 
erly designed,  because  there  are  forces  at  work  to  resist  the 
rolling,  and  these  increase  as  the  depth  of  roll  increases,  until 
the  rolling  forces  and  the  resisting  forces  balance.  But  she  will 
continue  to  roll  to  the  maximum  limit  until  something  is  done 
to  break  up  the  synchronism  between  her  period  and  that  of  the 
sea.  This  can  be  accomplished,  provided  the  ship  has  headway, 
by  changing  the  course  or  the  speed  or  both;  thus  changing,  not 
the  real,  but  the  apparent,  period  of  the  waves.  By  running 
more  nearly  into  the  sea — meeting  the  waves — the  apparent 
period  is  shortened;  by  running  more  nearly  before  it,  the 
period  is  lengthened ;  but  in  either  case  it  is  changed  and  will  no 
longer  agree  with  the  rolling  period  of  the  ship.  The  same  effect 
is  produced  by  a  change  of  speed.  If,  therefore,  it  is  judged 
from  the  violence  of  the  rolling  on  a  given  course  that  the  period 
of  the  waves  is  coinciding  with  that  of  the  ship,  the  course  or 
speed  or  both  should  be  changed  to  break  up  the  synchronism. 

The  length  of  the  ship,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  waves, 
is  also  a  very  important  factor  in  the  behavior  of  the  ship,  especi- 
ally when  she  is  running  more  or  less  with  the  waves,  or  meeting 
them.  It  often  happens  that  a  small,  short  ship,  in  a  long  sea, 
will  be  perfectly  comfortable  where  a  larger  and  longer  one  makes 
very  bad  weather.  The  small  craft  climbs  up  and  slides  down 


HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER.  569 

the  waves,  accommodating  herself  to  their  slopes,  and  pitching 
only  as  the  slope  changes;  while  the  longer  craft,  partially  span- 
ning the  crests  and  the  hollows  of  the  waves  alternately,  one  end 
being  poised  on  the  crest  of  one  wave  while  the  other  end  is 
buried  in  the  adjoining  one,  may  be  making  very  heavy  weather. 
A  few  years  ago  a  large  cruiser  in  the  Philippines  was  very 
badly  battered  by  a  typhoon,  while  a  small  gunboat  which  passed 
through  the  same  gale  at  very  nearly  the  same  place,  was  per- 
fectly comfortable.  A  Cuban  revenue  cutter,  less  than  100  feet 
long,  was  caught  in  one  of  the  heaviest  cyclones  of  recent  years 
some  twenty  miles  south  of  Cienfuegos  and  rode  it  out  not  only 
without  discomfort  but  without  damage  to  a  light  dinghy  which 
she  carried  rigged  out  at  davits  overhanging  the  side  and  only 
eight  feet  above  the  water.  There  are  many  other  similar  cases 
on  record.  It  is  no  unusual  thing  to  hear  that  a  vessel  has 
foundered  in  a  gale,  and  that  her  boats  have  ridden  out  the  same 
gale  in  safety.  The  great  difficulty  here  is  to  load  the  boats  and 
get  them  clear  of  the  ship.  Once  clear,  they  are  often  much 
safer  than  the  ship. 

If,  when  a  steamer  is  before  the  sea  or  in  the  trough,  it  is  de- 
cided to  bring  her  up  to  it,  bows-on,  she  should  first  be  slowed 
until  she  has  barely  steerage  way,  and  should  then  be  brought 
up  as  gradually  as  possible.  To  put  the  wheel  over  with  con- 
siderable speed  on  and  bring  her  up  with  a  rush — slapping  the 
sea  in  the  face,  as  it  were — would  result  in  serious  damage,  if 
not  in  foundering.  After  getting  her  up  to  it,  bows-on,  the 
greatest  watchfulness  is  required,  first,  to  avoid  falling  off  into 
the  trough  of  the  sea,  as  she  will  try  to  do  the  moment  she  loses 
way,  and  second,  to  avoid  driving  into  the  heavy,  breaking  seas, 
which  will  threaten  her  now  and  again.  There  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  many  of  the  phenomenal  "  tidal  waves  "  reported  as 
having  suddenly  overwhelmed  steamers  in  mid-ocean  have  been 
simply  the  exceptionally  heavy  waves  which  build  up  from  time 
to  time  in  any  long  continued  gale ;  and  that  their  destructive 
power  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  vessels  were  driven  into 
them  instead  of  being  allowed  to  drift  before  them  and  ride 
over  them  unresistingly.  An  officer  should  always  be  kept  at 
the  engine-room  telegraphs,  in  lying  to  bows-on,  and  an  en- 
gineer standing  by  below,  to  obey  his  signals  instantly.  So 
long  as  she  heads  up  to  it,  the  more  slowly  she  turns  over,  the 


57°  HANDLING   STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY   WEATHER. 

better.  If  a  heavy  sea  is  seen  bearing  down  upon  her,  she  should 
be  stopped  altogether.  If  she  falls  off,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
increase  the  speed  a  little  to  bring  her  up,  but  she  must  be  slowed 
again  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  use  of  a  sea-anchor  is  advocated  by  many  writers  on  Sea- 
manship, and  it  is  commonly  assumed  .that  by  its  use  any  vessel 
may  be  held  head  to  sea  and  enabled  to  ride  out  a  gale.  No 
doubt  this  can  be  done  if  the  anchor  is  large  enough  and  strong 
enough.  But  considering  the  importance  that  is  universally 
attached  to  this  method  of  riding  out  a  gale,  it  is  surprising  how 
little  it  seems  to  have  been  used  and  how  small  is  the  amount  of 
practical  evidence  available  with  regard  to  it.  If  used  with  a 
modern  steamer  to  keep  her  head  .to  sea,  it  acts  against  the  drag 
of  the  screw,  which,  as  has  been  seen,  tends  to  keep  her  stem-on 
to  it ;  and  to  overcome  this  it  must  be  very  large  and  very  strongly 
built ;  otherwise,  its  effect  will  be  to  keep  her  in  the  trough  of  the 
sea. 

With  small  ships,  and  especially  with  sailing  ships,  it  has  been 
tried  often  and  with  good  results.  Such  a  ship,  riding  to  lee- 
ward of  a  sea-anchor  of  fair  size  with  an  oil  bag  hauled  out  to 
a  block  on  the  hawser  well  clear  of  the  stem,  and  drifting  slowly 
astern,  will  ride  out  almost  any  gale  with  safety  and  comfort. 
Indeed,  as  has  been  said  above,  this  is  the  ideal  position,  in 
very  bad  weather,  for  any  vessel  which  can  be  made  to  take  and 
keep  it.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  a  large  steamer  could  be  made  to 
do  this  without  the  use  of  an  anchor  too  unwieldy  to  be  handled 
conveniently  in  a  heavy  gale.  There  are  certainly  few  instances 
recorded  of  its  use  with  large  steamers ;  and  the  shipmasters 
who  advocate  it  for  all  cases  do  not  claim  to  have  tested  it  under 
these  conditions. 

If,  however,  the  steamer  is  to  be 'kept  before  the  sea,  and  espe- 
cially if  she  is  stopped,  a  sea-anchor  may  be  laid  out  to  wind- 
ward (and  astern)  with  great  advantage,  since  it  will  in  this 
case  act  with  the  drag  of  the  screw  instead  of  against  it,  helping 
to  keep  her  more  nearly  before  the  sea. 

A  convenient  type  of  sea-anchor  is  shown  in  Plate  160.  It  is 
merely  a  large  drag,  floating  but  well  immersed,  and  resisting 
motion  through  the  water  by  reason  of  the  large  area  which  it 
presents.  It  is  attached  to  a  line  from  the  ship  by  a  span  and 
has  a  tripping-line  from  its  apex,  for  capsizing  it,  to  admit  of 
hauling  in. 


HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER.  571 

In  cases  where  a  light  drag  is  needed  and  no  sea-anchor  is 
available,  a  boat  may  be  used,  with  a  hawser  made  fast  to  a  span 
from  the  bow  and  stern  ring  bolts,  and  to  a  belly  band  amid- 
ships. Or  a  long  spar  (or  a  number  of  spars  lashed  together) 
may  be  used,  also  slung  by  a  span.  If  a  topsail  or  a  heavy 
awning  can  be  added  to  such  an  improvised  anchor,  it  will  help 
to  break  the  seas. 

There  are  cases  recorded  of  vessels  having  been  kept  head 
to  sea  by  paying  out  their  chain  cables,  unbent  from  the  an- 
chors. Where  the  water  is  shallow  enough  for  the  chains  to 
drag  on  the  bottom,  they  are  especially  helpful;  in  deep  water, 
they  have  the  disadvantage  of  burying  the  bow.  A  good  sized 
manila  hawser,  paid  out  on  the  bight  both  ends  being  kept  on 
board,  makes  a  very  convenient  drag — perhaps  the  most  con- 
venient that  could  be  devised.  With  both  ends  leading  in 
through  the  stern  chocks,  it  would  be  extremely  helpful  for 
holding  her  stern-on,  and  with  one  end  at  the  stern  and  the 
other  at  some  point  near  the  beam,  she  could  be  held  with  the 
sea  on  the  quarter.  A  block  on  the  hawser  would  admit  of  reev- 
ing a  line  for  hauling  oil  bags  out  and  in. 

Where  the  depth  of  water  admits,  a  stream  anchor  or  a  good 
sized  kedge  may  be  let  go  with  a  long  scope  of  cable,  either 
chain  or  rope,  and  allowed  to  drag  on  the  bottom.  In  compara- 
tively shoal  water,  a  vessel  may  ride  out  almost  any  gale,  at 
anchor,  provided  she  has  a  sufficient  scope  of  cable.  During  the 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  scores  of  vessels  lay  at  anchor 
off  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  rode  out  gale  after  gale,  winter  and 
summer,  without  a  single  disaster.  Under  such  circumstances, 
the  longer  the  scope  the  better;  and  one  anchor  with  tzvo  cables 
on  end  is  preferable  to  two  anchors,  each  with  'half  the  scope  of 
chain.  The  engines  may  be  used,  but  very  cautiously,  to  relieve 
the  strain  on  the  cable  if  this  should  be  thought  too  great. 

Some  years  ago  a  steamer  was  caught  in  a  very  heavy  on-shore 
gale  off  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  with  her  engines  disabled. 
Being  in  shallow  water,  she  let  go  both  anchors  and  at  once  swung 
head  to  wind  and  sea,  tailing  on  to  the  shore.  The  anchors  dragged 
slowly  but  held  her  head  up  to  the  gale  and  she  drifted  stern-on 
to  the  beach  where  she  lay  for  twelve  hours  or  more  with  tremen- 
dous seas  breaking  over  her  bow,  but  with  her  crew  and  pas- 
sengers safe  at  the  stern.  She  ultimately  swung  around  broad- 


572  HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER. 

side-on,  and  broke  up,  but  this  not  until  long  after  all  hands  had 
been  taken  off. 

In  twin-screw  ships,  the  propellers  have  not  as  much  drag 
as  with  single-screws,  and  such  ships  can  sometimes  be  held  up 
to  the  sea  without  being  driven  into  it  dangerously,  by  turning 
over  the  lee  screw  very  slowly.  This  is  often  the  best  way  to 
lay  a  twin-screw  ship  to,  although  there  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  the  case  to  prevent  such  a  ship  from  riding  easily  with  the 
sea  astern  or  quartering. 

We  may  sum  up  what  precedes  on  the  various  methods  of 
handling  a  ship  in  heavy  weather,  with  the  statement  that  the 
ship  will  usually  be  safest  and  most  comfortable  when  end-on, 
or  nearly  end-on,  to  the  sea,  and  drifting  before  it. 

If,  by  the  use  of  sails,  a  drag,  or  any  other  means,  she  can 
be  held  bows-on,  while  being  still  allowed  to  drift,  this  is  probably 
the  best  way  to  lay  her  to;  but  if  she  cannot  be  held  up  without 
being  forced  into  the  sea,  it  will  be  because  of  the  natural  drag 
of  the  stern  and  propeller,  and  in  this  case  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  this  drag  to  hold  her  more  or  less  directly  stem-on, 
letting  her  drift  in  this  way. 

Even  if  the  position  she  takes  up  in  drifting  is  nearly  in  the 
trough  of  the  sea,  it  will  usually  be  found  that  she  is  easier  in  this 
position  than  in  any  other,  but  the  use  of  oil,  as  described  below, 
is  especially  important  in  such  cases. 

If  the  position  which  she  takes  in  drifting  proves  to  be  one 
in  which  she  rolls  dangerously,  then  she  may  run  just  fast 
enough  to  steer,  but  no  faster,  and  so  keep  the  course  which  is 
found  most  comfortable. 

§  II.    THE  USE  OF  OIL. 

The  effect  of  oil  in  calming  a  rough  sea  has  been  known  from 
the  earliest  times,  but  only  very  recently  has  advantage  been 
taken  of  it  to  any  important  extent.  The  very  general  use  that 
has  been  made  of  it  in  the  last  few  years  is  due  largely  to  the 
researches  and  publications  of  the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the 
United  States  Navy  Department.  Since  that  Office  took  the 
matter  up,  a  great  number  of  shipmasters  have  experimented 
with  it,  and  a  mass  of  evidence  has  been  accumulated  which 
leaves  no  possible  doubt  with  regard  to  its  utility. 


Plate  No.    160. 


573 


m 


Fig.  1 
Running  before  a  Sea* 


Fig.  2  i-  ig-  Ji 

funning  before  a  Sea  and  yawing  with  danger  of  Broaching-to. 

Distributing  oil  from  bow  alone  (2)  leaves  quartep 

unprotected  as  ship  yaws.  Use  method  of  3. 


Fig.  4 
tylng-to  with  sea  on  the 


Fig.  5 
Running  with  sea  on  the  6enm; 

leeward  to  pick  up  boat.  See  Chapters  XXI  and  XXII. 


Fig.  6 
Conimunlcatlng  by  Boat, 


t,        t  "A"  Stops  to  windward  to  lower  boat  and  goes  to 
bote:-Fig.  G  \,eewa.--  


j 


. 

/{/'v^i  y (\  L ('^Y-  ^^^~^^1^^^^^^^ 

ii:'-t(  v\i!ff  ( '( MlMMilW&&mM^ 

,  Fig.  7       Towing  against  a  Sea,    if  sea  is  not  ahead,  both  ships  use  oil  as  in  Fig.  5. 
Fig.  8      At  Anchor-    Haul  out  bag  to  block  on  cable. 


Wrought/ran   \ 
Spreader 


Front  View  of 
•Spreader,  Open 


S/c/e  VfewofSpreac/er,  Oosec/ 


SEA  ANCHOR. 


THE  USE  OF  OIL. 


574  HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER. 

The  action  of  the  oil  is  not  only  to  prevent  the  breaking  of 
waves,  but  to  a  considerable  extent  also  to  prevent  them  from 
forming,  and  its  effect  when  used  on  an  angry  sea  is  described 
by  all  who  have  tried  it  as  magical.  Even  in  a  surf,  while  it 
cannot  altogether  prevent  the  waves  from  breaking  as  they  are 
driven  in  upon  the  shoals,  it  greatly  reduces  their  violence,  and 
will  often  enable  a  boat  to  land  when  otherwise  it  would  be  out 
of  the  question. 

Almost  any  kind  of  oil  will  give  good  results,  but  some  kinds 
are  very  much  better  than  others.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils 
are  best;  for  example,  sperm,  porpoise,  linseed,  olive  and  cotton 
seed;  and  fairly  thick  and  heavy  oils  are  better  than  lighter  ones. 
Oil  of  turpentine  is  probably  the  best  of  all.  Mineral  oils  are 
much  less  effective,  but  a  very  thick  sticky  oil  or  one  that  tends 
to  thicken  or  congeal  in  cold  weather,  may  be  improved  by 
thinning  with  petroleum.  Soap-suds  has  a  remarkable  effect 
in  preventing  the  formation  of  waves,  but  it  does  not  keep  them 
from  breaking  when  formed. 

Any  method  will  answer  for  using  the  oil  which  produces  a 
slow  and  steady  flow.  A  convenient  way  is  to  fill  the  closet 
bowls  with  oakum  and  oil,  or  to  place  a  can  with  a  tap  slightly 
opened  where  it  will  give  a  slow  drip  into  the  bowls  and  out 
through  the  waste-pipes.  A  still  simpler  way  and  one  fre- 
quently used  is  to  fill  a  canvas  bag,  from  one  to  two  feet  square, 
with  oakum  and  oil,  and  punch  a  number  of  holes  through  the 
canvas  with  a  sail  needle.  Such  a  bag  may  be  hung  over  the 
side  at  any  point  where  it  is  found  to  give  the  best  result.  If 
there  is  danger  of  its  being  thrown  back  on  board  by  the  sea,  its 
lanyard  may  be  led  through  an  eye-bolt  or  a  shackle  in  the 
side.  If  for  any  reason  a  very  rapid  flow  is  wanted,  a  hose  may 
be  led  through  a  scupper  or  over  the  rail,  and  the  oil  poured 
into  it  through  a  funnel — or,  in  a  sudden  emergency,  the  oil 
may  be  thrown  over  the  side.  The  quantity  used  need  not  ex- 
ceed a  few  gallons — four  or  five  at  most — even  for  a  large  ship 
riding  out  a  prolonged  gale. 

The  diagrams  of  Plate  160  show  how  the  oil  may  be  dis- 
tributed to  advantage  under  various  circumstances.1  To  the 
cases  there  illustrated,  we  may  add  the  following: 

1  Adapted  from  an  Essay  by  Captain  Karlowa,  of  the  North  German 
Lloyd  S.  S.  Line. 


HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER.  575 

CROSSING  A  BAR  IN  HEAVY  WEATHER. 

Here  the  oil  is  needed  for  a  short  time  only,  but  in  consid- 
erable quantities  and  on  both  sides.  A  convenient  way  of  using 
it  is  to  trail  a  hose  over  the  bow  or  through  the  hawse  pipe 
on  each  side  and  to  pour  the  oil  freely  through  this  by  means  of 
a  funnel. 

LOWERING  AND   HOISTING  A   BOAT   IN   HEAVY  WEATHER. 

A  boat  is  always  lowered  and  hoisted  to  leeward,  with  the 
vessel  usually  either  bow  or  quarter  to  the  sea.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  oil  slowly  poured  over  the  side  a  short  distance  forward 
or  abaft  the  boat  (depending  upon  the  way  she  gets  the  sea) 
adds  greatly  to  the  ease  and  safety  of  handling  her  and  gives 
her  a  "  slick  "  in  which  to  come  alongside  or  get  clear. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  rate  at  which  the  oil  spreads  is 
slow  in  comparison  with  the  speed  even  of  a  vessel  drifting. 
Thus  a  vessel  lying  with  engines  stopped  can  make  a  "  slick  "  to 
windward  but  not  to  leeward — except,  perhaps,  very  close 
alongside — because  she  drifts  faster  than  the  oil  can  spread. 
So,  in  running,  a  vessel  can  leave  a  slick  astern  and  to  some 
extent  on  either  hand,  but  can  do  nothing  to  calm  the  waves 
ahead  of  her.  She  can,  therefore,  avail  herself  of  the  benefits 
of  oil  if  she  is  running  more  or  less  before  the  sea,  but  not  at 
all  if  steaming  into  it. 

§111.  SOME  OPINIONS  OF  SHIPMASTERS  UPON  LYING- 
TO  IN  MODERN  STEAMERS. 

The  author  of  the  present  work  has  collected  the  views  of 
forty  prominent  shipmasters  upon  the  subjects  of  the  preceding 
pages.  Of  these,  thirty-two  strongly  advocate  either  stopping 
the  engines  entirely,  or  turning  over  dead  slow  and  bringing  the 
sea  aft  or  nearly  so.  Seven  prefer  to  lie  to  bows  on,  but  think 
the  other  method  perfectly  safe  for  most  steamers.  Three  have 
tried  the  experiment  of  stopping  the  engines,  but  found  the  roll- 
ing so  alarming  that  they  were  obliged  to  bring  the  sea  on  the 
bow.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  these  three  were  captains 
of  large  Atlantic  liners. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  a  few  of  the  letters  received: 


576  HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER. 

Captain  Otto  Nielsen,  S.  S.  Pennland,  writes: 
"  I  have  laid-to  with  engines  stopped  in  a  terrible  sea  whilst  in  com- 
mand of  the  S.  S.  Switzerland,  westward  bound,  facing  for  several  days 
a  heavy  westerly  gale  and  enormous  high  sea.  A  heavy  sea  broke  on 
board  carrying  away  after  hatches  and  companions.  As  the  seas  had 
been  breaking  over  more  or  less  and  would  continue  to  do  so,  filling  the 
'tween-decks  with  water,  and  as  it  was  impossible  for  anybody  to  be 
about  decks  to  repair  the  damage,  I  was  compelled  to  stop  both  engines 
immediately,  at  the  same  time  starting  both  oil  tanks  going  fore  and  aft 
on  the  weather  side.  In  less  than  a  minute  I  could  see  the  oil  spreading 
up  to  windward  and  in  less  than  five  minutes  it  had  spread  at  least  300 
feet.  The  ship  kept  gradually  falling  off  until  she  was  in  the  trough  of 
the  sea.  The  heavy  seas  with  breakers  would  come  up  to  the  oil  and 
go  under  it  as  if  it  were  a  blanket  and  when  they  reached  the  ship  it  was 
like  a  long  lazy  rolling  swell,  giving  the  ship  a  push,  but  never  a  bucket 
of  water  coming  on  board. 

Of  course  the  ship  rolled  considerably  but  in  an  easy  way,  and  in 
fifteen  minutes  after  the  engines  were  stopped  the  decks  were  perfectly 
dry  fore  and  aft." 

Captain  D.  Richardson,  S.  S.  Noranmore,  writes: 

"  I  find  in  the  North  Atlantic  great  advantage  in  lying-to  with  the 
quarter  to  the  sea.  Put  the  helm  hard  up  and  keep  the  propeller  just 
revolving  to  break  the  sea  and  prevent  the  rudder  being  damaged.  Use 
oil  from  forward,  amidships,  and  on  the  quarter.  This  plan  was  carried 
out  in  the  S.  S.  Baltimore  in  a  hurricane  on  the  2nd  and  3rd  of  February, 
1899,  off  the  Grand  Banks  when  so  many  steamers  were  disabled  and  lost. 
I  escaped  with  little  injury." 

Captain  H.  Doxrud,  S.  S.  Rhynland,  writes: 

"  I  prefer  to  stop  engines  entirely  providing  I  can  run  oil  out  liberally. 

On  the  7th  of  May,  1898,  whilst  in  command  of  the  American  S.  S. 
Pennsylvania,  I  ran  into  a  hurricane  with  a  tremendous  sea.  It  was  im- 
possible without  great  danger  to  get  along  the  upper  deck,  as  the  seas 
swept  all  over  her.  I  was  then  lying-to,  head  to  sea,  and  making  very 
bad  weather  of  it.  During  the  height  of  the  storm  the  engines  had  to  be 
stopped,  the  ship  fell  off  with  the  sea  a  little  abaft  the  beam  and  re- 
mained so.  Oil  was  used  liberally  on  both  sides  all  the  time.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  ship's  behavior  was  simply  marvellous.  She  took  little  or 
no  water  over  but  was  rolling  very  heavily." 

Captain  S.  W.  Watkins,  S.  S.  Montana,  writes : 
"  With  my  present  command  I  prefer  lying-to  with  the  sea  right  aft, 

speed  reduced  and  running  oil  from  waste-pipes  of  W.  C.'s,  as  I  find  she 

is  much  easier  that  way." 

Captain  A.  R.  Mills,  S.  S.  Westernland,  writes: 

I  prefer  to  lie  to  with  the  engines  stopped  and  the  sea  quartering. 
I  have  tried  this  several  times  with  different  steamers  and  it  worked 


HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER.  577 

beautifully.     They   rolled   a   good  deal,   of  course,   but  with  a   good   oil 
streak  to  windward  they  shipped  no  water." 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  by  permission  from  a  valu- 
able paper,  "  Notes  on  Handling  Ships,"  by  Captain  D.  Wilson- 
Barker,  published  by  the  Shipmaster's  Society,  London: 

Captain  A.  H.  Brown,  S.  S.  Hunstanton,  writes: 
"  In  December,  1886,  being  in  ballast,  I  was  running  before  a  westerly 
gale  and  high  sea  for  Memel.  Knowing  that  port  could  not  be  entered, 
and  that  my  vessel  could  not  steam  against  such  weather,  I  decided  on 
rounding  to  when  about  50  miles  off  shore.  The  helm  was  put  down, 
but  the  steamer  would  not  answer  it;  she  came  to  the  wind  about  every 
half  hour,  immediately  fell  off  again  into  the  trough  of  the  sea,  and  drove 
to  leeward  at  an  alarming  rate.  After  about  two  hours  I  determined  to 
try  her  stern  on,  and  did  so  with  most  satisfactory  results,  for  although 
the  engines  were  going  slow  astern  we  held  our  own,  rolling  ceased,  and 
she  lay  steadily  quarter  to  sea.  After  a  while  she  paid  off  to  nearly  right 
before  the  wind,  and  nothing  could  be  better  than  her  behavior;  the  helm 
was  kept  amidships  all  the  time.  So  satisfactory  was  the  manoeuvre  that 
under  similar  circumstances  I  have  always  adopted  it  since." 

Captain  J.  G.  Groombridge,  writing  of  a  spar-deck  steamer, 
3123  tons  gross,  400  H.  P.,  says: 

"Off  Cape  Horn,  Bar.  dropped  29.60  to  28.80  in.  during  four  hours, 
the  wind  increasing  to  a  hurricane,  it  and  the  sea  abeam,  the  vessel  roll- 
ing very  heavily  and  shipping  much  water,  fore  and  aft.  I  decided  to  put 
her  before  the  wind  and  stop  the  engines.  She  then  lay  with  wind  and 
sea  on  the  quarter,  and  never  shipped  a  drop  of  water.  After  this  and 
two  other  experiences  of  like  character,  let  wind  and  sea  be  ever  so  vio- 
lent, I  shall  never  hesitate  to  act  in  a  similar  way." 

Captain  Jackson  of  the  S.  S.  Palamed,  writes: 
"  I  have  had  one  experience  in  a  typhoon.  I  found  the  ship  making 
very  bad  weather  whilst  steaming  slowly  ahead,  so  after  consideration, 
I  stopped  the  engines  and  let  her  take  any  position  she  chose.  She 
gradually  fell  off  until  we  had  the  wind  about  four  points  on  the  quarter, 
and  there  we  lay  until  the  blow  was  done.  We  did  not  take  any  seas  on 
board  from  the  weather  side,  the  cross  swell  rolled  aboard  over  the  lee 
side,  but  there  was  not  the  least  damage  done." 

Captain  Slessar,  of  the  S.  S.  Pecheli,  writes: 

"  I  was  caught  between  Shanghai  and  Nagasaki  in  a  very  heavy  gale 
and  high  running  sea,  the  ship  at  the  time  in  ballast  trim.  As  she  was 
continually  falling  off  I  at  length  decided  to  let  her  remain  so.  She  laid 
with  the  wind  a  little  on  the  starboard  quarter,  the  helm  amidships,  if 
I  remember  aright;  then  the  engines  were  worked  slow  astern,  with  no 
appreciable  difference  as  regards  ship's  position.  In  this  way  she  lay 
for  30  hours,  riding  easily." 


578  HANDLING    STEAMERS    IN    HEAVY    WEATHER. 

The  following  extracts  are  taken  by  permission  from  letters 
by  shipmasters  of  high  professional  standing,  published  by  the 
Nautical  Magazine,1  as  part  of  a  discussion  of  this  subject: 

One  shipmaster  writes: 

"  The  question  of  riding  out  a  gale  with  engines  stopped  is  a  big  one 
and  the  answer  depends  upon  the  type  of  vessel  and  her  trim;  but  this 
I  will  say,  that  on  no  occasion,  when  in  consequence  of  break-down  of 
machinery  or  stoppage  of  engines  from  other  causes,  the  vessel  in  which 
I  have  been  serving  has  been  allowed  to  take  up  her  own  position,  has 
she  shipped  any  heavy  water.  Many  years  ago,  in  mid-winter,  when  one 
of  the  large  Atlantic  Liners  in  which  I  was  serving  broke  down  when 
homeward  bound,  during  an  exceptionally  heavy  gale,  and  drifted  for 
more  than  a  week,  rolling  out  gale  after  gale,  the  only  occasion  on  which 
she  shipped  any  heavy  water  was  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  bring 
her  head  towards  the  wind  by  means  of  a  sail,  for  in  those  days  the 
Atlantic  Liners  had  masts  and  yards  and  could  spread  a  good  deal  of 
canvas.  Then  she  relieved  the  deck  of  two  boats  and  a  house. 

Another  shipmaster  writes: 

"  Some  few  years  ago,  I  was  running  right  before  a  very  high  N.  W. 
sea,  off  Belle  Isle,  in  command  of  a  deeply  laden  tramp.  I  never  re- 
member either  before  or  since  seeing  so  high  a  sea  running  in  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  When  abreast  of  Belle  Isle  light,  distance  seven  miles,  she 
pooped  a  tremendous  sea,  which  washed  all  our  deck  gear  adrift,  and 
started  the  after  bulkheads  of  both  deck  bunkers.  I  at  once  came  to  the 
conclusion  something  must  be  done,  and  that  very  quickly,  or  the  ship 
would  founder.  I  then  ordered  all  hands  to  lower  bridge,  all  deck  open- 
ings being  battened  down,  intending  to  bring  her  head  to  sea;  I  there- 
fore eased  the  engines  to  slow,  to  take  the  way  off  her  prior  to  bringing 
her  head  to  sea.  Directly  the  vessel  began  to  lose  her  way,  the  effect 
was  simply  magical;  she  shipped  no  heavy  water  at  all;  so  I  kept  on 
going  easy  all  night,  the  vessel  making  splendid  weather  of  it  till  dawn, 
when  the  storm  moderated." 

Still  another  writes: 

"  On  Sunday,  Nov.  24th,  9  P.  M.,  very  heavy  gale  and  very  high  sea. 
Ship  scudding  dead  before  the  sea.  The  ship,  although  a  very  fine  sea- 
boat,  kept  continually  filling  her  fore  well  (74  feet  in  length),  chock  full 
from  rail  to  rail. 

Before  putting  my  oil  bags  over,  I  thought,  '  here  is  a  grand  chance  to 
try  how  she  acts  dead  slow.'  So  I  eased  the  engines  to  dead  slow. 
The  moment  she  lost  her  strong  headway,  the  effect  was  magical.  The 
fore  well  became  nearly  dry,  only  a  lipper  went  over  occasionally  as  it 
rolled  along  her  side,  and  the  ship  was  as  truly  comfortable  as  she  could 
be  wished  for." 

1  See  an  interesting  discussion  on  this  subject  in  the  Nautical  Magazine 
for  1895  and  1896. 


(579) 


CHAPTER  XXL 
THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

i."  Design.  As  preliminary  to  a  discussion  of  the  handling  of 
Destroyers,  attention  should  be  called  to  certain  features  of  the 
design  of  such  vessels  which  influence  their  behavior  and  which, 
in  many  cases,  call  for  altogether  different  handling  from  that 
which  would  be  appropriate  for  other  vessels  under  similar  con- 
ditions. 

The  development  of  the  Destroyer  has  passed  through  several 
well-marked  stages  of  design,  from  the  Decatur  class,  of  420  tons, 
designed  in  1898,  to  the  Modern  Flush  Deck  class,  of  1,200  tons, 
with  a  horse-power  identical  with  that  of  the  superdreadnought 
Colorado.  The  last-mentioned  type  is  that  to  which  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  destroyers  belong  which  for  ten  years  to  come 
(1920-1930)  will  be  in  active  commission;  but  there  are  still  a 
few  belonging  to  the  types  designed  between  1911  and  1916, 
which,  if  not  in  active  commission,  will  continue  for  some  years 
in  reserve  and  thereafter  in  the  coast  defense  flotilla.  The  charac- 
teristics of  all  of  these  types  are  shown  in  the  following  table. 


Dis- 

42 

Year: 

place- 

o 

Armament 

Au- 

Num- 

Type 

L'ngth 

ment 

Horse- 

j 

thor- 

ber. 

ship. 

(feet). 

(tons) 

power. 

"? 

ized. 

Nor- 

0 

mal. 

a 
m 

Gun-. 

Tubes. 

1911.. 

8 

Cassin 

305 

1,020 

16,000  30.00 

4,  4-inch 

4,  18-inch  twin 

1912.  . 

G 

Gushing 

305 

1,050    16,000  30.00 

4,  4 

4,  21 

1913.. 

6 

Tucker 

315 

1,100    17,000  30.00 

4,  4 

4,  21 

1914.  . 

6 

Davis 

315 

1.100    17,000  30.00 

4,  4 

4,  21           triple 

1915.. 

6 

Manlev 

315 

1,125    20,000  32.00 

4,4 

4,  21 

1916) 

111 

Wickes 

315 

1,170    26,000  35.00 

4,4          i 

4,  21 

1917  / 

1917  \ 

174 

Hatfield       315 

1,215    29,000  35.00 

4,4     "    i 

4,  21     " 

1918  / 

THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS,  COMMON  TO  ALL  CLASSES. 

Beam,  31  ft.  (approximate). 

Mean  draft,  9  ft.  6  inches  (approximate). 

Maximum  draft  with  full  load,2  10  ft.  (approximate). 

Funnels,  4,  except  Stockton,  Gwin,  and  Conner,  3. 

Masts,  2. 

Propellers,  2,  except  Conner  and  Stockton,  3. 

Fuel,  Oil. 

Boilers,  Number:  4  (Two  in  each  fireroom). 

Types :  Yarrow,  Normand,  Thornycroft,  or  White-Foster. 
Engines,  Types:  Geared-Turbines ;  Parsons,  Curtis  or  Westing- 
house. 
Steaming  Radius : 

1911  to  1913  types,  approximately  3000  knots. 

1913  to  1915  types,  approximately  4000  knots. 

1916  to  1918  types,  approximately  2400-6000  knots. 
Development.  Early  destroyers  in  the  United  States  Navy 
(Decatur  Class  of  420  tons)  had  a  flat  stern  with  no  after  dead- 
wood,  the  bottom  rising  from  about  the  deaclflat  section  in  almost 
a  plane  surface,  so  that  the  draft  of  the  hull  itself  at  the  stern 
was  only  a  few  inches.  The  beam  at  the  stern  was  greater  than  in 
other  types  and  the  entire  above  water  afterbody  very  full.  None 
of  the  United  States  destroyers  now  in  active  service  are  of  this 
type  but  the  effect  of  the  features  described  is  instructive,  and  as 
these  features  exist  in  other  types  of  vessels,  space  will  be  taken 
to  discuss  them.  The  advantages  of  the  design  are  two-fold:  to 
prevent  racing  of  the  propellers  and  to  reduce  the  diameter  of  the 
turning  circle.  In  a  following  sea,  the  stern  keeps  close  to  the 
water,  since  a  drop  of  the  sea  of  only  a  few  inches  leaves  the 
entire  weight  of  the  stern  unsupported,  so  that  it  follows  the 
water  very  quickly.  In  the  same  way  a  rising  sea,  in  lifting  only 
a  few  inches  over  the  full-bodied  quarter,  greatly  increases  the 
buoyancy  of  the  after  part  of  the  vessel  and  the  stern  responds 
immediately.  The  general  result  is  that  the  stern  sticks  to  the 
water,  and  racing  of  the  propellers  and  the  probability  of  pooping 
are  reduced  to  the  lowest  degree  possible  with  a  vessel  of  the  size. 
The  reduction  in  the  turning  circle  results  from  the  absence  of 

1  Also  2-3"  A.A.  guns. 

2  May  be  considerably  increased  when  running  at  high   speed,  by  the 
tendency  for  the  stern  to  "  squat." 


Plate  No.    161. 


FIG.  i.     HIGH  Bow  DESTROYER. 


FIG.  2.    FLUSH  DECK  DESTROYER. 


582  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

deaclwood,  the  stern  offering  very  little  resistance  to  lateral 
motion  through,  or  rather  over,  the  water.  When  the  rudder  is 
put  over,  the  stern  simply  slides  along  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  small  turning  circle  arising  from  these  conditions,  while  ex- 
tremely advantageous  from  the  point  of  view  of  handling  in  con- 
fined areas  in  smooth  water,  becomes  objectoinable  in  a  seaway, 
since  the  very  reasons  which  make  it  possible  to  turn  the  vessel 
sharply,  also  make  it  impossible  to  keep  her  from  yawing  in 
rough  water.  In  a  heavy  following  sea,  this  yawing  becomes  so 
great  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  steer  a  steady  course,  and  "broach- 
ing-to"  may  result,  with  all  its  attendant  dangers.  Such  a  vessel, 
when  a  heavy  following  sea  commences  to  rise  under  the  stern, 
is  thrown  bodily  off  by  the  advancing  and  rising  sea  as  she  pre- 
sents her  quarter  to  it  in  yawing;  with  the  result,  in  an  extreme 
case,  of  bringing  her  beam  to  it  just  in  time  to  receive  the  break- 
ing crest  aboard. 

Destroyers  of  the  two  classes  immediately  preceding  that  of 
1916  are  generally  known  as  the  75o-ton  and  the  looo-ton  classes 
respectively.  These  are  the  destroyers  which,  during  the  recent 
war,  rendered  such  valuable  service  in  European  waters ;  steam- 
ing on  an  average  five  thousand  miles  per  vessel  per  month,  under 
all  conditions  of  weather.  The  75CHton  class  comprises  de- 
stroyers numbered  serially  as  high  as  42  (the  Jenkins)  ;  the 
looo-ton  class,  all  vessels  from  the  Cassin,  No.  43,  to  and  includ- 
ing the  Shaw,  No.  68. 

Vessels  of  both  these  classes  have  a  high  forecastle  extending 
from  the  stem  to  a  point  just  abaft  the  pilot  house,  where  it 
breaks  off  to  a  low  main  deck  which  is  extended  to  the  stern 
(Fig.  i,  Plate  161).  The  high  forecastle  of  these  vessels  plays 
an  important  part  in  their  manoeuvring  qualities ;  acting  as  a  per- 
manent jib,  which,  while  helpful  under  some  conditions,  is  a 
serious  handicap  under  others.  It  must  always  be  kept  in  mind 
and  allowed  for,  its  principal  effect  being,  of  course,  to  make  it 
difficult  to  bring  the  vessel  up  to  the  wind.  Caution  must  be 
used  when  such  a  vessel  is  run  into  a  small  harbor  into  which 
the  wind  is  blowing  and  where  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  her 
within  the  harbor  in  order  to  get  out.  Under  such  conditions  the 
ship  may  get  beam  to  wind,  and,  lacking  space  to  gather  head- 
way, refuse  to  turn  into  it,  and  may  drift  ashore  broadside  on. 
Several  narrow  escapes  are  on  record  resulting  from  failure  to 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  583 

appreciate  this  feature.  In  turning  with  a  vessel  of  this  type,  it 
is  desirable  to  turn  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  jib 
effect  instead  of  having  to  work  against  it.  The  effect  of  the 
wind  upon  the  bow  is  particularly  important  in  going  alongside 
a  dock. 

Destroyers  of  the  above  two  types  as  well  as  those  of  the  mod- 
ern 35-knot  type  (Plate  162)  have  a  large  after  dead-wood, 
which  results  in  greater  steadiness  of  sea  route  but  produces  an 
excessively  large  turning  circle,  the  tactical  diameter  being  as 
great  as  one  thousand  yards  with  rudder  angle  of  twenty  degrees. 

The  later  classes,  1915  to  1918,  have  a  continuous  flush  main 
deck  from  stem  to  stern,  but  with  considerable  sheer;  the  bow, 
while  less  conspicuously  elevated  than  in  the  earlier  classes,  hav- 
ing decidedly  more  freeboard  than  the  stern  (Fig.  2,  Plate  161). 

The  change  from  the  high  and  cut  away  forecastle  to  the  flush 
deck  has  produced  great  improvement  in  seaworthiness,  habit- 
ability,  and  all  around  efficiency.  In  the  flush-deck  type,  the 
reluctance  to  turn  into  the  wind  still  exists,  but  in  a  much  less 
marked  degree;  while  the  tendency  towards  excessive  leeway, 
which  is  characteristic  of  all  destroyers  because  of  their  neces- 
sarily shallow  draft  and  the  large  area  which  they  expose  to  the 
wind,  is  somewhat  increased. 

The  earliest  of  the  flush-deck  type  (Caldwcll,  Craven,  Conner, 
Gzvin,  Stockton  and  Manley)  lack  the  fine  underwater  body  lines 
of  the  later  vessels  of  their  class,  being  decidedly  flat-bottomed 
forward,  as  a  result  of  which  feature  they  pound  heavily  when 
being  driven  into  a  sea  and  list  deeply  when  the  rudder  is  put 
over  at  high  speed. 

In  the  latest  destroyers  of  the  1916  program  (as  enlarged  by 
subsequent  legislation),  the  manoeuvring  power  is  increased  by 
cutting  away  the  after  deadwood  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
slightly  increasing  the  rudder  area.  Other  changes  have  ma- 
terially added  to  the  steadiness  in  a  seaway,  thus  giving  an  im- 
proved gun-platform,  and,  by  increasing  the  capacity  for  fuel  oil, 
have  extended  the  cruising  radius. 

Motive  Power.  Turbine  engines  are  economical  only  at  high 
speed  and  only  at  approximately  the  speed  at  which  they  are  de- 
signed to  run.  This  introduces  two  problems  into  the  design  of 
turbine  motive  power  for  destroyers: — first,  to  harmonize  the 
high  speed  which  is  necessary  for  the  turbine  rotor,  with  the 


(584) 


Plate  No.    162. 


STERN  OF  DESTROYER. 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  585 

lower  shaft  speed  required  for  propeller  efficiency ;  and  second  to 
provide  for  reasonable  economy  both  at  the  high  speed  for  which 
destroyers  are  designed  and  the  comparatively  low  speed  at  which 
they  necessarily  cruise  under  ordinary  circumstances 

Various  solutions  have  been  devised  for  the  problems  outlined 
above  and  widely  differing  arrangements  are  to  be  found  in  the 
destroyers  now  in  service.  In  recent  destroyers  of  35-knots  de- 
signed maximum  speed,  a  turbine  speed  of  2,500  R.  P.  M.  is  con- 
verted by  reduction  gears  to  450  turns  of  the  propeller  shaft. 

The  problem  of  cruising  efficiency  is  solved  in  some  cases  by 
the  use  of  reduction  gears  and  in  others  by  the  installation  of 
special  cruising  turbines  or  reciprocating  engines. 

When  a  proper  balance  has  been  struck  between  maximum 
speed  efficiency  and  cruising  speed  efficiency,  it  is  found  that 
the  most  economical  speed  at  which  a  destroyer  can  cover  a  given 
distance  is  somewhere  between  15  and  20  knots.  Between 
these  speeds,  the  fuel  expended  per  mile  varies  but  little,  whereas 
at  higher  speeds  it  increases  rapidly  with  the  horse-power  devel- 
oped. Approximately  twice  as  much  fuel  is  required  per  hour 
at  25  knots  as  at  20  knots;  and  from  25  to  35  knots  the  con- 
sumption increases  at  an  astonishing  rate. 

All  destroyers  of  the  United  States  Navy  have  four  boilers, 
but  it  is  only  when  making  very  high  speed  that  more  than  two 
are  required.  A  speed  of  26  to  28  knots  can  be  maintained  with 
half  boiler  power,  and  some  destroyers  have  reached  thirty 
knots  under  two  boilers.  Speeds  as  high  as  20  knots  can  be 
made  with  one  boiler,  but  this  is,  of  course,  uneconomical  as  the 
boiler  must  be  forced.  Destroyers  have  made  long  cruises 
economically  with  only  one  boiler  in  use,  at  about  fifteen  knots. 
It  is  unwise  to  undertake  harbor  manoeuvring  under  one  boiler 
except  under  most  favorable  weather  conditions,  as  the  necessity 
to  do  considerable  backing  will  probably  draw  all  steam  from 
the  boiler,  thus  stopping  the  blowers  and  disabling  the  vessel. 

Manoeuvring.  It  is  clear  that  no  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be 
laid  down  for  the  handling  of  destroyers  any  more  than  of  battle- 
ships. It  rarely  happens  that  conditions  are  identical  on  any 
two  occasions,  even  for  the  same  vessel  performing  the  same 
manoeuvre  in  the  same  place.  A  destroyer  will  make  more 
leeway  when  her  oil-tanks  are  light  than  when  she  is  fully  fuelled. 
The  head  will  fall  off  rapidly  in  making  a  dock  at  low  speed  if 
the  forward  tanks  are  empty  and  the  after  tanks  full;  while  if  the 


586  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

reverse  conditions  exist,  she  may  decide  to  lie  broadside  to  the 
wind  and  drift  bodily  to  leeward. 

When  engines  are  stopped  and  an  ahead  or  astern  signal  is 
given,  it  is  engineering  practice  to  open  throttles  fairly  wide  in 
executing  the  signal,  then  to  close  them  quickly  to  the  pressure 
necessary  for  the  speed  demanded.  Turbines  of  the  thousand 
ton  ships  are  direct  connected,  while  those  of  the  later  type 
drive  the  shafts  through  reduction  gears,  and  it  is  especially 
noticeable  while  warping  to  lines  alongside  docks  that  the  newer 
type  ships  do  not  receive  the  quick  "jolt"  ahead  or  astern  that 
is  apparent  with  the  older  vessels  immediately  after  ringing  up 
an  engine  room  signal.  The  propellers  of  the  modern  destroyer 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  older  ships  and  they  seem  slower  to 
"bite,"  but  as  soon  as  they  take  hold  they  are  more  effective  so 
far  as  leverage  is  concerned. 

In  manoeuvring  the  modern  destroyer  alertness  and  sound 
judgment  are  required.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  great 
power  is  available,  that  headway  or  sternway  is  very  quickly 
gathered,  that  the  hull  of  the  destroyer  is  frail,  and  that  in  con- 
fined waters  the  effect  of  wind  may  be  a  very  serious  factor 
owing  to  the  leeway  and  the  poor  manoeuvring  qualities  of  the 
vessel.  The  tactical  diameter  of  the  destroyer  with  engines 
going  ahead  and  rudder  hard  over  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
battleship. 

The  effect  of  screws  of  different  types  upon  the  manoeuvring 
of  steamers  is  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII.  These  effects 
are  more  or  less  modified  in  destroyers  by  the  great  length  of 
the  vessel  as  compared  with  the  leverage  of  the  screws,  the  result 
being  that  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  the  manoeuvring 
power  due  to  the  screws  is  less  than  with  vessels  of  greater  beam 
as  compared  with  length.  When  one  engine  is  turning  ahead 
and  the  other  astern,  the  ship  being  dead  in  the  water,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  destroyer  will  swing  very  slowly,  her  bow  moving 
to  the  side  of  the  backing  engine.  If  the  conditions  of  wind 
are  such  as  to  assist  the  bow  to  swing  no  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced in  turning,  but  if  the  movement  of  the  bow  is  opposed  by 
any  appreciable  wind,  the  vessel  will  remain  stationary  and 
merely  "tremble,"  or  may  fall  off,  meanwhile  drifting  bodily  to 
leeward. 

To  turn  in  a  limited  space  it  is  well  to  use  the  engines  in  brief 
spurts  of  high  speed,  assisting  with  the  rudder  as  far  as  practicable 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  587 

and  being  careful  not  to  allow  the  ship  to  gather  much  headway. 
The  quickest  method  for  turning  a  destroyer  in  a  limited  space 
is  shown  in  Fig.  I,  Plate  163,  a  standard  manoeuvring  speed  of 
fifteen  or  eighteen  knots  being  assumed.  The  destroyer  lying 
in  position  I  and  wishing  to  turn  to  starboard,  starts  both 
engines  ahead  at  two-thirds  speed,  rudder  full  right.  At  position 
2,  or  as  soon  as  the  stern  has  started  to  swing  to  port,  the  star- 
board engine  is  reversed  two-thirds.  The  bow  will  swing 
sharply  to  the  right,  headway  will  be  quickly  checked,  and  the 
ship  will  forge  ahead  very  slowly.  Relative  power  of  ahead  and 
astern  engines  will  vary  in  different  destroyers  depending  mostly 
upon  the  pressures  in  use  by  the  personnel  below,  but  it  will 
usually  be  found  that  in  position  3  the  vessel  has  lost  all  head- 
way and  will  continue  to  swing  rapidly.  At  this  point  the  rudder 
will  not  be  effective  and  may  be  placed  amidships.  If  the  wind 
is  on  the  starboard  hand,  care  should  be  taken  here  not  to  gather 
sternway,  for  as  soon  as  the  vessel  starts  astern,  the  effect  of 
the  wind  will  be  to  check  the  movement  of  the  bow  and  to  force 
it  off.  If  the  wind  is  on  the  port  side,  sternway  will  be  helpful 
but  if  it  is  to  be  utilized  the  rudder  should  be  put  hard  left  as 
soon  as  it  begins.  In  this  case  it  will  be  well  at  3  to  put  both 
engines  ahead,  with  rudder  hard  right  and  then  to  back  the 
starboard  engine  again  as  soon  as  the  stern  begins  to  swing. 

Harbor  conditions  may  make  it  necessary  at  position  3  to  go 
astern,  in  which  case  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  rudder 
must  be  shifted  to  left  as  soon  as  sternway  is  noted. 

In  the  above  example  a  speed  of  two  thirds  ahead  and  astern 
is  advocated.  Weather  conditions  frequently  necessitate  the 
use  of  higher  speeds  to  expedite  the  turn  and  this  is  always  avail- 
able, but  most  destroyer  officers  prefer  to  employ  full  power 
astern  sparingly  because  of  the  great  volume  of  steam  that  this 
so  suddenly  draws  from  the  boilers. 

In  narrow  waters,  under  adverse  conditions  of  wind  and  tide, 
two  or  more  destroyers  may  be  secured  together  and  advantage- 
ously manoeuvred  as  one  vessel.  Opportunity  offers  employ- 
ment of  this  method  when  destroyers,  moored  to  the  same  buoy 
or  dock,  are  scheduled  to  sail  simultaneously  or  to  shift  berth 
or  enter  a  slip,  tide  or  wind  being  unfavorable  to  single  man- 
oeuvring. Very  delicate  control  can  be  maintained  in  this 
manner,  as  the  leverage  of  the  screws  is  considerably  multiplied, 
only  outboard  engines  being  worked,  while  the  wind  surface 


588 


Plate  No.    163. 


t 

Wind 


FIG.1. 
TURNING  IN  A  LIMITED  SPACE 


Screw      MM/  Screw 
Ahead    \  X  Y    Backing 

FIG.  2. 

THREE  DESTROYERS 
MANOEUVERING  TOGETHER 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


\ 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6, 


FIG.  7. 


MANOEUVRING    DESTROYERS. 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  589 

is  not  materially  increased  over  that  of  the  single  vessel.  Pre- 
cautions to  be  observed  are  to  see  all  lines  doubled  and  taut  and 
to  use  little  power.  As  many  as  four  destroyers  have  been 
manoeuvred  in  this  manner,  one  officer,  of  course,  doing  the 
conning.  Fig.  2,  Plate  163. 

To  pick  up  a  buoy,  approach  on  the  weather  side  at  slow  speed 
and,  if  a  boat  is  not  in  the  water,  lower  a  man  to  the  buoy  by 
means  of  a  bowline  from  the  forecastle.  It  is  advisable  to  lower 
a  boat  to  expedite  the  work  of  securing  and  to  avoid  possible 
injury  to  personnel.  Little  difficulty  is  usually  found,  by  skill- 
ful use  of  engines  and  by  taking  advantage  of  wind,  in  keeping 
the  ship  in  position  long  enough  to  enable  the  man  on  the  buoy 
to  make  fast  a  line,  after  which  the  end  of  an  anchor  chain  is 
led  through  the  ring  of  the  buoy  and  made  fast  on  deck. 

The  facility  with  which  destroyers  can  be  handled  when  going 
astern,  especially  when  backing  into  wind  or  current,  may  in 
some  cases  render  it  advisable  to  make  landings  or  enter  slips 
stern  first.  With  gentle  sternboard,  motion  of  one  screw  astern 
will  ordinarily  push  the  stern  away  from  the  side  of  that  screw 
and  delicate  control  is  often  possible  under  these  circumstances. 
A  special  case  in  which  this  method  of  handling  is  recommended 
is  when  running  into  port  with  following  wind  or  current,  when 
it  is  intended  to  pick  up  a  mooring  buoy.  Rounding  to  under 
these  circumstances  will  be  a  long  and  troublesome  operation, 
especially  if  the  channel  be  narrow;  and  under  these  conditions 
the  bow  may  be  run  up  to  the  buoy  and  held  there  indefinitely 
with  stern  to  wind  and  tide  by  skillful  backing  of  first  one  engine 
and  then  the  other. 

One  destroyer  commander  is  said  to  have  been  very  successful 
in  manoeuvring  through  crowded  harbors  by  backing  both 
engines  and.  by  use  of  rudder,  at  the  same  time  trailing  an  anchor 
as  a  drag  on  the  bow. 

Going  Alongside  a  Dock.  The  destroyer  officer  gets  constant 
practice  in  making  docks  under  various  conditions  of  wind  and 
tide.  The  discussion  in  a  previous  chapter  of  "  Handling  a 
Steamer  Alongside  a  Dock  "  applies  to  destroyers  as  well  as  to 
other  vessels,  but  with  some  points  of  difference.  The  lightness 
of  the  ship,  the  large  surface  which  she  exposes  to  the  wind,  and 
the  comparatively  small  draft,  give  exceptional  importance  to 
the  effect  of  wind,  especially  if  this  be  on  the  beam. 

As  discussed  in  a  later  chapter  on  "  Keeping  Position  and 


59O  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

Manoeuvring  in  Squadron,"  it  is  important  to  understand  and 
keep  constantly  in  mind  the  effect  upon  manoeuvring  which 
results  from  the  limited  backing  power  of  turbine  ships  in  general ; 
the  power  available  for  backing  being  but  little  more  than  half 
of  that  for  going  ahead.  This  condition  holds  for  destroyers 
except  that  the  power  available  for  backing  is  ample  and  satis- 
factory when  compared  with  the  power  that  will  ordinarily  be 
used  ahead  in  approaching  a  dock.  However,  if  considerable 
headway  is  gathered  the  backing  engines  are  slow  to  take  charge; 
and  if  excess  speed  ahead  is  used  in  making  a  dock  or  in  entering  a 
slip,  an  error  in  judgment  as  to  backing  may  have  very  disastrous 
consequences. 

Destroyers  are  light  craft  with  very  powerful  engines  and  there 
is  an  easily  understandable  fascination  in  handling  them  which 
frequently  leads  to  the  taking  of  unnecessary  chances.  A  good 
destroyer  officer  is  one  who  uses  the  powers  at  his  command 
daringly  when  necessary,  but  who  does  not  invite  disaster  by 
rashness.  It  happens  from  time  to  time  that  an  engine  will  not 
follow  the  signal,  through  fault  of  either  personnel  or  material; 
and  if  this  happens  when  the  commanding  officer  is  charging  into 
a  landing  at  high  speed,  trusting  to  his  backing  power  to  stop 
in  time,  the  result  may  be  a  smashed  bow  or  some  worse  accident, 
resulting  not  from  an  effort  to  perform  some  important  service, 
but  merely  from  bravado. 

The  light  scantling  and  high  power  of  the  destroyer  make 
it  especially  important  to  exercise  care  in  warping  or  springing 
around  docks.  If  the  fact  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  horse- 
power of  the  latest  type  destroyer  is  equal  to  that  of  a  32,000- 
ton  battleship,  and  that  the  hull  is  at  the  limit  of  lightness,  it 
will  at  once  be  realized  that  the  engines  can  only  be  worked 
against  chocks,  cleats,  etc.,  with  extreme  care.  This  caution 
applies  not  only  to  the  fittings  of  the  vessel  itself,  but  to  the  lines 
by  which  she  is  to  be  handled.  The  largest  mooring  line  with 
which  destroyers  are  at  present  equipped  is  a  5-inch  manila,  and 
this  is  none  too  strong.  The  foregoing  should  not  be  taken  to 
mean  that  power  cannot  be  employed  while  springing  the  vessel 
on  a  line,  as  it  is  often  necessary  to  work  the  engines  in  opposite 
directions  at  considerable  speed.  What  is  meant  is  that  great 
strain  cannot  be  brought  on  the  line  by  imparting  motion  to  the 
vessel. 

The  speed  to  be  used  in  approaching  a  dock  should  be  in 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  59 1 

keeping  with  the  space  available  ahead  or  astern  of  the  landing 
to  be  made  and  with  weather  and  harbor  conditions.  It  often 
happens  that  the  landing  must  be  made  where  other  vessels  are 
so  moored  as  to  present  but  little  of  the  dock  in  excess  of  that 
absolutely  required  for  the  destroyer,  in  which  case  caution  is 
obviously  essential. 

The  dock  should  be  approached  at  a  slight  angle  (Fig.  3, 
Plate  163),  and  the  engines  stopped  with  sufficient  headway  to 
slightly  overreach  the  landing.  The  conning  officer  will  do  well 
to  take  his  position  just  abaft  the  wheel  until  about  time  for  the 
first  line  to  be  cast,  for  it  is  from  here  that  he  can  best  line  up 
his  jackstaff  and  form  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  approach. 
When  assured  that  the  momentum  of  the  ship  will  carry  his  bow 
within  heaving  line  distance  of  the  dock,  he  should  shift  to  the 
inboard  bridge  rail  and  back  his  outboard  engine  (or  both 
engines,  depending  on  conditions  of  wind  and  tide)  to  check  his 
headway,  straighten  out  the  vessel,  and  throw  in  the  stern.  The 
degree  of  rudder  necessary  to  assist  in  this  will  vary  with  the 
angle  of  approach  and  with  the  proximity  of  the  bow  to  the 
dock.  All  mooring  lines  are  now  passed  to  the  dock  and  engines 
are  worked  to  bring  the  ship  to  securing  position,  care  being 
taken  that  springs  and  breasts  are  properly  led  and  that  neither 
bow  nor  stern  is  brought  in  too  sharply,  as  any  localized  pressure 
may  result  in  damage  to  the  frail  shell  plating.  At  times  the 
stern  will  tend  to  come  in  too  rapidly,  in  which  case,  propeller 
guards  being  of  light  material,  the  swinging  of  the  stern  should 
be  checked  by  backing  the  inboard  engine  and  working  the  out- 
board engine  ahead. 

On  reaching  a  position  where  lines  may  be  delivered  to  the 
dock,  the  conning  officer  should  observe  two  objects  on  shore 
in  order  to  gauge  his  headway  properly.  By  so  doing  he  will 
always  have  the  situation  in  hand  and  can  prevent  the  ship  from 
charging  ahead  or  astern  on  her  lines  while  engines  are  being 
manoeuvred  alongside  the  dock  (or  other  vessel). 

Many  helmsmen,  if  not  closely  directed,  will  so  point  the  ship 
as  to  approach  the  dock  parallel  and  very  close  aboard.  This 
sort  of  landing  should  be  avoided,  for  if  wind  and  tide  are  such 
as  to  cause  the  ship  to  be  drifted  slightly  in  towards  the  landing, 
it  will  be  discovered  too  late  that  the  ship  is  going  to  "Side- 
swipe" the  dock.  Damage  to  the  side  plating  may  result, 
since  headway  can  be  killed  only  by  backing  both  engines,  the 


592  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

position  of  the  vessel  relative  to  the  dock  making  it  impossible 
to  throw  the  stern  either  in  or  out. 

When  the  wind  is  blowing  onto  the  dock  it  is  best  to  approach 
parallel  but  well  clear — just  within  heaving  line  distance.  As 
the  destroyer  loses  headway  she  will  drift  easily  and  bodily  in 
to  the  dock.  The  backing  of  the  outboard  engine  will  offset 
the  tendency  of  the  bow  to  drift  more  rapidly  than  the  stern, 
and  the  engines  may  easily  be  manoeuvred  to  keep  the  ship 
squared  off  with  the  dock  face.  This  landing  affords  good  prac- 
tice for  the  beginner,  for  he  may  approach  well  clear  and  at  his 
own  speed  and  cannot  miss  eventually  making  the  dock. 

When  the  wind  is  blowing  off  the  dock  it  is  often  necessary  to 
use  greater  speed  and  to  approach  boldly,  owing  to  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  destroyer  drifts  to  leeward  as  she  loses  her  head- 
way. In  this  it  is  safe  and  best  to  begin  the  approach  as  if  to 
make  a  parallel  and  close  aboard  landing.  As  the  dock  is  neared 
the  effect  of  the  drift  will  be  felt  and  the  rudder  must  be  used  to 
point  the  bow  very  close  in,  and  this  will  result  in  a  cant  towards 
the  dock.  As  soon  as  it  is  assured  that  a  position  will  be  reached 
from  which  the  bow  lines  can  be  cast,  the  rudder  should  be 
thrown  away  from  the  dock  and  the  outboard  screw  backed  in 
order  that  stern  lines  may  be  got  out.  It  is  now  important  to 
remember  that  the  destroyer  pivots  just  abaft  the  bridge,  that 
there  is  a  capstan  forward  but  no  winch  aft,  and  that  the  heavy 
stern  can  be  brought  to  a  securing  position  only  by  use  of  engines 
and  springs.  The  wind  being  off  the  dock,  bow  lines  should  be 
run  as  quickly  as  "possible  but  should  immediately  be  slacked  to 
avoid  a  strain  forward  and  to  permit  the  bow  to  fall  off  as  may 
be  necessary  in  order  that  the  stern  may  be  brought  in  smartly 
by  engines  and  rudder.  Bow  lines  once  being  passed,  the  bow 
can  always  be  warped  in  by  means  of  the  capstan  after  the  stern 
is  in  the  position  desired. 

To  breast  the  ship  in,  the  waist  line  can  be  depended  upon 
and  it  is  important  that  this  line  be  got  out  quickly.  The  waist 
line  should  be  the  stoutest  of  the  mooring  lines  and  should  be 
not  less  than  forty  fathoms  in  length.  It  is  led  from  a  chock 
slightly  abaft  the  pivoting  point.  The  ship  can  be  sprung  in  on 
this  line  by  forging  ahead  or  astern,  using  engines  and  rudder 
to  best  advantage,  but  the  strain  must  be  watched  carefully, 
as  the  line  is  usually  of  five-inch  manila  and  is  easily  parted.  A 
stern  spring  may  be  used  to  assist  the  waist  line,  as  shown  in 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  593 

Fig.  4,  Plate  163,  when  forging  ahead.  When  forging  astern  a 
forward  spring  may  be  added  to  these  (Fig.  5).  All  slack  of 
waist  and  stern  lines  should  be  taken  up  with  each  effort.  Some 
destroyers  are  equipped  with  flexible  wire  mooring  lines,  mostly 
5/8"  diameter,  and  such  lines  are  allowed  all  vessels;  but  there 
is  a  difference  among  officers  regarding  the  desirability  of  sub- 
stituting wire  for  manila  for  mooring  purposes.  Wire  is  less 
bulky  and  consequently  more  readily  stowed;  it  does  not  require 
being  dried  out  on  deck  after  having  been  wet;  and  it  is  of 
undoubted  value  when  the  vessel  is  to  be  secured  alongside  for 
considerable  time  or  when  strong  currents  are  running  or  heavy 
winds  blowing.  The  disadvantages  of  wire  are  that  it  has  not 
the  spring  of  manila  when  subject  to  sudden  strain  and  that  men 
are  loath  to  handle  it,  owing  to  the  fact  that  when  worn  or  slightly 
stranded  it  tears  the  hands. 

If  the  wind  off  the  dock  is  very  strong,  some  officers  make  the 
landing  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  As  the  dock  is  neared  the  inboard 
screw  is  not  stopped  but  is  kept  turning  one  third  ahead.  At 
position  I  the  rudder  is  thrown  right  and  the  outboard  engine 
backed  full  speed,  thus  bringing  the  stern  in  against  the  wind 
with  considerable  leverage.  The  ship  will  bring  up  as  in  posi- 
tion 2,  from  which  it  may  be  warped  in.  This  method  is  espe- 
cially useful  when  the  tide  tends  to  keep  the  stern  out,  as  when 
the  dock  is  entirely  or  partially  athwart  the  stream. 

Various  conditions  of  tide  are  encountered,  and  an  officer 
having  to  work  habitually  around  a  certain  locality  will  in  time 
become  accustomed  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  currents;  but 
much  time  and  trouble  may  be  saved  by  making  a  study  of 
those  peculiarities  from  the  first,  through  systematic  observations 
of  the  strength  and  direction  of  the  current  from  hour  to  hour 
through  several  days,  keeping  a  careful  record  and  referring  all 
hours  to  the  time  of  high  and  low  water  as  given  in  the  tide 
tables  (see  remarks  on  this  subject  in  chapter  on  Piloting). 
It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  currents  are  often  baffling  around 
the  face  of  a  dock  and  that  the  surface  current  may  be  running 
quite  differently  from  the  main  current  of  the  stream. 

When  the  tide  is  running  strong  and  parallel  or  nearly  parallel 
to  the  dock,  the  wind  may  be  considered  as  of  secondary  im- 
portance, for  the  destroyer  is  long  and  narrow,  and  when  placed 
at  an  angle  from  the  axis  of  the  current  will  rapidly  be  carried 
towards  or  away  from  the  dock  depending  upon  that  angle.  If 


594 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 


in  this  case  the  landing  is  to  be  made  ahead  of  other  vessels,  care 
must  be  taken  to  approach  well  clear  in  order  not  to  be  carried 
down  across  the  bows  of  those  vessels  (Fig.  7).  "A"  approaches 
boldly  at  a  slight  angle  to  the  axis  of  the  current  and  well  clear 
of  "B."  When  his  stern  clears  "B's"  bow,  "A"  backs  his  out- 
board screw  slowly,  with  right  rudder,  and  is  straightened  out 
and  brought  to  the  dock  by  the  combined  effect  of  tide,  rudder, 
and  engines. 

If  the  tide  is  forcing  the  vessel  on  to  the  dock,  as  will  often 
happen  where  docks  are  athwart  the  stream,  it  is  important  that 
engines  be  manoeuvred  to  keep  squared  up  with  the  dock  as  the 
vessel  drifts  in  with  the  current,  and  to  see  that  sufficient  fenders 
are  ready  in  place,  otherwise  serious  local  damage  may  be  caused 
to  the  shell  plating. 

If  the  tide  is  running  away  from  the  dock,  speed  must  be  used, 
lines  must  be  got  out  smartly,  and  backing  power  and  good 
judgment  depended  upon.  Once  the  lines  are  out,  the  stern 
must  be  brought  in  by  springing  upon  the  waist  line  and  by 
skillful  use  of  engines  and  rudder. 

To  make  a  landing  with  a  fair  tide  is  very  difficult,  as  the 
slightest  cant  towards  the  dock  will  bring  the  current  under  the 
inboard  quarter.  This  force  will  probably  overcome  all  effort 
of  engines  and  lines  to  bring  the  stern  in,  especially  if  strain  be 
brought  on  a  forward  line,  which  is  an  error  commonly  made 
(every  destroyer  officer  learns  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
spring  in  on  a  bow  line).  The  ship  should  be  brought  as  nearly 
parallel  to  the  dock  as  possible,  preferably  with  a  slight  cant 
outward,  and  the  after  lines  got  out  smartly  and  held.  If  a  line 
can  be  secured  aft  it  will  act  as  a  spring,  and  the  current  will 
bring  the  ship  in  readily.  The  bow  will  take  care  of  itself.  It 
will  ordinarily  save  time,  with  this  condition  of  tide,  to  turn 
and  stem  the  current  or  to  drop  an  anchor  and  swing  before 
approaching  the  dock. 

It  has  been  said  that  backing  power  relative  to  ahead  power 
is  not  uniform  in  destroyers.  The  speed  at  which  a  dock 
should  be  approached  is  further  modified  by  the  meaning  of 
"stop"  as  construed  by  the  engineer  officer.  With  reciprocating 
engines  the  propeller  stops  with  the  machinery;  but  when  turbine 
throttle  valves  are  closed,  the  ship  having  headway,  propellers 
will  continue  to  revolve,  turning  the  rotors  in  vacuum.  Many 
destroyer  officers  give  instructions  that  when  "stop"  is  rung  up 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  595 

sufficient  steam  shall  be  admitted  to  the  backing  turbines  to 
actually  stop  and  hold  the  shafts.  The  choice  of  method  is  not 
mandatory  but  the  officer  conning  should  have  an  understanding 
with  the  engineer  officer  as  to  the  system  to  be  used,  because, 
when  the  shafts  are  held,  the  dragging  of  the  propellors  consider- 
ably checks  the  headway  of  the  ship.  It  is  more  economical 
from  an  engineering  standpoint  to  close  the  valves  and  permit 
the  shafts  to  turn  idly  but  in  this  case  a  slightly  increased  interval 
is  required  to  execute  a  backing  signal;  whereas  if  the  shaft  be 
held,  the  astern  throttle  is  already  partially  opened  before  the 
backing  signal  is  received.  From  the  point  of  view  of  seaman- 
ship the  method  to  be  chosen  depends  much  upon  what  one  has 
been  accustomed  to.  In  making  a  dock  there  is  of  course  a 
feeling  of  confidence,  when  the  shafts  are  held  by  steam  through 
the  astern  throttles,  that  the  backing  signal  will  be  quickly  and 
certainly  executed. 

Going  Alongside  a  Vessel  at  Anchor.  This  is  very  similar  to 
going  alongside  a  dock  except  that  conditions  of  wind  and  tide 
to  be  met  are  usually  more  favorable.  The  destroyer  must 
keep  clear  of  an  overhanging  stern  or  of  any  projections  from  the 
side  of  the  vessel  approached  and  if  possible  select  a  part  of  the 
ship's  side  where  there  are  no  projections;  for  a  whaleboat,  an 
ash  chute,  or  a  triced  up  gangway  may  inflict  serious  damage  to 
the  destroyer's  upper  works.  The  greatest  danger  to  be  avoided 
is  that  due  to  the  possible  yawing  of  the  vessel  at  anchor  and 
this  is  especially  to  be  guarded  against  if  the  vessel  being  ap- 
proached is  a  destroyer,  for  these  craft  yaw  very  freely  when 
anchored  and  riding  to  wind  or  tide.  Just  as  the  lines  are  about 
to  be  passed,  after  an  approach  that  has  looked  perfect,  the 
stern  of  the  anchored  vessel  may  swing  so  unexpectedly  as  to 
make  it  impossible  to  avoid  a  sideswiping  blow.  A  destroyer 
riding  to  a  long  scope  of  chain  yaws  excessively  from  the  effect 
of  the  wind  on  her  high  forecastle  and  her  bow  may  fall  off  as 
shown  in  Fig.  i,  Plate  164,  when  she  reaches  the  end  of  her  arc. 
If  this  happens,  the  vessel  going  alongside  may  find  her  stem 
unexpectedly  brought  up  against  the  side  of  the  other  destroyer, 
or  her  projecting  anchor  may  "sweep  the  rail"  of  the  vessel 
anchored. 

NOTE.  See  description  in  Chapter  XI,  §  III,  and  Plate  97,  of  proposed 
method  to  prevent  yawing. 


596 


Plate  No.    164. 


FIG.  1, 


Wind 


FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4, 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 


GOING  ALONGSIDE  AND  LEAVING  A  VESSEL  AT  ANCHOR. 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  597 

There  is  really  no  difficulty  in  going  alongside  a  vessel  at 
anchor  and  the  fact  that  she  is  at  anchor  makes  it  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  there  will  be  ample  manoeuvring  room,  except 
when  she  rides  with  her  stern  close  to  the  beach;  hence  caution, 
not  high  speed,  is  all  that  is  required.  The  approach  should  be 
made  fairly  well  clear  with  a  slight  cant  inward,  and  the  stern 
should  be  brought  in  and  the  bow  carried  out  by  backing  the 
outboard  screw  and  by  use  of  rudder  as  forward  lines  are  passed. 
Here  a  spring  leading  forward  from  the  after  forecastle  chock  of 
the  destroyer  can  be  held  and  the  ship  breasted  in  easily  by  the 
current,  a  breast  or  bow  line  through  the  bull-nose  being  hove 
in  as  necessary  by  means  of  the  capstan.  Unlike  the  situation 
in  going  alongside  a  dock,  the  forward  lines  are  the  more  important, 
for  the  stern  will  be  taken  care  of  by  the  wind  or  current  to  which 
the  anchored  vessel  is  riding  and  engines  and  rudder  can  easily 
be  used  to  assist  in  paralleling  the  two  vessels  as  they  draw 
together. 

If  the  wind  or  tide  is  very  strong  the  destroyer  may  be  brought 
up  well  clear  and,  if  not  within  heaving  line  distance  given  a 
slight  cant  across  wind  or  tide.  By  slight  assistance  from  the 
engines  and  rudder  she  will  then  gradually  drift  over  until 
forward  lines  are  passed  and  may  be  brought  alongside  parallel 
and  without  shock.  If  she  tends  to  cant  too  much,  bow  lines 
must  be  slacked  before  control  is  lost,  and  inboard  screw  worked 
ahead  and  outboard  screw  astern,  with  rudder  thrown  away  from 
the  anchored  vessel  in  order  to  prevent  the  bow  from  coming 
in  too  rapidly. 

Should  the  vessel  ride  at  anchor  so  that  her  stern  tails  close 
to  the  beach,  it  is  sometimes  feasible  to  make  the  landing  stern 
first,  but  if  the  wind  is  blowing  very  strong  this  should  not  be 
attempted.  It  is  here  that  an  anchor  may  be  used  to  advantage 
(Plate  i64,  Fig.  2).  "A"  approaches  with  the  wind  as  shown 
and  drops  an  anchor  off  the  bow  of  "B"  at  position  (i). 

The  anchor  is  held  under  foot — and  chain  veered  if  dragging 
is  noted — until  the  destroyer  swings  to  the  wind.  Forward 
lines  are  now  passed,  dropping  down  by  veering  chain  if  neces- 
sary, and  when  these  lines  are  secured  on  B's  deck  A  may  heave 
up  her  anchor  and  warp  alongside  by  means  of  a  forward  line, 
assisted  by  engines  and  rudder. 

While  alongside  a  dock  lines  are  doubled  up  and  secured, 
care  being  taken  that  all  lines  are  sufficiently  slack  to  allow  for 


598  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

rise  and  fall  of  tide.  This  precaution  is  necessary  with  all 
classes  of  ships,  and  there  is  a  record  of  at  least  one  steamer 
having  been  sunk  by  failure  to  observe  it.  An  army  transport 
at  Shanghai,  where  rise  and  fall  of  tide  is  about  18  feet,  was 
listed  over  by  her  lines,  permitting  water  to  enter  her  portholes 
and  sink  her. 

It  might  be  stated  here  that  destroyers  have  sustained  and 
inflicted  serious  damage  alongside  docks  from  the  following 
causes. 

1.  Improper   method   of   warming   up   engines,    resulting   in 
jammed  open  throttle,  parted  lines,  and  damage  to  dock  and 
ship.     Precautions  against  this  are  covered  in  the  Engineering 
Manual. 

2.  Engine  room  signal   improperly  executed  on  leaving  the 
dock.     If  one  third  astern  is  rung  up  and  one  third  ahead  de- 
livered by  untrained  personnel,  it  is  best  to  stop  immediately 
and  take  light  punishment;    for  if  the  telegraphs  are  rung  "full 
astern"  when  this  mistake  occurs  the  probability  is  that  "full 
ahead"  will  b.e  received. 

3.  "Jingling  of  telegraphs   followed   by   'stop'  "   as   a  signal 
for  the  engine  room  to  secure  after  the  vessel  is  moored.     This  is 
bad  practice;   for  in  cases  where  the  telegraph  has  carried  away 
in  this  operation,  the  pointer  has  rested  on  full  ahead.     Little 
time  is  required  to  deliver  the  message  "Secure"  by  voice  tube 
or  messenger. 

Getting  Clear  of  a  Dock  or  Vessel.  Lines  are  singled  after 
engines  have  been  reported  ready.  Advantage  should  be  taken 
of  wind  or  tide  to  start  either  bow  or  stern  out,  and  these  should 
be  assisted  by  stern  or  bow  springs.  If  there  is  no  wind  or  tide 
and  it  is  desired  to  back  away,  hold  a  bow  spring  and  go  ahead 
gently  on  the  outboard  screw  until  stern  has  begun  to  swing 
out,  then  cast  off  and  back  clear.  If  desired  to  go  ahead,  back 
slowly  on  the  outboard  engine,  holding  a  stern  spring  and  being 
careful  not  to  endanger  the  inboard  screw. 

If  the  wind  is  holding  the  vessel  on  the  dock  the  first  pre- 
caution to  be  observed  is  to  place  the  anchor  on  deck,  as  de- 
stroyers carry  old  fashioned  anchors  with  fluke  projecting  from 
the  billboard.  It  is  then  best  to  go  ahead  slowly  on  the  out- 
board engine  sufficiently  to  keep  a  strain  on  a  bow  spring,  if 
necessary  assisting  the  stern  out  by  backing  the  inboard  screw. 
As  soon  as  the  stern  is  pointed  clear,  put  both  engines  astern 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  599 

with  plenty  of  power,  harbor  conditions  permitting,  in  order  to 
gather  headway  quickly.  Place  the  rudder  over  towards  the 
dock  or  away  from  the  wind  and  stop  the  inboard  engine.  The 
backing  engine  on  the  windward  side,  combined  with  the  effect 
of  the  rudder  as  headway  is  gathered,  will  overcome  the  tendency 
of  the  stern  to  point  into  the  wind  and  thus  prevent  the  bow  from 
falling  off  against  the  dock.  It  will  sometimes  be  necessary  as 
the  ship  starts  astern  to  go  ahead  on  the  inboard  screw  to  assist 
in  keeping  the  bow  clear. 

The  means  employed  in  getting  clear  of  a  dock  must  conform 
to  harbor  conditions  and  weather  but  in  difficult  situations 
the  possible  use  of  lines  should  not  be  overlooked.  The  use  of 
lines  and  anchors  will  not  be  despised  by  anyone  who  has  watched 
harbor  masters  manoeuvre  strange  vessels  in  crowded  waters  and 
warp  them  into  difficult  slips. 

The  destroyer  "A,"  moored  as  in  Fig.  3,  Plate  164,  and  wishing 
to  clear  the  dock,  can  be  assisted  by  a  line  run  to  the  stern  of 
the  ship  D  or  to  the  mooring  buoy  C  and  taken  to  the  capstan. 
If  the  wind  is  blowing  as  shown,  A  has  only  to  run  a  line  to  the 
stern  of  D,  cast  off  from  the  dock,  and  ride  to  her  line  until  she 
reaches  the  position  A-i,  taking  in  on  the  line  sufficiently  to  keep 
her  stern  clear  of  the  dock.  Engines  may  then  be  manoeuvred 
to  force  the  ship's  stern  into  the  wind  as  at  A-2,  when  the  line 
is  cast  off  and  the  ship  backed  out  of  the  harbor.  Once  sternway 
is  gained  the  destroyer  will  answer  her  helm  across  the  wind  if 
sufficient  power  is  used. 

No  difficulty  should  be  experienced  in  clearing  from  alongside 
a  ship  at  anchor,  for  the  anchored  vessel  will  ride  to  wind  or 
tide  and  if  there  is  no  wind  or  tide  the  procedure  is  the  same  as 
when  leaving  a  dock  under  the  best  of  conditions.  With  wind 
or  tide,  forward  lines  should  be  cast  off  and  the  destroyer  held 
by  a  stern  spring.  The  bow  will  fall  off  gently  and  if  the  in- 
board propeller  guard  should  be  brought  against  the  ship's  side 
it  will  be  without  shock  or  damage.  If  a  strong  tide  is  running, 
the  outboard  screw  should  be  put  ahead  slowly  to  keep  the  stern 
clear  and  as  soon  as  the  bow  has  fallen  off  sufficiently,  both 
engines  should  be  put  ahead,  with  rudder  over  towards  the  an- 
chored ship.  This  will  keep  the  stern  clear,  and  the  large 
turning  circle  of  the  destroyer  will  eliminate  all  danger  forward. 
If  the  vessel  which  is  to  be  cleared  from  is  a  destroyer,  the  engines 
must  be  worked  ahead  slowly  as  the  bow  falls  off,  to  avoid  any 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

possible  damage  aft;  for  unless  the  two  vessels  have  equal  draft, 
the  propeller  guard  of  one  may  ride  over  that  of  the  other, 
locking  screws  that  are  very  easily  bent. 

Winding  a  destroyer  on  a  line  is  very  easily  accomplished  when 
wind  or  tide  is  favorable;  and  this  manoeuvre  is  often  of  great 
value  when  the  tide  is  wrong  and  it  is  desired  to  leave  a  narrow 
harbor.  In  such  harbors  several  destroyers  are  frequently 
moored  to  the  same  buoy,  as  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  164.  A  casts  off 
forward,  his  bow  falling  off  as  strain  is  brought  on  the  after 
spring.  He  then  works  his  inboard  engine  ahead  sufficiently  to 
keep  his  stern  clear  of  B  and  swings  with  the  tide  until  so  pointed 
as  to  be  able  to  cast  off  his  stern  line  and  proceed.  In  very 
narrow  waters  it  may  be  advisable  to  run  a  second  line  from  the 
off  quarter,  taking  strain  on  that  line  when  the  vessel  is  athwart 
the  stream;  and  in  any  case  it  is  well  to  have  this  second  line 
as  a  preventer.  When  winding  in  this  manner  with  a  strong 
tide,  the  line  must  be  cast  off  at  just  the  right  time  and  the  signal 
for  this  is  usually  a  short  toot  of  the  whistle.  This  evolution  is 
also  commonly  used  in  clearing  a  dock  under  the  conditions 
noted  above. 

The  necessity  for  winding  at  a  dock  is  often  felt  when  a  de- 
stroyer is  moored  in  a  narrow  harbor  or  at  a  river  dock,  pointed 
up  stream,  and  is  required  to  sail  at  an  hour  when  the  tide  will 
be  running  flood.  If  she  waits  until  the  hour  of  sailing  to  get 
pointed  downstream  she  may  be  delayed  by  some  unforseen 
circumstance,  or  may  find  that  a  strong  wind  may  hold  her  on 
the  dock  and  make  turning  very  difficult.  She  should,  at  some 
time  previous  to  sailing,  take  advantage  of  an  ebb  tide  and  a 
favorable  wind  to  wind  ship  and  get  pointed  down  stream. 
(Fig.  5,  Plate  164.)  A  destroyer  so  situated  holds  a  stern 
spring  and  permits  her  bow  to  swing  out  as  shown,  then  goes 
ahead  with  rudder  over  away  from  the  dock  until  she  reaches 
position  (2).  Here  a  spring  which  has  been  led  well  up  the 
dock  from  the  off  quarter  is  taken  in  and  held,  the  inboard  screw 
being  worked  ahead  when  necessary  to  keep  her  stern  clear  of 
the  dock.  The  current  will  now  bring  her  around  and  when 
position  (3)  is  reached  the  spring  may  be  slacked  and  the  engines 
manoeuvred  to  bring  her  stern  far  enough  up  and  clear  of  the 
dock  to  permit  the  bow  to  come  in  to  the  position  required  for 
mooring.  The  time  to  be  chosen  for  this  manoeuvre  should  if 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  6OI 

possible  be  when  a  light  wind  is  blowing  off  the  dock  and  when 
the  ebb  is  running  slowly. 

A  few  destroyers  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  had  winches 
installed  aft.  These  are  of  assistance  in  mooring  and  are  very 
effective  in  winding  at  docks.  In  the  example  above,  a  destroyer 
having  a  winch  aft  can  be  wound  in  a  narrow  channel  regardless 
of  harbor  conditions  ahead,  by  holding  a  stern  spring  and  taking 
a  spring  from  far  up  the  dock  through  a  chock  on  her  off  quarter 
and  to  the  winch.  As  her  bow  swings  out  with  the  current,  she 
heaves  in  on  the  off  spring  using  engines  to  keep  clear;  and, 
when  the  turn  is  partly  made,  to  bring  her  stern  to  the  proper 
position  up  the  dock. 

Winding  on  a  bow  line  is  also  possible,  the  inboard  screw 
being  backed  to  keep  the  stem  away  from  the  dock  as  the  stern 
is  carried  out  into  the  stream  (Fig.  6,  Plate  164).  A  line  from 
the  off  bow  is  led  around  the  stem  and  well  down  the  dock,  and 
strain  is  taken  on  this  as  the  vessel  comes  athwart  the  current. 
If  a  strong  tide  is  running  it  may  be  necessary,  as  the  turn  nears 
completion,  to  slack  the  bow  spring  so  that  engines  can  be 
manoeuvred  to  overcome  the  cant  across  the  tide,  keep  the  bow 
clear  of  the  dock,  and  straighten  out  the  ship.  It  may  even  be 
necessary  to  drop  an  anchor  to  assist  in  this  manoeuvre.  If  it  is 
intended  to  sail  on  completion  of  winding,  it  is  quicker  to  cant 
the  stern  out  by  means  of  a  forward  spring,  back  off,  and  drop 
and  swing  to  an  anchor,  veering  chain  and  going  ahead  towards 
the  dock  if  the  harbor  is  so  narrow  as  to  make  this  necessary. 

At  Sea.  The  destroyer  is  so  light  in  proportion  to  her  size 
that  she  acts  at  sea  much  as  would  a  floating  plank  if  driven 
through  the  water  at  some  speed.  Rolling  is  very  heavy  at 
times,  depending  upon  the  angle  at  which  she  takes  the  waves, 
but  when  the  sea  is  abaft  the  beam  the  vessel  seems  to  rise  and 
fall  without  excessive  motion,  without  shipping  water,  and  with 
surprisingly  little  jerk  at  the  end  of  the  roll.  In  a  long  storm 
sea,  by  bringing  the  sea  abaft  the  beam  and  regulating  the 
course  and  speed  as  is  found  desirable  (see  chapter  on  Handling 
Steamers  in  Heavy  Weather)  the  vessel  will  ride  very  easily  and 
if  properly  handled  should  weather  any  storm. 

As  previously  stated,  the  destroyer  at  high  speed  will  "squat," 
the  screws  drawing  down  her  stern  so  as  to  materially  increase 
the  draft  aft.  This  squatting  is  greatest  at  a  speed  of  about 
twenty-eight  knots;  and,  curiously  enough,  as  the  speed  is 


602  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

increased  beyond  this  she  tends  to  right  herself  until  at  top  speed 
she  carries  very  little  drag.  This  is  true  only  in  deep  water; 
for  in  shallow  water  the  drag  on  the  bottom  is  so  great  that  a 
speed  of  28  knots  cannot  be  made. 

Every  destroyer  has  two  "critical  speeds,"  usually  at  about 
ten  knots  and  again  between  twenty  and  twenty-two,  and  at 
these  speeds  a  certain  amount  of  vibration  will  be  felt.  At  all 
other  speeds,  if  engines  and  shafts  be  true  and  propellers  un- 
damaged, the  vibration  is  almost  imperceptible. 

With  the  sea  ahead  or  forward  of  the  beam,  both  rolling  and 
pitching  may  be  very  heavy;  and  when  steaming  into  a  head  sea 
much  water  is  often  taken  over  the  bow. 

Bucking  a  head  sea  is  the  most  trying  effort  a  destroyer  can  be 
called  upon  to  make,  and  troubles  may  be  met  even  at  compar- 
atively low  speeds.  These  troubles  are  not  necessarily  dangerous 
to  the  destroyers  of  to-day,  which  are  strong  capable  vessels 
vastly  different  from  the  type  of  twenty  or  even  of  ten  years  ago. 
The  late  war  has  shown  that  they  will  stand  a  great  amount  of 
punishment,1  but  they  should  not  be  subjected  to  such  punish- 
ment unnecessarily. 

If  forced,  they  will  often  ride  smoothly  over  several  waves, 
then  rise  forward  and  pound  heavily,  submerging  the  bow  and 
shipping  green  water  in  such  quantities  as  to  damage  the  upper- 
works. 

The  destroyer's  quick  period  makes  a  short  steep  sea  more 
trying  than  any  other  and  it  forced  into  heavy  weather  in  partially 
enclosed  waters  such  as  Long  Island  Sound  she  may  pound 
more  heavily  and  suffer  more  damage  than  under  the  same  wea- 
ther in  the  open  sea,  where  the  waves  are  longer  and  where  the 
vessel  will  seem  to  slide  over  the  crests.  During  the  war  an 
escort  of  five  destroyers  had  to  abandon  their  22-knot  convoy, 
the  Mauretania,  between  Liverpool  and  The  Skerries,  where 
short  high  seas  were  "thrown  up  by  the  wind  ahead;  and  three 

1  Cassin's  stern  was  blown  off  by  torpedo,  and  Manley's  stern  to  after  engine- 
room  bulkhead  was  destroyed  by  'explosion  of  30  depth  charges.  Both  were 
towed  to  port  without  difficulty.  Several  destroyers  sustained  severe  damage 
from  collision  and  all  returned  safely.  The  Shaw,  whose  bow  was  completely 
severed  at  the  forward  end  of  the  bridge  by  S.  S.  Aguitania,  made  port  under 
her  own  engines,  her  forward  oil  tanks  on  fire.  All  American  destroyers 
stood  up  splendidly  so  far  as  damage  from  seas  was  concerned  and  proved 
that  they  can  operate  in  the  worst  weather. 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  603 

of  the  escort  returned  to  port  with  their  pilot  house  bulkheads 
crushed  in. 

With  the  sea  aft  or  on  the  quarter,  the  vessel  rides  very  easily, 
with  little  rolling  or  pitching,  and  no  difficulty  is  experienced 
except  in  steering. 

In  formation  underway,  the  standard  distance  between  ships, 
bridge  to  bridge,  is  300  yards;  and  it  is  safe  even  at  high  speeds 
to  keep  well  within  this  distance,  for  collision  can  easily  be 
avoided  by  quick  use  of  rudder.  However,  with  a  following  or 
quartering  sea  it  is  unwise  to  manoeuvre  too  close,  for  under 
these  conditions  the  best  helmsmen  cannot  steer  a  steady  course 
and  the  bow  as  it  yaws  from  side  to  side  may  strike  the  stern  of 
the  destroyer  ahead  before  the  rudder  can  become  effective. 

When  lying-to  in  a  seaway,  the  destroyer  will  invariably  work 
broadside  on,  into  the  trough,1  rolling  heavily  and  drifting 
rapidly  to  leeward.  If  she  is  backed  from  this  position,  her 
stern  will  tend  to  point  up;  but  the  quantity  of  water  shipped 
over  the  stern  will  prove  very  dangerous. 

Because  of  the  number  of  destroyers  employed  on  the  same 
mission,  it  is  often  necessary  for  these  vessels  to  be  anchored  in 
outer  harbors  where  little  or  no  protection  is  afforded. 

Sometimes,  as  at  Ponta  Del  Gada,  the  anchorage  must  be 
close  in  shore  because  of  the  fact  that  deep  water  extends  very 
close  in  and  the  anchorage  is  exposed  to  wind  and  swell  from  the 
open  sea.  A  long  scope  of  chain  must  be  used;  and  with  the 
present  ground  tackle  arrangement  there  is  danger  that  the 
chain  will  be  parted  or  weakened  as  it  is  nipped  across  the  sharp 
stem  by  the  excessive  yawing  of  the  vessel.  In  getting  underway 
from  such  an  anchorage,  if  the  sea  is  running  directly  towards 
the  beach,  the  engines  must  be  started  ahead  promptly  and 
with  power,  as  the  anchor  breaks  ground;  otherwise  wind  and 
sea  will  force  the  bow  off  into  the  trough  parallel  to  the  shore 
line  thus  placing  the  ship  in  a  very  precarious  position.  As  the 
chain  is  being  hove  short  it  is  well  to  avast  heaving  when  the 
chain  tends  off  the  bow  due  to  yawing,  for  there  is  danger  here 
that  the  anchor  will  begin  to  drag,  placing  the  vessel  broadside 
to  a  lee  shore  and  in  the  trough,  not  free  to  go  ahead.  To  avoid 

1  So  strong  is  this  tendency  to  lie  in  the  trough  that  a  destroyer  attempting 
to  save  the  capsized  seaplane  NC-i  in  a  severe  storm  and  having  succeeded 
in  getting  a  5-inch  line  from  her  bow  to  the  plane  in  the  hope  of  using  the 
plane  as  a  sea  anchor  in  riding  out  the  night,  could  not  be  brought  bow  to  sea. 
The  line  parted  though  strain  was  taken  cautiously. 


604  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

this  possibility  the  chain  may  be  held  until  the  yawing  of  the 
ship  points  her  directly  into  the  sea,  at  which  time  it  is  hove  in 
rapidly  and  engines  put  ahead.  The  rising  of  the  bow  with  the 
crest  of  a  wave  may  at  any  time  break  out  the  anchor,  so  that 
it  is  good  practice  when  at  short  stay  and  pointed  fair  to  start 
engines  ahead,  dragging  the  anchor  into  deeper  water  and 
heaving  in  as  soon  as  the  windlass  will  take  the  chain. 

In  case  of  man-overboard  it  is  quicker  to  stop  the  ship  by 
backing  full  speed  as  soon  as  the  stern  clears  the  man,  then  lower 
a  boat.  When  the  sea  is  rough  it  is  better  to  pick  up  the  man 
with  the  ship,  turning  with  hard  over  rudder.  The  time  to 
turn  is  considerable,  owing  to  the  large  turning  circle,  but  the 
ship  will  return  almost  exactly  to  the  spot  where  her  rudder  was 
put  over  and  by  stopping  to  windward  the  destroyer  will  quickly 
drift  down  upon  the  man,  making  a  lee  for  him  and  enabling  him 
to  be  picked  up  by  line  or  by  lowering  a  man  in  a  bowline. 

To  pick  up  a  boat,  the  destroyer  should  be  brought  to  wind- 
ward and  permitted  to  drift  down.  The  ship  will  make  a  satis- 
factory lee  for  the  boat  and  the  principal  precaution  to  be  taken 
is  to  see  that  the  boat  does  not  get  so  far  aft  as  to  be  crushed 
beneath  the  propeller  guard  as  the  destroyer  rolls.  If  the  boat 
is  to  be  hoisted  in,  she  must  be  held  off  while  being  hooked  on, 
in  order  that  her  gun-whale  may  not  get  caught  beneath  the 
guard  rail;  for  the  boat  will  be  jammed  tight  against  the  de- 
stroyer by  the  leeway  being  made  by  that  vessel.  During  the 
War  many  survivors  in  open  boats  were  picked  up  by  destroyers 
under  very  severe  weather  conditions,  and  despite  the  heavy 
rolling  of  these  vessels  there  is  no  record  of  a  boat  having  been 
capsized  or  a  life  lost  in  so  doing.  When  we  entered  the  War 
destroyers  were  outfitted  with  special  ladders  for  rescuing  sur- 
vivors from  boats,  but  these  were  discarded  by  most  destroyers 
as  it  was  found  that  "The  survivor  always  gets  aboard." 

Navigation.  Although  not  properly  belonging  to  the  subject 
of  seamanship,  a  few  cautions  as  to  the  navigation  of  destroyers 
may  not  be  amiss. 

As  already  mentioned,  leeway,  real  or  apparent,  must  be 
carefully  watched. 

The  compass  card  oscillates  considerably  in  a  seaway,  intro- 
ducing errors  due  to  heeling  and  to  difficult  steering.  Large 
changes  in  deviation  may  result  from  slight  repairs  or  alterations 
to  the  ship,  so  that  the  ship  should  be  swung  frequently  for 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  605 

compass  error,  and  azimuths  should  fte  taken  daily  at  sea. 
Most  cruising  is  done  at  fairly  high  speeds  so  that  a  slight  error 
in  compass  course,  under  weather  conditions  adverse  to  observa- 
tion of  sun  or  stars,  will  result  in  large  error  in  the  position  by 
dead  reckoning.  Most  destroyers  are  equipped  with  the  Sperry 
two- wheel  gyro  compass,  but  little  dependence  can  as  yet  be 
placed  on  the  gyro  in  this  type  of  vessel.  Unquestionably  the 
gyro  compass  will  in  time  be  developed  and  made  suitable  for 
destroyer  work. 

The  motion  is  at  times  so  excessive  that  it  is  difficult  to  use 
navigational  instruments,  and  the  navigator  must  learn  to  take 
sights  while  holding  on  to  a  stanchion  or  bridge  rail  to  keep 
from  being  thrown  from  side  to  side,  at  the  same  time  endeavoring 
to  keep  his  sextant  mirrors  free  from  spray.  He  must  become 
accustomed  to  "bringing  down"  stars  under  conditions  of  most 
violent  rolling  and  learn  to  eliminate  errors  due  to  a  rapidly 
changing  dip,  and  to  plot  his  positions  with  instruments  that 
are  constantly  getting  adrift. 

The  use  of  the  hand  lead  is  very  difficult  owing  to  the  low 
position  of  the  leadsman  and  to  the  relatively  high  steerageway 
speed  of  the  vessel;  and  although  the  lead  must  be  used  for 
in-shore  work,  in  accordance  with  Navy  Regulations,  it  cannot  be 
relied  upon  unless  the  vessel  is  almost  dead  in  the  water.  De- 
stroyers are  all  provided  with  sounding  machines  for  deep  sea 
work  and  can  get  good  soundings  by  slowing  down. 

The  rates  of  chronometers  are  liable  to  change  owing  to 
vibration  and  excess  motion,  and  the  navigator  should  take  a  tick 
frequently. 

To  summarize:  although  it  may  justly  be  said  that  practically 
all  methods  of  navigation  are  less  reliable  on  Torpedo  vessels 
than  on  larger  craft,  the  navigator  can  with  diligence  and  practice 
overcome  these  difficulties;  and  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
destroyer  navigation  can  be  made  to  compare  favorably  with 
that  of  the  largest  vessel.  Skillful  navigating  in  destroyers  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  because  of  the  duty  required  of  these 
vessels.  In  scouting  work  and  in  trailing  the  enemy,  contact 
reports  and  other  information  sent  out  by  the  scout  may  be 
very  misleading  to  the  commander-in-chief  unless  based  upon 
the  most  accurate  navigation. 

In  Narrow  Waters.  In  entering  harbors,  speed  must  be 
reduced  to  not  more  than  fifteen  knots  because  of  the  stern 


5o6  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

wave  that  is  drawn  by  destroyers  in  shallow  water.  At  high 
speed,  in  depths  of  forty  feet  or  less,  the  screws  draw  down  the 
stern  causing  the  vessel  to  drag  and  to  be  materially  slowed. 
This  drag  is  very  perceptible  and  the  speed  of  the  vessel  through 
the  water  cannot  be  increased  above  a  certain  point  (about 
twenty  knots)  regardless  of  the  speed  of  the  screws.  The 
stern  will  squat  until  the  fantail  deck  is  flush  with  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  the  resultant  wave  will  prove  very  destructive 
to  harbor  craft,  and  even  to  sea-walls  and  large  shipping.  So 
many  complaints  have  been  received  and  so  many  bills  sub- 
mitted to  the  government  for  parted  lines  and  damaged  property 
that  present  orders  prohibit  destroyers  from  using  a  speed 
greater  than  twelve  knots  in  entering  and  leaving  harbors.  For 
this  reason  many  units  of  the  flotilla  make  it  doctrine  to  use  a 
standard  manoeuvring  speed  of  eighteen  knots.  Channels  are 
entered  and  left  at  two  thirds  speed,  or  twelve  knots,  and  all 
speed  signals  except  cones  are  thus  eliminated  in  getting  under- 
way and  coming  to  anchor.  It  is  unsafe  to  pass  operating 
dredges  at  more  than  six  knots. 

In  rounding  bends  in  rivers  or  narrow  harbors  it  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  destroyer  pivots  well  forward,  her  stern  being 
thrown  away  outside  the  course.  Care  must  therefore  be 
taken  that  the  stern  is  not  endangered.  It  is  well  to  remember 
also  that  if  the  rudder  is  put  over  towards  an  obstacle  which  the 
bow  has  already  passed,  there  is  no  further  danger  from  that 
obstacle  except1  of  course  where  strong  currents  are  involved. 

In  rivers,  deep  water  is  to  be  found  on  the  side  of  the  high 
bank,  and  it  is  safer  to  round  a  sharp  river  bend  with  fair  tide 
than  when  stemming  the  current;  for  often  the  engines  have  to 
be  manoeuvred  separately,  with  consequent  loss  in  headway,  in 
making  such  turns,  due  to  the  destroyer's  large  turning  circle. 
Slack  water  is  of  course  to  be  preferred  at  these  bends,  but  if  the 
vessel  is  stemming  the  tide,  the  bow  will  be  thrown  off  by  the 
current  and  the  vessel  may  easily  be  shoaled  before  control  can 
be  gained;  whereas  with  a  fair  tide  the  current  on  the  quarter 
tends  to  assist  the  turn  and  the  movement  of  the  bow  is  not 
impeded  (see  Chapter  XVI  and  Plate  136).  Furthermore,  if  the 
ship  should  be  grounded  in  turning  it  is  probable  that  she  will 
not  strike  stern  first,  as  this  presumes  that  her  bow  was  at 
some  time  pointed  clear  and  that  the  speed  available  could  have 
been  employed  to  send  her  ahead  out  of  danger.  If  unable  to 


Plate  No.    165. 


607 


FIG.  1. 


f 


Incorrect  Approach 


Tide 


FIG.  2. 


10 


24 

I2  17  26 


26 


15  26 

//  24 


FIG.  3. 


HANDLING  DESTROYERS 


608  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

make  the  turn,  and  forced  to  drift  with  the  tide,  she  may  be 
carried  safely  through;  but  if  her  bow  should  go  aground,  the 
current  under  her  inboard  quarter  will  tend  to  force  her  off  with 
great  force,  and  she  may  come  off  unharmed,  around  the  bend 
and  once  more  under  control  (Fig.  I,  Plate  165).  Low  speeds 
must  necessarily  be  employed  in  rivers  and  it  is  advisable  to 
approach  sharp  turns  at  one  third  speed  until  just  before  the 
turn  is  to  be  made,  then  to  go  standard  ahead  both  engines  with 
hard-over  rudder,  backing  the  inboard  screw  as  soon  as  the 
stern  begins  to  swing. 

When  leaving  narrow  waters  that  open  into  seas  where  strong 
tides  may  be  expected  to  run  across  the  entrance,  do  so  with 
caution  and  see  all  hands  clear  of  the  forecastle.  The  sea  out- 
side may  not  look  extremely  rough;  but  at  times,  on  entering  the 
junction  of  the  two  waters,  an  unexpected  wave  will  sweep  the 
forecastle.  This  is  a  bad  place  in  which  to  be  engaged  in  secur- 
ing anchors  for  sea.  Two  destroyers  have  recently  passed 
through  this  experience,  one  off  Tampico  and  one  outside  of 
Brest,  with  serious  injury  to  personnel  in  one  case  and  loss  of 
life  in  the  other. 

In  entering  slips  and  making  landings,  the  effect  of  eddies  in 
the  current  must  be  studied ;  for  the  destroyer  is  long,  and  when 
her  bow  enters  dead  water  or  an  eddy,  the  effect  of  the  current  on 
her  stern  may  endanger  the  vessel.  These  conditions  may  be 
encountered  in  entering  the  New  York  Navy  Yard  (Fig.  2, 
Plate  165).  A  strong  tide  may  be  running  in  the  East  River 
and  on  passing  the  pier  line  and  entering  the  basin  an  eddy  will 
be  found  running  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  bow,  on 
entering  this,  will  be  swept  sharply  to  one  side  while  the  outside 
current  will  carry  the  stern  to  the  other,  and  at  least  one  colli- 
sion has  occurred  in  this  manner  to  the  surprise  of  a  destroyer 
commander.  In  entering  the  basin  at  New  York  Yard,  it  is 
best  to  stand  up  the  East  River  channel  close  to  the  Brooklyn 
shore,  stemming  the  tide  and  to  turn  sharply,  rather  than  get 
across  the  current  of  the  main  tidal  stream. 

In  passing  through  Hell  Gate  much  traffic  is  often  met,  and 
this  usually  consists  of  tows.  The  tugs,  making  barely  sufficient 
speed  to  keep  their  barges  in  motion,  choose  a  fair  tide,  and  are 
compelled  to  head  directly  across  the  stream  in  order  to  keep 
their  tows  off  the  rocks  at  the  turns;  and  it  will  sometimes  be 
found  that  they  completely  block  the  channel.  Here  it  is  best 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  609 

for  the  destroyer  to  have  a  fair  tide;  for  the  speed  of  the  tows 
is  less  than  steerageway  for  the  destroyer,  and  the  latter  vessel 
cannot  use  her  speed  at  the  turns  and  must  partly  drift  through 
the  gate,  using  her  engines  in  brief  spurts  to  make  the  rudder 
effective  and  to  keep  off  the  rocks. 

Caution  must  be  exercised  in  heaving-to  in  narrow  waters, 
owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  destroyer  will  fall  off  and 
drift  with  the  effect  of  wind.  The  precaution  "Have  one  anchor 
ready  for  letting  go"  probably  applies  more  seriously  in  de- 
stroyers than  in  any  other  type  of  vessel.  If  caught  in  a  tight 
place,  always  manoeuvre  to  keep  the  stern  in  deep  water.  If  the 
ship  should  be  grounded  forward  it  is  probable  no  damage  will 
result,  and  she  may  be  able  to  work  off  without  outside  as- 
sistance. But  if  the  stern  be  grounded,  it  means  a  dry-dock 
job,  for  the  propeller  blade  tips  extend  about  nine  inches  below 
the  keel  of  the  vessel  and  will  invariably  be  damaged. 

Towing.  The  method  of  passing  lines  and  taking  vessels  in 
tow  is  very  fully  described  in  Chapter  XXV.  Destroyers  are  not 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  employment  in  towing,  but  are 
at  times  called  upon  to  engage  in  this  heavy  work  and  are  capable 
of  performing  it.  To  this  end  all  destroyers  carry  a  i5O-fathom 
eight-inch  manila  hawser,  on  a  reel  protected  from  the  weather 
at  the  after  deck  house.  Around  the  bases  of  the  forward  and 
after  gun-mounts  a  channel-bar  ring  is  shrunk  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  lines  or  bridles ;  and  towing  bridles  of  I  ^g-inch  wire 
are  provided,  completely  equipped  with  shackles  and  pelican 
hooks.  Lines  for  towing  or  being  towed  are  led  through  large 
chocks  at  stern  and  bull-nose  respectively. 

In  passing  tow  lines  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  destroyer 
drifts  more  rapidly  than  other  vessels  and  lines  may  be  passed 
by  proceeding  to  windward  on  a  heading  parallel  to  that  of  the 
vessel  to  be  taken  in  tow  and  drifting  so  as  to  pass  just  clear. 
If  weather  conditions  permit,  the  destroyer  may  be  backed  up 
into  wind  and  sea  until  the  first  line  is  run.  It  is  of  course  advis- 
able not  to  attempt  to  back  after  the  tow  line  has  been  passed. 
When  a  heavy  sea  is  running,  the  heading  of  the  destroyer  cannot 
be  chosen  and  it  is  best  to  heave  to  to  windward.  The  ship  will 
fall  off  into  the  trough  and  should  be  allowed  to  drift  so  that 
her  stern  will  pass  within  heaving  line  distance  but  clear  of  the 
disabled  vessel.  It  is  not  difficult  to  accomplish  this,  by  assisting 
with  the  engines,  if  the  executive  officer  takes  up  a  position  on 


6lO  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

the  fantail  or  after  deck  house  and  keeps  the  commanding 
officer  informed  as  to  the  distance  between  the  two  vessels  as 
they  approach. 

In  picking  up  the  tow  at  sea,  the  destroyer  should  be  allowed 
to  drift  until  she  is  riding  to  a  strain  on  the  tow  line.  If  the 
vessel  is  to  be  towed  some  distance  and  is  not  a  naval  vessel,  it 
is  a  good  precaution  to  lower  a  boat,  weather  permitting,  and 
place  on  board  the  disabled  ship  a  signalman  and  an  officer  so 
that  the  line  can  be  tended  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  commanding 
officer.  (See  Chapter  XXIX.) 

The  following  description   is   given  of  the  recent  salvaging 
and    towing    to   port  of  the   three  masted    schooner    Geneva 
Kathleen  by  a  destroyer— the  U.  S.  S.  .Herbert  (Plate  164,  Fig.3). 

'The  Kathleen,  loaded  with  lumber  and  drawing  16  feet  aft, 
15  feet  forward,  had  grounded  off  Fort  Pierce,  Florida,  about 
1 8  hours  before  the  arrival  of  the  Herbert.  A  long  swell  had 
carried  the  schooner  on  to  the  bar  until  she  showed  n  feet 
forward,  14  feet  aft  and  at  times  pounded  heavily.  She  was 
listed  to  starboard,  her  keel  had  been  torn  loose,  she  was  making 
water  slowly,  and  her  rudder  post  was  bent.  The  Herbert 
anchored  400  yards  from  the  Kathleen,  veered  to  90  fathoms  of 
chain,  and  the  commanding  officer  had  soundings  taken  about 
the  schooner.  These  showed  depths  in  feet  as  in  the  sketch, 
and  as  the  bow  had  passed  well  up  on  the  bar  it  was  considered 
advisable  to  haul  from  her  stern.  A  3-inch  messenger  was 
passed  by  the  motor  sailer  at  7.30  a.m.  and  the  eight-inch  hawser 
run  and  secured  to  a  double  8-inch  bridle  passed  from  the  king- 
posts and  under  the  counter  of  the  Kathleen.  As  the  crew  of 
the  schooner  seemed  to  be  indolent  and  ignorant  in  seamanship, 
an  officer,  six  seamen,  and  a  signalman  were  placed  on  board 
her. 

"The  8-inch  manila  was  run  through  the  stern  chock  and  for- 
ward on  the  Herbert  to  the  forecastle  windlass  and  a  strain  was 
taken  until  the  Herbert's  stern  was  drawn  across  the  tide  and 
held  in  this  position.  An  attempt  proved  that  the  schooner 
could  not  be  hauled  off;  and  as  high  water  was  not  due  until 
3.30  p.m.  it  was  decided  to  wait  until  early  afternoon  before 
making  further  effort.  A  half  knot  tide  was  running  due  to  an 
eddy  of  the  gulf  stream,  and  this  kept  a  good  strain  on  the 
hawser,  it  being  hoped  that  this  strain  would  not  only  prevent 
the  Kathleen  from  passing  higher  up  on  the  bar  but  would  per- 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  6l  I 

haps  assist  in  working  her  stern  off  as  the  swells  passed  under 
her. 

"The  hawser  was  now  passed  twice  around  the  base  of  the 
after  gun  mount  (Herbert  not  being  equipped  with  wire  towing 
bridles)  and  secured  to  the  bitts,  plenty  of  chafing  gear  being 
used  where  the  line  passed  through  the  stern  chock;  and  at 
1.30  p.m.  both  engines  of  the  Herbert  were  started  ahead  at  5 
knots.  This  was  continued  for  over  an  hour  and  a  half,  occa- 
sional jolts  of  seven  and  a  half  knots  being  given  in  an  effort 
to  start  the  stranded  ship.  As  the  time  of  high  water  approached, 
both  engines  were,  at  3.15  p.m.,  put  ahead  ten  knots,  and  con- 
tinued at  that  speed  until  3.40  p.m.  when  the  Kathleen  began 
to  slide  off.  At  this  moment  the  towing  bridle  parted  at  the 
schooner's  stern  and  engines  were  immediately  stopped;  but  a 
preventer  bridle  of  the  best  line  that  could  be  found  in  the 
Kathleen's  lazaret  (an  old  8-inch  manila)  had  previously  been 
rigged  through  the  bowline  of  the  towing  hawser  and  as  time 
was  of  greatest  importance,  a  strain  of  5  knots  was  placed  on 
this.  The  schooner  slid  off  at  3.45.  The  Herbert's  anchor  was 
picked  up,  the  tow  line  was  run  out  full  length  and  shifted  to  the 
Kathleen's  bow,  and  the  Herbert  towed  the  schooner  to  Miami, 
a  distance  of  130  miles.  Turns  were  made  for  ten  knots;  but 
as  the  Kathleen  yawed  badly  and  could  not  be  steered  because 
of  the  condition  of  her  rudder  post,  the  engines  frequently  had 
to  be  slowed.  No  difficulty  was  experienced  except  when  once 
during  the  night  the  schooner  took  a  sharp  yaw,  parting  the 
towline  on  the  schooner's  deck;  but  a  light  preventer  that  had 
been  bent  on  forward  of  the  break  was  payed  out,  a  signal  given, 
the  Herbert  stopped,  and  the  line  was  quickly  hove  in  and 
secured  on  board  the  Kathleen.  At  the  destroyer  end  only  a 
slight  but  not  abnormal  heating  of  the  thrusts  was  noted. 

"During  the  same  week,  the  Herbert  picked  up  and  towed  over 
100  miles  the  steamer  Aragon  loaded  with  coal.  The  Herbert's 
towline  was  bent  to  Aragon' s  anchor  cable,  thirty  fathoms  of 
which  was  paid  out  to  assist  in  weighting  the  line  and  to  provide  a 
steady  strain.  Turns  were  made  for  10  to  u  knots;  and  al- 
though the  Aragon' s  propeller  was  dragging,  a  speed  of  about 
7  knots  was  made  good  against  the  gulf  stream  current." 


6i2  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

HANDLING  DESTROYERS  AND  OTHER  SMALL   CRAFT   IN   COM- 
MUNICATING WITH  LARGER  VESSELS  UNDERWAY. 

Speaking  Large  Vessels.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
in  approaching  large  vessels  which  are  underway.  It  is  especially 
dangerous  to  attempt  to  take  position  full  on  the  beam.  The 
safe  course  is  to  come  up  on  the  quarter  of  the  large  ship  and 
carry  on  communication  with  the  quarterdeck  or  after  bridge. 
This  leaves  the  smaller  vessel  free  to  swing  her  stern  towards 
the  larger  one  if  necessary  for  increasing  distance,  which  could 
not  be  done  if  she  were  entirely  overlapping  the  larger  vessel 
and  chanced  to  get  a  little  too  close.  When  a  small  vessel  is 
running  parallel  to  a  larger  one  and  rather  close  aboard,  the 
smaller  craft  is  dwarfed  and  her  commanding  officer  loses  power 
to  realize  the  exact  situation.  He  cannot  correctly  judge  the 
steadiness  of  course  of  the  big  ship,  changes  in  her  speed,  etc., 
and  should  she  slow  for  any  reason,  he  may  be  under  her  bow 
before  he  knows  it.  In  repeated  instances  it  has  been  proved 
that  in  such  a  position  he  is  apt  to  close  in  without  realizing  it 
until  he  is  so  close  that,  if  he  puts  his  helm  over,  his  stern  will 
take  against  the  ship's  side  and  a  smash  will  follow.  This  is 
but  one  example  of  the  wisdom  of  the  old  destroyer  rule:  "Keep 
your  stern  clear  to  swing,  no  matter  what  happens." 

Another  advantage  of  the  quartering  position  is  that  in  case 
of  trouble,  "full  speed  astern"  will  clear  you  in  an  instant. 

During  the  war,  escorting  destroyers  frequently  had  to  deliver 
written  secret  instructions  to  vessels  of  convoys  after  they 
joined  up  at  the  entrance  to  the  submarine  zone,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  do  this  with  despatch  in  order  not  to  slow  the  speed 
of  the  convoy  or  break  up  its  formation.  The  destroyer  first 
signalled  the  larger  ship  to  steer  a  steady  course  and  to  main- 
tain a  constant  speed  (this  is  very  important),  then  approached 
on  her  quarter  to  leeward  and  delivered  a  heaving  line  to  the 
after  main  deck  or  to  the  rigged  out  life  boat  of  the  convoy 
ship.  At  the  destroyer  end  of  the  heaving  line  was  attached 
the  written  instructions  in  a  sealed  tin  container,  then  a  second 
heaving  line.  As  the  first  heaving  line  was  taken  in  by  the 
larger  ship,  sufficient  strain  was  kept  on  the  second  to  keep  the 
instructions  clear  of  the  water;  and  after  the  container  was 
removed  both  lines  were  bent  together  and  returned  to  the 
destroyer.  Throughout  this  manoeuvre,  the  destroyer  main- 


THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  613 

tained  her  position  by  slight  changes  of  speed  and  light  touches 
of  rudder,  always  keeping  her  stern  free  to  swing. 

TAKING  FUEL,  STORES,  OR  PASSENGERS  FROM  ANOTHER 
VESSEL  UNDERWAY. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  about  a  small 
vessel  communicating  with  a  larger  one  applies  to  the  case  now 
to  be  considered,  but  with  certain  modifications.  So  far  as 
destroyers  are  concerned,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  present- 
day  destroyer  is  herself  a  fairly  large  ship.  Furthermore,  the 
present  case  is  one  in  which  lines  will  be  used;  and  these,  if  prop- 
erly handled  in  connection  with  the  screws  and  rudder,  introduce 
a  new  factor  of  very  great  importance.  Moreover,  the  necessity 
for  receiving  stores  or  passengers  makes  a  demand  for  closer 
approach  than  would  be  necessary  for  merely  communicating. 

Fig.  i,  Plate  166,  shows  a  destroyer  or  other  craft  lying  along- 
side a  larger  vessel  underway  and  either  steaming  with  her  or 
being  towed;  preferably  the  latter.  Here  we  must  assume 
that  the  side  of  the  larger  ship  is  free  from  projections  which 
can  smash  down  upon  the  deck  of  the  destroyer  or  puncture  her 
side,  and  that  any  overhanging  boats  have  been  either  swung 
inboard  or  otherwise  gotten  out  of  the  way  and  that  the  same 
precautions  have  been  taken  on  the  destroyer.  Also  that  good 
fenders  are  in  use  and  properly  placed.  Note  that  the  bow 
spring  is  taken  from  a  chock  well  aft  on  the  bow  of  the  destroyer, 
giving  an  opportunity  to  pivot  on  the  line.  By  a  few  degrees 
of  right  rudder,  the  destroyer  keeps  the  water  pressure  slightly 
on  her  in-board  bow.  The  bow-breast  will  hold  her  against 
the  tendency  to  swing  out,  and  may  be  assisted  by  easing  the 
rudder;  but  this  must  be  done  very  carefully,  the  helmsman 
standing  by  to  meet  her  instantly  to  prevent  crashing  in  against 
the  side  in  case  she  is  allowed  to  catch  the  water-pressure  on  the 
off-bow.  With  the  lines  as  shown  in  the  plate,  the  point  x  is  a 
fixed  point  so  long  as  the  water-pressure  is  maintained  on  the 
inner  bow;  and  the  stern,  protected  by  a  good  fender,  may  be 
swung  in  close  to  the  side  of  the  ship  by  a  spoke  of  the  wheel, 
and  held  there  with  the  greatest  delicacy  of  adjustment.  If  the 
sea  is  rough  the  larger  ship  should  take  it  a  little  on  the  off-bow, 
but  not  enough  to  cause  heavy  rolling. 

Note  that  the  above  -is  a  case  rather  of  "towing  alongside" 


614 


Plate  No.    166. 


SSL 


U) 
(D 


(D 


CD 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS.  615 

than  of  "lying  alongside"  and  that  the  water  resistance  to  the 
towing  is  the  essential  factor  in  the  manoeuvre,  making  it  possible 
to  hold  the  small  vessel  as  close  or  as  far  off  as  may  be  desirable 
by  manipulation  of  the  helm  and  the  bow-breast.  She  may 
indeed  be  held  off  so  far  as  to  prevent  all  danger  of  contact 
(Plate  166,  Fig.  2).  The  method  of  approach  to  take  up  the 
position  shown,  will  depend  upon  conditions  existing  at  the 
time;  but  the  following  is  suggested  as  practicable  under  average 
conditions  (Figure  3).  The  larger  ship  being  steady  on  a  course 
which  gives  a  lee  without  producing  excessive  rolling,  the  com- 
municating vessel  comes  up  under  the  lee  quarter  and  takes 
the  end  of  a  stout  hauling-line  which  has  been  led  from  well 
forward  on  the  larger  ship  and  passed  aft  outside  of  all.  With 
this  line  slack  she  steams  up  onto  the  beam  of  the  larger  ship, 
at  a  safe  distance,  keeping  well  clear  of  the  screws,  and  hauls 
across  a  five-  or  six-inch  manila  line  from  the  bow  of  the  other 
ship.  This  line  is  brought  in  through  a  chock  fairly  well  aft 
on  the  destroyer's  forecastle,  forming  a  spring  on  which  the 
destroyer  drops  in  alongside  by  slowing  or  stopping,  using  the 
rudder  as  may  be  necessary  for  control.  The  bow  breast  is 
then  gotten  across  and  the  destroyer  held  as  already  described. 
To  get  clear,  the  rudder  is  put  a  few  degrees  to  right,  and  the 
bow-breast  cast  off.  The  stern  swings  in,  bringing  the  pressure 
on  the  inner  broadside,  and  the  destroyer  is  swept  bodily  off 

(Fig.  4). 

When  conditions  are  such  that  towing  alongside  is  not  con- 
sidered practicable,  the  simplest  plan  is  to  take  a  line  and  tow 
astern  or  a  little  under  the  lee  quarter,  using  oil  if  necessary. 
(Fig.  5).  This  gives  more  independence  of  action  and  less 
danger  of  accident  but  is  less  convenient  when  passengers  are 
to  be  transferred.  Here  the  breeches-buoy  may  be  found 
useful,  or  a  small  boat  may  be  used  in  the  oil  slick. 

The  Maumee  Method.  The  following  method  of  fueling 
destroyers  at  sea  was  developed  by  the  U.  S.  S.  Maumee  (fuel 
ship)  and  was  employed  with  great  success  during  the  war  and 
later  during  the  trans-Atlantic  sea-plane  flight  of  1919.  By 
this  method,  oil  was  delivered  through  a  four-inch  hose  at  the 
rate  of  25,000  gallons  per  hour,  while  the  ships  were  steaming 
at  speeds  of  four  to  thirteen  knots,  in  a  moderate  sea,  force  of 
wind  3  to  4.  It  was  estimated  that  vessels  could  be  fueled  in 
this  manner  during  more  than  seventy-five  per  cent  of  all  weather 
encountered  (Plate  167). 


6l6  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

In  this  manoeuvre  rolling  of  the  vessels  will  not  interfere; 
but  yawing  is  very  dangerous,  especially  as  the  destroyer  may 
be  brought  under  the  counter  of  the  larger  ship.  The  fuel  ship 
therefore  assumed  such  a  course  as  to  bring  the  sea  forward  of 
her  off  beam,  preferably  on  the  off  bow.  Her  course  and  speed 
were  signalled  to  the  destroyer  and  both  vessels  were  kept  going 
ahead  throughout  the  evolution.  Various  speeds  were  tried, 
but  owing  to  the  relatively  high  steerageway  speed  of  the  de- 
stroyer it  was  found  that  best  results  were  obtained  when  the 
speeds  of  fuel  ship  and  destroyer  were  regulated  at  about  eight 
and  seven  knots  respectively. 

All  gear  was  furnished  by  the  fuel  ship.  A  ten-inch  manila 
spring  was  led  from  her  bow  chock  and  stopped  along  the  rail, 
a  2-inch  messenger  being  bent  to  this,  fifty  feet  from  the  end, 
and  stopped  along  to  the  end.  The  destroyer  approached  to 
leeward  within  about  fifty  feet  of  the  Maumee's  side  and  received 
the  messenger  by  heaving  line.  This  messenger  was  led  through 
the  after  forecastle  chock,  taken  to  the  capstan,  and  hove  in, 
assisted  by  hand.  Stops  were  cut  as  they  came  aboard  and  the 
ten-inch  manila  was  given  a  turn  around  the  base  of  the  forward 
gun-mount  and  secured  to  bitts  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  deck, 
a  lashing  on  the  bitts  being  necessary  to  prevent  the  hawser 
from  jumping. 

As  soon  as  the  destroyer  signalled  that  the  line  was  secured, 
the  fuel  ship  hauled  in  the  spring  to  take  a  strain  and  bring  the 
smaller  vessel  to  the  relative  position  desired,  and  the  destroyer 
regulated  her  speed  at  about  one  knot  less  than  that  of  the 
Maumee.  This  spring,  assisted  by  the  force  of  the  sea  on  the 
inboard  bow,  acted  much  as  would  a  sea  painter  on  a  small  boat, 
tending  to  keep  the  destroyer  off;  and  with  the  750  and  1,000 
ton  destroyers  whose  towing  point  was  well  aft  on  the  fore- 
castle, a  slight  in  rudder  was  necessary  to  offset  the  effect  of  the 
sea  on  the  bow.  This  sea-painter  effect  was  not  so  pronounced 
in  towing  the  modern  type  destroyer,  whose  bridge  is  farther 
forward. 

A  six-inch  breast  was  now  passed  to  bitts  forward  of  the 
destroyer's  forecastle  gun  and  secured  to  bitts  forward  of  the 
capstan.  This  line  was  subjected  to  considerable  strain  at  times 
and  when  made  fast  was  hove  in  on  the  fuel  ship  to  reduce  the 
distance  between  vessels  to  about  forty  feet. 

An  after  breast  of  six-inch  manila  was  passed  in  wake  of  the 


Plate  No.    167. 


617 


6l8  THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

destroyer's  after  deck-house  and  secured  but  tended.  This  line 
was  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  manoeuvre  but  was  employed 
as  a  safeguard  against  the  delay  that  might  be  caused  should  a 
sudden  lurch  of  the  destroyer  carry  away  the  oil  hose. 

As  soon  as  all  lines  were  secured,  the  Maumee  passed  an 
oil  hose  to  the  destroyer  by  means  of  a  wooden  carrier  suspended 
from  a  boom-head  amidships  (Plate  167).  The  hose  was  led 
to  the  destroyer's  tank  and  pumping  was  begun  when  the 
ready  signal  was  received. 

Under  unfavorable  weather  conditions,  about  forty  minutes 
were  required  in  passing  lines  and  connecting  up  the  hose;  but 
in  good  weather  the  signal  to  begin  pumping  could  be  given 
within  twenty  minutes  after  the  destroyer  began  going  alongside. 
While  fueling,  the  destroyer  received  stores  and  provisions  by 
means  of  an  after  boom ;  and  by  proper  regulation  of  speed  and 
delicate  use  of  rudder,  no  difficulty  was  encountered  after  the 
lines  were  secured,  and  no  damage  sustained  by  either  vessel. 

In  very  rough  weather  the  destroyer  was  fueled  while  being 
towed  astern,  and  oil  was  delivered  to  the  older  destroyers  at 
the  rate  of  fifteen  thousand  gallons  per  hour.  With  the  newer 
type,  however,  considerable  time  is  required  in  leading  the 
hose  while  towing  astern,  as  these  vessels  have  no  open  tanks 
forward.  The  hose  must  either  be  coupled  up  to  a  deck  fitting 
forward  or  led  to  an  open  tank  abaft  the  after  engine-room  bulk- 
head. 

TAKING  FUEL,  STORES,  OR  PASSENGERS  FROM  A  VESSEL  AT  SEA 
BUT  NOT  UNDERWAY. 

Here  the  principal  factor  of  the  preceding  case  is  lacking; 
viz.,  the  water-resistance  on  the  rudder  and  on  the  inner  bow  of 
the  communicating  vessel,  by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  to 
hold  her  off  from  the  side  or  to  swing  her  in,  merely  by  a  touch 
of  the  wheel;  and  to  swing  her  clear  when  the  time  comes  to 
cast  off. 

The  present  case,  where  the  ship  to  be  assisted  is  dead  in  the 
water,  has  many  features  in  common  with  cases  treated  in  later 
chapters  on  "Towing,"  and  "Rescuing  the  Passengers  from  a 
Wreck."  It  has  been  explained  in  the  chapter  on  "Handling 
Steamers  in  Heavy  Weather"  that  a  steamer  lying  dead  in  the 
water  almost  invariably  falls  off,  bringing  the  wind  and  sea  abaft 


THE  HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

the  beam  and  sometimes  well  on  the  quarter,  the  vessel  drifting 
more  or  less  rapidly  to  leeward.  A  destroyer  or  other  small 
craft,  taking  a  line  from  the  quarter  of  a  ship  in  this  position, 
will  usually  tail  down  to  leeward  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  Plate  167. 
Here  she  should  have  a  good  lee,  which  may  be  improved  by  the 
use  of  oil,  preferably  from  outlets  fairly  well  aft  on  the  small 
craft  herself.  There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  holding  her  bow 
close  enough  to  the  larger  ship  to  admit  of  taking  stores  or  of 
transferring  passengers,  either  by  a  small  boat  working  in  the 
oil  slick,  or  by  the  breeches  buoy.  Both  vessels  will  drift  and 
the  destroyer  will  drift  the  more  rapidly  unless  blanketed  by 
the  larger  vessel.  If  the  destroyer  finds  the  other  vessel  drifting 
faster,  she  can  hold  her  position  to  leeward  by  backing  her 
screws.  If  any  tendency  is  noted  to  swing  in  alongside  the  ship, 
the  line  should  be  let  go  and  the  small  vessel  backed  off,  as  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  be  jammed  up  against  the  lee  side  of  the 
other  vessel.  This  suggests  that  the  smaller  ship  will  do  well 
to  take  the  line  through  a  chock  fairly  well  aft  on  her  forecastle, 
and  on  the  bow  which  will  cant  her  stern  toward  the  stern  of 
the  other  vessel,  as  indicated  in  the  figure. 

For  getting  a  line  across  from  one  vessel  to  another,  when  a 
heaving  line  cannot  be  used,  any  of  the  methods  described 
in  the  chapter  on  "Towing"  may  be  used;  that  is  to  say,  it 
may  be  carried  across  by  a  boat  or  floated  down.  A  line  throw- 
ing gun  is  very  useful  here  (see  Chapter  XXIX).  The  shoulder- 
gun  shown  in  Plate  185  is  especially  convenient  for  use  on 
Destroyers,  Submarines,  Tugs  and  other  small  craft  and  should 
be  supplied  to  all  such. 

A  thrilling  rescue  was  effected  during  the  late  war  when  the 
transport  Otranto  ran  aground  during  a  storm  and  rapidly  began 
to  break  up.  The  British  destroyer  Mounsey  arrived  to  her 
rescue  and  had  no  choice  but  to  make  her  weather  side.  The 
destroyer  commander  signalled  the  transport  to  lower  her  life- 
boats empty  to  the  water's  edge  and,  using  these  as  fenders,  the 
Mounsey  went  alongside,  took  off  over  five  hundred  troops, 
and  succeeded  in  backing  clear.  Those  remaining  on  the 
transport  perished. 

The  danger  in  lying  alongside  another  vessel  at  sea  is  that 
due  to  rolling.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  later  types  of 
destroyers,  because  of  the  height  of  their  bridges  and  midship 
gun  platforms  which  plumb  the  ship's  side  about  twenty-five 


62O  THE   HANDLING  OF  DESTROYERS. 

feet  above  the  water's  edge.  Even  in  a  light  swell,  considerable 
damage  will  be  wrought  to  upperworks  and  the  side  will  be 
dished  by  fenders. 

It  was  found  during  the  war  that  fuel  oil  is  of  doubtful  value 
in  smoothing  out  the  crests,  it  being  too  heavy;  and  for  rescuing 
persons  in  the  water  it  should  not  be  used,  as  it  seems  to  stupify 
those  already  weakened  from  exposure.  Storm  oil  as  sold  com- 
mercially is  very  light  but  is  not  furnished  destroyers.  One 
destroyer  commander  tried  out  the  commercial  oil  and  reported 
that  it  was  very  effective,  ten  gallons  being  sufficient  to  ride  out  a 
severe  storm. 


(621) 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  SUBMARINE  CHASERS. 
Plate  168. 

One  of  the  earliest  naval  projects  of  large  scope  undertaken 
by  the  United  States  following  the  declaration  of  war  in  1917 
was  the  laying  down  of  a  fleet  of  armed  motor  launches,  known 
as  Submarine  Chasers.  Four  hundred  and  fifty  of  this  class, 
all  of  a  single  design,  were  built,  of  which  fifty  were  purchased 
and  operated  by  the  French  Government.  From  any  point  of 
view,  whether  that  of  the  marine  architect,  the  naval  officer, 
or  the  seaman,  these  boats  represented  a  novel  type  of  craft; 
and  the  history  of  their  operations  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
records  of  seamanship  in  maritime  annals. 

The  Chasers  were  originally  conceived  as  "patrol  boats." 
At  the  time  the  United  States  entered  the  World  War  the  sub- 
marine menace  had  become  the  issue  upon  which  the  final  out- 
come of  the  struggle  appeared  to  balance.  Anti-submarine 
tactics  were  essentially  defensive  in  character,  and  depended 
upon  the  principle  of  establishing  so  close  a  surface  patrol  in 
selected  areas  that  no  submarine  could  expose  itself  without 
being  subjected  to  immediate  attack;  or,  at  least,  to  having  the 
information  of  its  whereabouts  immediately  broadcasted  by  radio. 

By  the  time  the  chasers  were  beginning  to  be  delivered  such 
progress  had  been  made  in  the  development  of  submarine  detec- 
tion apparatus  and  in  weapons  for  attacking  submerged  sub- 
marines that  a  solution  to  the  problem  of  direct  offensive  action 
against  submarines  appeared  to  be  in  sight.  All  chasers  that 
operated  in  the  war  zone  were  equipped  and  specially  trained 
as  submarine-hunting  units,  and  the  original  conception  as  to 
their  mission  and  manner  of  employment  became  radically 
changed.  Instead  of  patrol  launches,  operating  merely  as  look- 
outs and  with  no  offensive  power  except  under  conditions  in 
which  the  initiative  rested  with  the  submarine,  they  became  an 
agent  for  the  detection,  chase  and  destruction  of  submarines  in  a 
wide  area.  The  matter  of  present  interest  is  not,  however,  the 


622  THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS. 

military  effectiveness  of  the  chaser,  but  the  fact  that  these  small 
vessels,  conceived  as  launches,  were  called  upon  to  fulfil  the  role 
of  cruising  ships.  To  the  limit  of  their  cruising  radius  they 
operated  as  seagoing  vessels.  All  the  problems  of  seamanship, 
of  navigation,  of  interior  organization  and  routine,  to  which  the 
largest  vessels  are  heir  fell  in  their  full  weight  to  the  lot  of  these 
ships  in  miniature.  The  weather  was  not  tempered  to  their 
small  size,  nor  was  there  any  other  class  of  vessel  which  showed  a 
greater  independence  of  it. 

A  study  of  the  material  characteristics  of  the  chasers  dis- 
closes many  features  of  interest,  but  an  understanding  of  the 
personnel  factor  is  necessary  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the 
performance  of  these  vessels.  Broadly  speaking,  the  chasers 
were  manned  by  naval  reserves  with  little  or  no  seafaring  experi- 
ence. A  few  experienced  regular  officers  were  assigned  as  com- 
manders of  large  detachments  and  for  the  most  important  staff 
duties.  There  were  also  a  number  of  experienced  seamen  in 
the  persons  of  yachtsmen,  warrant  officers,  and  enlisted  men  of 
the  regular  navy  holding  temporary  commissions,  scattered 
throughout  the  force,  but  the  mass  of  the  9,000  or  10,000  per- 
sonnel involved,  both  commissioned  and  enlisted,  were  raw 
recruits — clerks,  tradesmen,  mechanics,  professional  men,  college 
students,  and  men  of  leisure.  Some  of  the  boats  leaving  for  the 
war  zone  faced  a  trip  across  the  Atlantic  in  winter  weather  with 
not  a  man  in  the  ship's  company,  from  commanding  officer  to 
lowest  enlisted  rating,  that  had  ever  been  off  soundings.  It 
would  be  not  unworthy  of  remark  had  such  a  class  of  personnel 
succeeded  only  in  maintaining  operative  seagoing  vessels  and  in 
meeting  the  problems  of  existence  through  all  the  strange 
vicissitudes  of  a  life  at  sea  under  conditions  so  severe.  But  this 
was  only  the  beginning  of  their  accomplishment.  Their  task 
included  the  operation  of  entirely  novel  and  highly  intricate 
apparatus  in  every  department  of  ship  activity,  especially  as 
regards  the  communication,  ordnance,  and  main  propelling  equip- 
ment, and  the  conduct  of  a  new  system  of  tactical  movements 
in  which  skilful  efficiency  represented  the  acme  of  professional 
naval  seamanship. 

Material  Features.  The  hull  design  of  the  chasers  is  generally 
regarded  as  involving  radical  departures  from  accepted  principles 
heretofore  applied  in  any  type  of  power  driven  craft,  whereas  it 
is  in  fact  one  of  the  oldest  designs  in  existence.  It  has  been 


THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS.  623 

well  described  as  that  of  a  whaleboat  with  the  stern  cut  off 
square  at  a  point  slightly  forward  of  the  overhang.  The  general 
appearance  and  arrangement  of  the  boats  are  shown  in  Plate  168. 

Dimensions  and  Characteristics. 
Length  over  all,  no  ft. 
Breadth,  extreme  14  ft.  8  in. 
Designed  draft,  forward,  4  ft.  4  in. 
Designed  draft,  aft,  5  ft.  10  in. 
Designed  displacement,  66.5  tons. 
Actual  displacement  (loaded),  85  tons. 
Speed,  (loaded),  14.5  knots. 

Propelling   machinery,   660   h.p.,    triple  screws;   3    "Standard" 
Marine  Gas  Engines  of  220  h.p.  each. 

Propelling  Machinery.  The  original  design  contemplated 
twin  screws  with  one  300  h.p.  engine  for  each  shaft.  In  order 
to  obtain  the  large  number  of  engines  necessary  within  the 
time  allowable  it  was  necessary  to  adopt  a  commercial  stock 
model,  and  the  "Standard,"  220  h.p.,  six  cylinder,  air  starting 
and  reversing  type  was  decided  upon  as  the  most  acceptable. 
This  forced  the  use  of  triple  screws.  Although  this  arrange- 
ment was  originally  regarded  rather  as  a  choice  of  undesirables 
it  proved  on  the  whole  to  be  a  very  advantageous  feature,  con- 
sidering the  special  nature  of  the  service  performed  by  these 
vessels.  The  outstanding  qualities  of  readiness  and  reliability 
exhibited  by  the  chasers  were  due  in  large  measure  to  the  third 
engine  installation.  With  the  inexperienced  character  of  per- 
sonnel in  charge  of  these  complicated  mechanisms  and  the 
difficulty  in  obtaining  spare  parts,  the  matter  of  repair  and 
overhaul  became  of  more  than  ordinary  importance.  As  the 
boats  could  carry  out  all  their  principal  functions  under  any  two 
engines  the  third  engine  gave  opportunity  for  overhaul  of  one 
engine  at  a  time  without  leaving  station. 

One  of  these  vessels,  while  drifting,  having  lost  her  rudder, 
steamed  to  her  base  at  full  speed  on  various  courses,  using  all 
engines,  entered  harbor,  went  alongside  a  wharf,  cast  off  and 
went  alongside  a  tender  before  a  new  rudder  was  obtained.  The 
commanding  officer  reported  that  he  "did  not  miss  the  rudder 
much." 

Towing  Gear. — The  matter  of  towing  arrangements  was  of 
peculiar  importance  in  the  chasers.  The  only  practicable 
manner  of  transporting  a  large  number  of  chasers  across  the 


624  THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS. 

Atlantic  was  to  have  them  cross  on  their  own  bottoms;  and  in 
view  of  their  cruising  radius  of  800  miles,  a  considerable  period 
of  towing  for  the  purpose  of  fueling  alone  and  irrespective  of 
breakdown,  was  a  necessity.  It  was  also  the  expectation  that 
the  chasers,  operating  in  groups  of  three  boats  under  peculiarly 
hazardous  conditions,  would  have  frequent  occasion  to  take 
each  other  in  tow.  The  first  gear  devised  for  the  purpose 
appeared  reasonably  adequate,  but  it  was  found  so  seriously 
defective  that  it  was  abandoned  and  replaced  by  a  new  design 
which  proved  very  efficient.  This  consisted  of  a  strap-iron  bridle, 
of  2-inch  x  I /2-inch  iron,  passed  entirely  around  the  boat,  but 
spiked  securely  to  the  upper  guard  rail  and  secured  at  the  bow 
by  heavy  through  bolts  passing  through  both  parts.  The  ends 
at  the  bow  terminated  in  heavy  forged  eyes  of  sufficient  strength 
to  be  practically  an  integral  part  of  the  stem.  A  wire  pendant 
of  about  8  feet  in  length  with  an  eye  splice  in  outboard  end  was 
attached  to  these  eyes  by  means  of  a  swivel  pelican  hook.  The 
pendant  was  very  convenient  in  making  fast  the  tow  rope;  when 
casting  off  by  means  of  the  pelican  hook  it  of  course  remained 
attached  to  the  tow  rope  and  the  chaser  was  obliged  to  retrieve 
it  from  the  towing  vessel.  On  each  quarter,  projecting  aft 
beyond  the  sharp  knuckle  formed  by  the  square  stern,  a  solid 
eye  was  worked  into  the  strap  iron  bridle.  When  the  chaser 
became  the  towing  vessel  the  tow  line  was  secured  to  the  bight 
of  a  chain  bridle  which  hooked  to  these  eyes.  The  feature  of 
passing  the  strap  iron  bridle  entirely  around  the  chaser  was 
required  in  order  to  protect  the  vessel's  longitudinal  strength, 
as  it  was  frequently  necessary  to  tow  several  chasers  in  tandem. 
The  only  serious  defect  in  this  arrangement  was  the  destructive 
action  of  the  iron  strap,  spiked  to  the  guard  rail,  on  fenders 
and  mooring  lines  and  the  sides  of  other  chasers  lying  alongside. 
Ventilation. — One  of  the  severest  trials  to  which  the  crews  of 
these  boats  were  subjected  was  the  gasoline  fumes  which  perme- 
ated all  living  spaces  to  the  extent,  in  a  few  instances,  of  causing 
serious  cases  of  asphyxiation.  The  question  of  ventilation  in 
vessels  of  this  type  has  a  serious  aspect  aside  from  its  relation 
to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  personnel.  The  most  serious 
danger  to  which  the  chasers  were  exposed  was  fire,  originating  in 
the  ignition  of  gasoline  vapor,  or  liquid  gasoline  floating  in  the 
engine  room  bilges.  More  chasers  have  been  lost  from  this 
cause  than  from  all  other  causes  combined.  A  thorough  study 


Plate  No.    168. 


625 


626  THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS. 

of  this  question,  the  results  of  which  are  published  in  Bureau  of 
Engineering  Circular  Letter  D-2,  shows  that  proper  ventilation 
is  the  most  effective  single  preventive  measure  that  can  be 
applied.  The  causes  which  may  produce  a  spark  sufficient  to 
ignite  an  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  gasoline  vapor  are  so 
numerous  that  the  absolute  prevention  of  sparks  can  hardly  be 
deemed  entirely  practicable,  and  all  precautions  of  this  nature 
must  be  supplemented  by  thorough  measures  of  ventilation  to 
insure  as  far  as  possible  that  no  explosive  mixture  is  present. 

In  extinguishing  one  of  the  numerous  fires  that  occurred  in 
chaser  engine  rooms  the  experiment  was  tried  of  sealing  the 
compartment  against  entrance  of  air  and  allowing  the  fire  to 
burn  itself  out.  The  method  proved  surprisingly  effective,  the 
fire  being  smothered  within  a  few  minutes  with  no  damage  to 
machinery  or  electric  apparatus  and  only  slight  scorching  of 
paintwork.  This  method  should  not  be  entirely  depended  upon, 
however,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  air-tightness 
of  bulkheads,  hatches,  and  ports  in  individual  cases,  and  the 
fact  that  to  employ  this  method  precludes  the  use  of  ordinary 
extinguishers  which  are  effective  if  used  promptly. 

Handling  Alongside  a  Dock.  In  the  early  stages  of  their 
training,  the  chaser  personnel  usually  employed  methods  suitable 
for  large  vessels  in  bringing  their  craft  alongside.  With  in- 
creasing skill  they  soon  developed  the  practice  of  handling  the 
ship  almost  entirely  by  the  engines  instead  of  by  lines.  With 
the  large  power  available  and  the  small  size  of  the  vessel  the 
performance  generally  conveyed  the  impression  of  unusual  snap 
and  ease,  though  even  the  most  competent  officers  frequently 
made  the  mistake  of  using  too  much  speed.  • 

Fueling  at  Sea.  The  experience  of  the  chasers  led  to  an  inde- 
pendent development  of  a  practice  similar  to  that  followed  by 
the  destroyer  forces  (Plates  166  and  167).  In  weather  which 
permitted  towing  with  a  short  scope,  the  preferred  method  was 
to  give  the  chaser  a  line  from  the  stern  of  the  tanker,  the  latter 
maintaining  speed  as  permissible  by  the  condition  of  the  sea, 
and  either  floating  the  fuel  hose  down  to  the  chaser  to  be  picked 
up  by  a  grapnel,  or  sending  it  in  a  runner  down  the  tow  line, 
the  chaser  hauling  it  in  with  a  heaving  line.  Fueling  alongside 
was  often  performed  in  moderately  heavy  weather.  In  this 
case  it  was  found  desirable  that  the  tow  line  from  the  tanker 
should  give  as  long  a  scope  as  practicable  and  should  be  taken 


THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS.  627 

on  board  the  chaser  through  a  chock  on  the  inner  bow  (Plate 
166).  A  breast  line  from  bow  of  chaser  to  tanker  is  secured  to 
give  the  desired  scope  between  vessels — from  five  to  ten  fathoms. 
The  tanker  maintains  as  much  speed  as  conditions  allow  and 
the  chaser,  by  use  of  her  rudder,  keeps  the  breast  line  well  taut. 
A  second  breast  line  from  stern  of  chaser  to  tanker  is  usually 
tended.  The  fuel  hose  should  be  slung  from  a  davit  on  the 
tanker  and  paid  out  to  the  chaser  as  required  in  order  to  keep 
the  hose  clear  of  the  water. 

In  this  manner  as  many  as  six  chasers  at  a  time  were  fueled 
by  a  single  tanker,  two  on  each  side  and  two  astern.  The  whole 
operation  from  the  taking  of  the  tow  line  to  casting  off  after 
receiving  two  thirds  fuel  supply  usually  occupied  about  twenty 
minutes. 

Performance  at  Sea.  The  salient  characteristic  of  the  chasers 
was  their  remarkable  seaworthiness.  All  of  the  boats  operating 
under  the  United  States  flag  in  the  war  zone  crossed  the  ocean 
on  their  own  bottoms,  and  in  a  number  of  instances  encountered 
winter  storms  of  extreme  severity.  Several  chasers  built  in 
Puget  Sound  made  the  trip  to  the  Atlantic  coast  without  escort 
or  tender  of  any  kind.  The  conditions  with  respect  to  sea  and 
weather  peculiar  to  the  regions  in  which  the  greater  number  of 
the  chasers  operated  were  such  as  to  test  the  seagoing  ability  of 
craft  of  this  size  to  the  utmost.  Operating  from  10  to  100  miles 
off  shore  in  such  areas  as  the  north  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  the  English  Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  off  the  southern 
and  western  coast  of  Ireland,  they  were  often  exposed  to  the  full 
force  of  ocean  gales,  with  the  added  disadvantage  that  in  these 
regions  of  moderate  depth  the  character  of  the  waves  during 
heavy  weather  is  exactly  of  the  type  most  difficult  for  small 
vessels  to  cope  with, — short,  high,  and  precipitous,  with  breaking 
crests  and  generally  confused  in  direction  owing  to  reflection 
from  the  land.  In  long,  regular,  deep-water  waves,  the  chasers 
frequently  passed  through  gales  of  extraordinary  violence  in 
such  comparative  comfort  that  the  actual  severity  of  the  weather, 
as  evident  in  large  vessels,  was  generally  underestimated. 
Under  these  conditions,  the  full  force  of  the  wind  was  apparent 
only  when  upon  the  crests  of  the  waves. 

The  first  chasers  to  cross  the  Atlantic  were  of  those  pur- 
chased by  the  French  Government  and  manned  by  French 
crews.  The  personnel  of  these  boats  was  excellent  as  regards 


628  THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS. 

experience  and  ability  in  practical  seamanship,  but  it  did  not 
include  any  trained  navigators,  and  dependence  for  navigational 
direction  lay  in  keeping  touch  with  the  escort  vessel.  Two  of 
the  chasers  became  separated  from  the  escort,  and  one  of  them 
was  never  heard  of  again.  The  other,  after  a  separation  of 
about  thirty  days  and  great  hardship  from  the  exhaustion  of 
fresh  water  and  stores,  made  port  under  sail  using  a  jury  rig 
improvised  from  blankets.  With  the  above  possible  exception 
no  chaser  was  lost  during  the  war  through  any  cause  connected 
with  the  seaworthiness  of  the  vessel.  This  experience  led  to  an 
idea  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  send  the  boats  across  either  on 
the  decks  of  large  freighters  or  with  a  single  escort  vessel  for 
each  chaser.  Later,  however,  the  United  States  chasers  crossed 
in  convoys  of  from  twelve  to  thirty,  generally  with  one  escort 
vessel  for  four,  five,  or  six  boats.  The  number  of  escort  vessels 
required  was  determined  principally  by  the  necessity  for  fueling 
the  chasers  at  sea  and  with  some  regard  also  to  the  probability 
of  machinery  breakdowns  in  view  of  the  inexperienced  state  of 
the  personnel,  rather  than  from  any  considerations  of  safety  for 
the  crews.  On  one  occasion  one  of  the  escort  vessels,  a  large 
ocean  going  tug,  foundered  during  heavy  weather ;  and  in  several 
other  instances  the  safety  of  escort  vessels  was  a  matter  of  more 
concern  than  any  situation  that  arose  in  connection  with  chasers. 
Every  type  of  vessels  has  its  own  individual  peculiarities  of 
performance  in  a  seaway,  but,  generally  speaking,  all  are  equally 
subject  to  certain  broad  general  laws  of  ship  handling.  All 
vessels  if  allowed  to  drift  will  assume  a  position  more  or  less  in 
the  trough  of  the  sea;  all  vessels  may  be  strained  by  being 
forced  directly  into  a  head  sea,  and  will  either  pound  or  bury 
their  bows  depending  upon  the  speed  used  and  the  period, 
size,  and  conformation  of  the  waves  encountered;  all  vessels 
will  run  more  comfortably  with  the  sea  abaft  the  beam  on  a 
proper  combination  of  speed  and  course  with  respect  to  the 
character  of  the  sea;  and  any  vessel  may  be  "pooped"  through 
a  disregard  of  these  factors.  The  chasers  were  no  exception 
in  these  respects,  and  yet  the  fact  that  they  were  successfully 
operated  under  all  conditions  by  personnel  who  were  in  many 
cases  inexperienced  shows  that  their  excellent  design  did  give 
them  a  considerable  immunity  from  conditions  which,  in  the 
case  of  small  vessels  especially,  often  necessitate  careful  and 
experienced  management.  A  few  excerpts  from  reports  of 


THE  SUBMARINE   CHASERS.  62Q 

experienced  officers  are  added  as  showing  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  design  as  evidenced  by  the  performance  of  the 
vessels  in  a  seaway. 

"When  drifting  in  a  moderate  sea  she  lay  in  the  trough  and  rolled 
rapidly,  but  very  seldom  shipped  water.  In  a  rough  sea  she  lay  in  the 
trough  and  rolled  very  heavily.  At  first  the  rolling  motion  of  the  vessel 
was  alarming,  but  through  experience  we  learned  that  the  chaser  was 
like  a  cork  on  troubled  water,  and  we  felt  quite  as  safe  drifting  in  the 
trough  of  a  rough  sea  as  in  any  other  position,  although  this  was  the 
most  uncomfortable  one." 

"I  went  through  a  92-mile  hurricane  at  various  speeds,  including  full 
speed,  by  keeping  the  weather  abaft  the  beam,  and  noticed  no  danger  or 
damage  to  the  vessel." 

"These  boats  commence  rolling  in  very  moderate  chop  and  under 
these  conditions  are  distinctly  uncomfortable.  An  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  sea  does  not,  however,  increase  the  discomfort  but  may  actually 
cause  them  to  roll  less  violently.  .  .  .  "Their  motion  is  seldom  violent 
and  there  is  little  tendency  to  throw  objects  around.  .  .  .  Very  few  of 
the  chasers  which  had  been  at  sea  continuously  during  the  war  had 
racks  for  their  tables.  I  cruised  8,000  miles  in  one  from  Lisbon  to  Arch- 
angel and  there  was  seldom  a  time  when  we  could  not  serve  dinner  on  a 
table  without  racks.  Of  course  things  chased  round  a  little,  but  nothing 
compared  to  a  destroyer." 

"Here  the  chasers  were  practically  in  the  breakers  and  their  per- 
formance in  these  breaking  seas,  of  at  least  30  feet  height,  was  remark- 
able. It  is  the  worst  position  I  have  ever  been  in  in  any  type  of  boat, 
and  I  know  of  no  other  type  which  would  have  gone  through  so  suc- 
cessfully." 


(630) 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

SUBMARINES 

§1.     PRELIMINARY. 

While  submarines  are  designed  primarily  for  operating  under 
water,  it  must  be  understood  that  even  in  time  of  war  they  spend 
many  hours  on  the  surface  for  every  hour  that  they  spend 
submerged.  The  motive  power  used  on  the  surface  is  that  of 
gas  or  oil  engines;  and  fuel  for  these  can  be  carried  in  quantities 
as  great,  proportionally,  as  the  fuel  carried  by  other  surface 
craft.  A  modern  submarine  may  have  a  cruising  radius  of  from 
6,000  to  8,000  miles.  The  motive  power  for  running  submerged 
is  derived  from  storage  batteries  which  give,  at  best,  a  speed 
from  12  to  14  knots  and  can  furnish  power  for  this  or  for  much 
lower  speeds  for  only  a  very  limited  period,  after  which  the  boat 
must  rise  to  the  surface  to  re-charge  the  batteries  before  another 
submerged  run  is  possible. 

There  is  reason  to  anticipate  that  ultimately  a  type  of  internal 
combustion  engine  will  be  developed  which  can  be  used  under 
water  as  well  as  on  the  surface.  Such  a  development  will 
greatly  increase  the  submerged  capabilities  of  the  submarine. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is  a  limit,  fixed  by  the 
human  element  involved,  to  the  time  that  may  be  spent  submerged ; 
— a  limit  which  is  a  matter  partly  of  physical  endurance  and 
partly  of  morale. 

§  II.     GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  cross-section  of  the  submarine  is  circular  except  toward 
the  bow  and  stern,  where  it  takes  the  form  of  an  ellipse,  the 
major  axis  being  vertical  at  the  bow  and  horizontal  at  the  stern. 
Except  as  modified  by  structure  added  to  provide  deck  space, 
bridge,  conning  tower,  gun-platforms,  etc.,  the  general  shape 
is  that  of  a  torpedo  (Plate  169). 

In  late  designs  the  strength  of  the  hull  is  such  as  to  resist  the 
crushing  pressure  of  the  water  at  a  depth  of  200  feet.  In  early 
types,  the  ballast  tanks,  which  will  be  referred  to  later,  were 
inside  the  hull  proper.  In  later  types  they  are  built  on,  outside, 
making  what  is  in  effect  a  double  hull  and  adding  much  to  the 
normal  strength  of  the  structure,  as  well  as  to  the  protection 
from  damage  by  collision  or  other  accident.  In  this  (double- 


SUBMARINES.  63! 

hull)  type,  the  ballast  tanks,  in  addition  to  being  outside  the 
real  hull  are  below  the  level  of  the  interior  deck  level.  In  the 
single-hull  type  also,  they  are  below  the  interior  deck. 

Tanks  habitually  carried  completely  rilled  when  the  boat  is 
submerged  are  called  "Main  Ballast  Tanks"  and  are  numbered 
serially  from  forward  aft. 

Tanks  which  are  not  habitually  carried  completely  filled  when 
the  boat  is  submerged,  or  which  are  used  for  weight  compensation 
are  called  "Variable  Ballast  Tanks."  The  variable  tanks  at 
bow  and  stern  are  the  forward  and  after  "Trimming  Tanks." 

To  the  above  are  added  other  small  variable  tanks,  "Auxiliary" 
and  "Regulating,"  for  various  purposes.  Each  tank  is  provided 
with  a  sea-valve,  a  vent-valve,  and  connections  for  pumping  and 
blowing  by  the  use  of  air  at  loo-pounds  pressure. 

When  it  is  desired  to  rid  the  tanks  of  water  it  may  be  done  in 
three  ways : 

•     I.  Blowing  with  air. 

2.  Pumping  with  main  power  pumps. 

3.  Pumping  by  hand. 

Air  flasks  are  provided,  capable  of  being  charged  with  com- 
pressed air  to  a  pressure  of  2500  pounds  or  over.  This  air  can 
be  blown  into  any  tank  at  any  desired  pressure  through  air  lines 
fitted  with  proper  stop-valves.  When  air  pressure  is  admitted 
into  a  tank  (at  its  highest  point)  and  the  flooding  valves  (at  the 
lowest  point)  are  left  open,  the  water  in  the  tank  will  be  blown 
out,  provided  the  internal  air  pressure  is  greater  than  the  ex- 
ternal water  pressure  due  to  the  "head"  of  water. 

The  main-power  pumps  are  run  either  through  suitable  gearing 
or  by  clutches  from  the  main  shaft,  and  will  pump  against  a  great 
pressure.  The  water-lines  are  so  arranged  that  all  tanks  can  be 
opened  up  to  the  main  pump. 

The  hand-pumps  are  operated  entirely  by  hand,  and  would 
afford  the  final  method  used  to  free  the  tanks  of  water,  when  the 
air  and  electricity  had  failed.  They  can  be  connected  to  any 
tank. 

The  interior  of  the  hull  is  divided  into  water-tight  compart- 
ments, of  which  the  most  important  are: 

The  Torpedo  Room,  at  the  extreme  bow,  where  the  torpedo 
tubes  are  installed  and  the  "ready"  torpedoes  stowed.  In 
large  submarines,  tubes  are  also  installed  astern. 

The  Battery  Room,  for  the  storage  batteries. 


(632) 


Plate  No.    169. 


FIG.  i.    A  SUBMARINE. 


FIG.  2.    QUARTERS  IN  A  SUBMARINE. 


SUBMARINES.  633 

The  Control  Room,  with  all  facilities  for  manoeuvring,  espe- 
cially when  submerged.  Here  is  a  sound-proof  booth,  with 
receivers  for  radio,  submarine  signals,  and  special  listening  de- 
vices as  developed  during  the  World  War. 

This  is  the  station  of  the  Commanding  Officer  when  operating 
submerged. 

The  most  important  of  the  control-devices  are  the  following: 
Diving  plane  controls. 
Steering  wheel  and  electric  controls. 
Kingston-valves  for  flooding  the  ballast-tanks. 
Trimming  pumps  and  their  manifolds. 
High  and  low  pressure  manifolds. 
Depth  and  tank  pressure  gauges. 
Motor  controls. 

Periscopes  and  their  hoisting  controls. 
Valves  of  ventilating  system. 
Inclinometer  for  determining  Trim. 
The  Engine  Room. 
The  Motor  Room. 
The  Tiller  Room. 

The  After  Torpedo  Room  (if  stern  tubes  are  used). 
Such  space  as  is  available  in  the  compartments  above  enum- 
erated is  utilized  as  living  spaces  for  the  officers  and  crew.     In 
the  largest  boats  a  separate  living  compartment  is  provided  for 
the  officers. 

The  modern  submarine  is  a  vessel  of  considerable  size  (500  to 
2000  tons  displacement),  with  good  cruising  radius,  carrying  its 
personnel  in  comfortable  quarters  (Plate  169)  and  affording 
fairly  satisfactory  space  and  facilities  for  exercise  and  diversion. 
An  elevated  and  roomy  conning  tower  (Plate  170)  gives  ample 
opportunity  for  navigation  and  manoeuvring  on  the  surface,  and 
the  necessary  instruments  are  duplicated  in  the  control  room 
below  as  above  described. 

Sanitation  is  provided  by  effective  force  pumps  or  air  ejection 
systems  which  have  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency. 
Cooking  is  done  by  electric  stoves. 
Steering  may  be  by  either  magnetic  or  gyro  compass. 
Ventilation.     The  volume  of  air  contained  within  the  boats  is 
usually  sufficient  to  last  from  5   to  6  hours  before  becoming 
vitiated.     The  renewal  of  air  is  provided  for  by  a  pump  taking  its 
suction  from  the  bilges  or  lower  portion  of  the  boats,  and  dis- 


634 


SUBMARINES. 


charging  outboard,  while  fresh  air  is  admitted  to  the  interior  from 
the  compressed  air  tanks  until  normal  atmospheric  pressure  is 
obtained.  The  general  practice  is  to  start  the  renewal  of  air 
after  being  with  closed  hatches  for  4  hours.  After  this  time, 
2  inches  by  barometer  is  removed  every  4  hours,  and  air  admitted 
from  the  air  tanks  to  bring  the  pressure  back  to  normal.  The 
compressed  air  contained  in  the  tanks  is  considered  sufficient  to 
sustain  life  for  about  three  or  four  days  in  the  ordinary  type  of 
submarine.  Below  is  a  formula  for  determining  the  number  of 
days  the  contained  compressed  air  in  the  air  tanks  of  a  sub- 
marine will  sustain  life: 

X  —  Number  of  days  life  is  sustained  before  symptoms  of 

distress  occur. 

a  =  Air  pressure  in  tanks,  per  square  inch. 
b  =  Cubical  contents  of  tanks  in  cubic  feet. 
c  =  Number  of  men  in  crew. 


36oooc 

NOTE.  —  This  formula  was  computed  assuming  that  one  man  uses  .8  cubic 
feet  of  oxygen  per  hour;  that  there  is  20  per  cent  by  volume  of  oxygen  in  the 
air;  and  that  symptoms  of  distress  occur  when  the  oxygen  has  been  reduced 
to  12  per  cent  by  volume. 

§  III.     OPERATING. 

Insofar  as  submarines  can  be  divided  into  types,  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  are  connected  more  with  methods  of 
submerging  than  with  any  other  features,  and  even  here  the 
differences  are  fast  disappearing. 

All  modern  submarines  have,  under  normal  operating  condi- 
tions, a  small  degree  of  positive  buoyancy,  as  a  result  of  which 
they  tend  to  rise  to  the  surface  except  when  some  force  is  being 
applied  to  keep  them  submerged.  The  forces  which  may  be  so 
applied  are  of  two  kinds,  —  weight,  added  by  filling  the  ballast 
tanks  which  have  been  described,  and  pressure,  applied  by 
horizontal  rudders  or  fin-like  planes,  called  '  'hydroplanes," 
projecting  from  the  hull  and  capable  of  being  tilted  up  or  down 
by  mechanism  controlled  from  inisde  the  boat.  The  hydroplane 
does  not  differ  in  principle  from  the  horizontal  rudder,  and  like 
the  rudder  it  depends  for  its  effect  upon  actual  motion  of  the 
submarine  through  the  water;  the  action  being,  in  fact,  one  of 
steering  the  submarine  either  up  or  down.  It  will  be  seen  that 


Plate  No.    170. 


635 


FIG.   i.    CONNING  TOWER  AND  BRIDGE 
OF  A   SUBMARINE. 


FIG.  2.     PERISCOPE. 


636 


SUBMARINES. 


if  there  exists  a  small  amount  of  positive  buoyancy  when  all  the 
tanks  are  filled,  the  submarine  will,  theoretically,  rise  to  the 
surface  when  motion  through  the  water  ceases. 

Another  important  factor  which  enters  into  the  question  of 
steering  up  or  down,  when  the  submarine  (submerged)  is  actually 
making  way  through  the  water,  is  the  trim  of  the  boat. 

There  are  three  conditions  under  which  submarines  usually 
operate;  viz.,  the  "light"  or  cruising  condition,  the  "awash" 
condition,  and  the  "submerged"  condition. 

In  the  "light"  or  cruising  condition,  the  main  ballast,  auxiliary 
ballast,  adjusting,  and  midship  tanks,  should  be  kept  free  of 
water,  and  the  water  in  the  bilges  should  be  kept  as  low  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  prevent  the  dangerous  tendency  to  dive  when 
there  is  free  water  in  the  main  ballast  or  midship  tanks,  or  in  the 
bilges. 

The  forward  and  after  trimming  tanks  are  used  to  give  the 
boat  the  most  efficient  trim  for  surface  running.  This  trim  is 
usually  about  2°  or  3°  down  by  the  stern,  but  it  varies  slightly 
with  different  types  of  boats.  Except  in  cases  where  a  main 
hatch  trunk  is  fitted,  the  main  hatch  should  always  be  kept  closed 
when  underway.  The  torpedo  hatch  is  also  closed  and  should 
never  be  opened  when  underway.  The  conning-tower  hatch  and 
all  ventilators  are  kept  open  except  in  very  rough  weather,  when 
every  opening  in  the  boat  should  be  sealed  except  one  ventilator 
which  supplies  air  for  the  engines.  This  ventilator  is  so  fitted 
that  it  can  be  lowered  from  inside  the  boat. 

To  run  awash  under  the  engines,  a  special  type  ventilator  is 
provided,  which  can  be  closed  from  inside  the  boat.  All  prepara- 
tions are  made  as  before  except  that  the  "awash"  ventilator  is 
kept  up.  All  tanks  are  filled  except  the  auxiliary,  which  should 
be  kept  empty.  The  air  for  the  engines  is  supplied  through  the 
ventilator,  and  a  fuel-tank  vent  inside  of  the  boat  is  kept  open. 
The  diving  rudder  is  tended  very  carefully  to  prevent  the  boat 
diving,  and  a  watch  is  kept  on  the  ventilator,  which  can  be  closed 
instantly  by  a  flat  valve,  should  any  water  enter. 

To  Submerge.  Control  in  the  vertical  plane  is  effected  by  the 
use  of  horizontal  rudders  or  hydroplanes  as  already  described. 
In  the  early  boats,  of  the  Holland  type,  one  such  plane  aft,  in 
the  form  of  a  horizontal  rudder,  was  all  that  was  required ;  but 
the  increase  of  length  in  later  boats  has  led  to  a  demand  for  a 
pair  of  planes  at  the  bow,  and  the  Lake  type  has  a  pair  amid- 


SUBMARINES.  637 

ships  also.  The  midship  planes  are  always  fitted  to  be  rigged 
in,  to  clear  the  side  of  the  boat  when  going  alongside  a  dock  or  a 
tender.  The  bow  planes  are  sometimes  similarly  fitted.  The 
stern  planes  are  identical  in  effect  with  the  horizontal  rudder 
formerly  used  alone. 

When  running  submerged,  the  storage  batteries  are  the  only 
source  of  power.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  storage  battery  that 
the  higher  the  rate  of  discharge,  the  smaller  the  total  amount  of 
power  which  can  be  taken  from  it,  and  vice-versa.  This  char- 
acteristic is  utilized  when  submarines  wish  to  make  long  sub- 
merged runs.  The  storage  battery  is  divided,  electrically,  in 
halves.  When  these  are  connected  in  parallel,  the  voltage 
impressed  on  the  motors  is  reduced,  thereby  reducing  the  rate 
of  discharge.  This  connection  will  give  the  maximum  total 
amount  of  power  that  can  be  taken  from  the  battery.  If  the 
motors  are  now  placed  in  series  with  each  other,  the  power  which 
would  ordinarily  be  used  to  drive  one  propeller  is  divided  be- 
tween two  and  the  boat  is  run  at  its  lowest  and  most  economical 
speed. 

Diving  and  Running  Submerged.  There  are  two  methods  of 
submerging, — the  Stationary  dive  and  the  Running  dive.  The 
stationary  dive  is  made,  as  its  name  indicates,  with  no  way  on 
the  boat.  It  is  made,  but  only  in  shallow  water,  when  the 
commanding  officer  is  uncertain  of  the  "trim"  or  the  location  of 
the  center  of  gravity,  as  a  result  of  recent  changes  in  the  variable 
weights  in  the  boat: — stores,  oil,  torpedoes,  etc.  The  object  of 
this  type  of  dive  is  to  determine  the  locatio~h  of  the  center  of 
gravity,  as  this  is  very  important  in  submarine  handling. 

When  a  stationary  dive  is  to  be  made,  an  area  on  soundings, 
and,  if  possible,  with  a  soft  bottom,  is  chosen.  When  in  the 
desired  location,  the  boat  is  stopped  and  the  main  ballast  tanks 
slowly  flooded.  When  these  are  full,  as  indicated  by  water 
coming  through  the  inboard  vents,  the  inclinometers  are  examined 
to  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  fore  and  aft  trim.  In  a  sub- 
merged submarine,  the  fore  and  aft  stability  is  much  reduced. 
The  first  step  after  submerging  is,  therefore,  to  establish  a  fore 
and  aft  horizonal  trim.  It  is  assumed  that  the  buoyancy  is  not 
completely  destroyed  when  the  main  ballast  tank  is  flooded,  as 
the  operation  is  rendered  much  more  dangerous  and  difficult 
when  the  boat  is  so  heavy  as  to  sink  before  the  fore  and  aft  trim 
is  obtained. 


638 


SUBMARINES. 


Assuming  that  the  boat  is  submerged  to  a  depth  of  eight  or 
nine  feet  by  the  depth  gauge  when  the  main  ballast  tanks  are 
flooded,  the  commanding  officer  looks  to  the  angle  of  the  boat 
in  a  fore  and  aft  line.  If,  for  instance,  the  bubble  of  the  in- 
clinometer is  at  the  forward  end  of  the  glass  he  knows  that  the 
boat  is  lighter  at  the  forward  end  than  at  the  after,  and  he 
slowly  admits  water  to  the  forward  trimming  tank,  watching 
the  bubble  carefully  and  stopping  in  time  to  catch  it  at  zero. 
During  this  operation  care  must  be  taken  not  to  add  enough 
water  to  destroy  the  buoyancy  of  the  boat.  If  it  is  seen  that  to 
bring  the  boat  on  an  even  keel  by  flooding  forward  will  require 
enough  water  to  destroy  this  buoyancy,  the  plan  is  changed  and 
water  is  pumped  from  aft  forward,  until  the  proper  trim  is 
reached. 

When  the  fore  and  aft  trim  is  obtained  and  the  bubble  is  on 
zero,  the  total  weight  of  the  boat  is  examined  and  corrected  by 
changing  the  amount  of  water  in  the  auxiliary  and  regulating 
tanks.  The  best  trim  for  slow  speed  (the  most  difficult  condition 
for  running  submerged)  is  that  of  almost  neutral  buoyancy.  If 
this  condition  is  obtained,  very  little  diving  angle  is  needed  to 
maintain  the  set  depth.  If  the  boat  is  heavy,  i.e.,  has  negative 
buoyancy,  high  speed  and  large  rudder  and  plane  angle  are 
necessary  to  keep  her  from  going  below  the  desired  depth;  and 
if  she  is  light,  the  same  demands  on  power  and  rudders  are  made 
to  keep  her  from  breaking  the  surface.  A  very  good  trim  is 
obtained  when  the  boat  will  hang  or  balance  on  an  even  keel  at 
twenty  feet;  this  will  leave  something  less  than  one  hundred 
pounds  of  positive  buoyancy,  which  amount  is  about  right. 

It  must  be  emphasized  that  this  type  of  dive  should  be  made 
only  in  shallow  water,  as  in  great  depths  very  real  dangers  are 
present.  When  a  submarine  is  falling  through  the  water  there 
are  only  two  ways  of  stopping  the  fall;  one  by  blowing  the  water 
from  the  main  ballast  tanks,  thus  overcoming  the  downward 
momentum  by  the  lifting  force  of  buoyancy,  the  other  to  go 
ahead  at  full  speed  and  raise  her  by  the  planing  effect  of  the 
hydroplanes.  As  it  takes  some  time  and  no  little  force  to  over- 
come the  downward  momentum  of  a  large  boat,  dangerous 
depths  and  pressures  may  well  be  encountered  before  regaining 
control.  The  force  necessary  to  catch  a  boat  weighing  600  tons 
falling  at  the  rate  of  a  foot  per  second  can  be  quickly  figured 
but  it  will  take-  longer  to  apply  it. 


SUBMARINES.  639 

On  account  of  this  danger  and  the  time  lost  in  making  a 
stationary  dive,  charts  and  tables  are  usually  made  from  which 
the  amount  and  location  of  the  salt  water  necessary  to  com- 
pensate for  the  fuel  used  and  stores  moved  can  easily  be  found, 
and  the  trim  maintained  during  long  runs  and  over  protracted 
periods. 

The  running  dive  is  the  safest,  quickest  and  most  common 
method  of  submerging.  In  this  method  the  trim  must  be 
approximately  known,  but  large  variations  are  permissible. 
After  making  all  preparations,  as  described  later,  the  main  ballast 
tanks  are  flooded  while  still  going  ahead  on  the  motors  at  normal 
speed  with  the  halves  of  the  battery  in  series,  so  as  to  have  a 
large  reserve  of  power  if  it  is  needed.  When  the  ballast  tanks 
are  flooded,  the  speed  may  be  reduced  and  the  planes  placed  in 
the  neutral  position  in  order  to  ascertain  the  fore  and  aft  trim 
and  the  total  weight  of  the  boat.  As  in  the  stationary  dive, 
the  fore  and  aft  trim  is  corrected  first  and  then  the  total  weight. 
When  the  boat  is  so  trimmed  that  the  planes  will  hold  the 
desired  depth  at  slow  speed  with  a  small  angle,  it  may  be  stopped 
with  safety  to  make  very  fine  adjustments;  but  in  practice  this 
is  seldom  done  as  the  trim  obtained  at  slow  speed  is  good  enough 
for  all  purposes.  In  this  method  of  diving,  the  danger  of  the 
boat  getting  away  on  the  flooding  of  the  tanks  is  much  reduced, 
as  there  is  already  sufficient  way  on  to  make  use  of  the  planes 
immediately  and  the  downward  momentum  can  be  more  readily 
overcome. 

Preparation  and  Orders  for  Diving.  When  a  submarine  is 
on  the  surface  there  are  several  conditions  existing  that  must  be 
changed  before  it  can  submerge.  Deck  hatches  may  be  open, 
awnings  up,  battery  ventilation  outlets  open,  and  the  induction 
valve  supplying  air  to  the  engines  and  living  spaces  is  sure  to  be 
open.  These  valves  must  be  closed  and  all  navigation  gear  and 
other  portable  objects  on  the  bridge  must  be  struck  below. 
This  work  is  a  matter  of  routine  but  the  commanding  officer 
must  make  sure  that  all  is  done  correctly.  Below  decks  there 
are  many  things  to  be  done.  The  valves  mentioned  above  are 
all  closed  from  inside  the  boat,  beside  which  there  are  stop  valves 
on  the  tanks  to  be  opened,  reserve  air-banks  to  be  connected  to 
the  air  manifold,  pumps  to  be  tested  and  bilges  pumped,  and 
motor  fields  to  be  excited.  WTith  a  well-trained  crew  the  only 
order  necessary  is  the  signal  to  dive,  given  on  the  warning 


640  SUBMARINES. 

howler  or  klaxon ;  but  if  the  crew  are  inexperienced  each  order  is 
given  in  detail  and  a  report  made  on  its  execution. 

A  complete  list  of  diving  orders  with  their  meanings  is  given 
below : 

RIG  FOR  DIVING  (described  above). 

VENTILATE  INBOARD.  This  applies  to  the  battery  ventilation 
and  on  account  of  its  importance  is  given  as  a  separate  order 
and  requires  a  separate  report  when  complied  with. 

SHIFT  THE  CONTROL,  to  conning  tower  or  control  room.  Before 
diving,  the  rudder  and  engine  telegraphs  are  operated  from 
the  bridge. 

STATIONS  FOR  TRIMMING  DOWN.  At  this  order  the  junior  officers 
and  crew  take  their  diving  stations  and  await  orders  to  open 
valves  and  vents. 

SECURE  THE  ENGINES.  At  this  order  the  engines  are  stopped, 
the  motors  made  ready,  and  all  outboard  openings  in  the 
engine  room  closed.  When  the  commanding  officer  takes 
his  diving  station,  usually  at  a  periscope  from  which  a  view 
of  the  depth  gauge  is  had,  he  orders :  — 

REPORT.  At  this  the  man  in  charge  of  each  station  reports 
through  the  voice  tube  or  telephone  that  the  valves  and 
machinery  at  his  station  are,  in  all  respects,  ready  for  diving. 
These  reports  may  be  made  to  the  executive  officer  but  in 
any  case  they  should  be  checked  by  the  executive  or  com- 
manding officer. 

CLOSE  THE  CONNING  TOWER. 

AHEAD  BOTH  MOTORS.  If  this  has  not  been  given  before  or 
unless  a  stationary  dive  is  to  be  made. 

A  further  word  of  explanation  is  here  necessary.  An  order  to 
BLOW  a  tank  is  an  order  to  CLOSE  the  vent  and  an  order  to  FLOOD 
a  tank  is  an  order  to  OPEN  the  vent.  An  order  to  flood  or  blow 
requires  two  reports  of  execution,  one  that  the  water  valve  is 
either  opened  or  closed,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  another  that 
the  vent  is  in  the  correct  position.  Now  comes: 

FLOOD  MAIN  BALLAST.  This  is  acknowledged  by  the  reports 
that  the  kings  tons  and  vents  are  open.  When  the  man  at 
the  air  manifold  reports  that  there  is  water  at  the  manifold, 
the  commanding  officer,  after  waiting  long  enough  to  be 
sure  that  there  are  no  bubbles  left  in  the  tank,  orders: 


SUBMARINES.  64! 

CLOSE  THE  MAIN  VENTS.  This  leaves  the  kingston  valves  still 
open  and  the  tanks  are  ready  for  quick  blowing.  Orders 
are  now  given  to  regulate  the  trim  such  as : 

FLOOD — Ibs.  in  after  trim.  In  flooding,  pumping,  or  blowing 
small  tanks,  a  definite  amount  is  always  designated  and  a 
report  is  made  when  the  gauge  passes  an  even  mark,  such  as 
"1800,  1900,  in  after  trim"  and  the  final  amount  is  reported 
when  the  tank  is  secured. 

When  an  order  is  given  to  blow  a  partially  filled  tank,  the  man 
at  the  station  on  the  outboard  valve  must  never  open  it  until  a 
report  is  received  that  the  pressure  in  the  tank  is  greater  than  the 
sea  pressure.  To  do  so  will  allow  water  to  enter  the  tank,  which 
is  the  converse  of  what  is  desired;  and  if  the  tank  is  a  large  one, 
only  slightly  filled,  great  danger  exists  that  enough  water  to 
sink  the  boat  may  enter.  When  taking  water  from  a  partially 
filled  tank,  it  is  much  safer,  quicker,  and  more  economical,  to  use 
the  pumps.  Boats  have  been  known  to  hit  the  bottom  at  dan- 
gerous depths  by  trying  to  blow.  It  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous 
mistakes  that  can  be  made;  as  will  be  clear  from  the  following 
illustration : 

A  submarine  is  running  at  sixty  feet,  with  five  thousand  pounds 
of  water  in  the  auxiliary  tank,  which  is  designed  to  hold  twenty 
thousand.  At  sixty  feet  there  is  a  pressure  of  thirty  pounds 
per  square  inch  on  the  outside  of  the  tank.  Now  if  the  kingston 
is  opened  before  the  pressure  is  built  up  in  the  tank,  the  water 
will  enter  with  a  head  of  thirty  pounds  at  a  rate  governed  by  the 
size  of  the  kingston,  usually  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  With 
this  opening  it  will  take  only  a  few  seconds  for  ten  or  fifteen 
thousand  pounds  of  water  to  enter  the  boat.  As  this  is  giving 
the  boat  negative  buoyancy,  she  will  immediately  gather  momen- 
tum toward  the  bottom. 

To  catch  her  this  water  must  be  got  rid  of  and  the  momentum 
overcome.  Things  happen  quickly  in  submarines  and  one  can 
not  be  too  careful.  THE  BEST  RULE  is  TO  PUMP,  NOT  BLOW, 

A  PARTIALLY  FILLED  TANK. 

When  the  boat  is  in  the  proper  trim,  the  order  is  given  to 
RUN  AT — FEET.  It  may  be  sixty  or  only  sixteen,  but  the  depth 
is  always  specifically  designated. 

To  bring  a  submarine  to  the  surface  it  is  only  necessary  to  get 
rid  of  the  water  in  the  main  ballast  tanks.  Any  tank  may  be 


642 


SUBMARINES. 


freed  of  water  in  either  of  two  ways;  by  pumping  with  high  or 
low  pressure  pumps  or  by  blowing  with  compressed  air.  The 
usual  method  is  to  blow  until  a  good  percentage  of  positive 
buoyancy  is  obtained  and  then  pump  the  tanks  dry.  This  is  a 
quick  method  and  is  economical  of  compressed  air.  Hence, 
after  making  sure  that  the  vents  are  secured,  the  order  is  given 
BLOW  MAIN  BALLAST.  The  pumps  are  started  when  positive 
buoyancy  is  assured. 

§  IV.     HANDLING  SUBMERGED. 

Whether  or  not  the  boat  handles  well  submerged  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  trim.  Heavy  seas  will  make  a  difference 
in  handling,  particularly  near  the  surface,  but  the  one  big 
factor  over  which  the  commanding  officer  has  control  is  the  trim, 
which  should  be  very  carefully  regulated.  A  poor  trim  can  be 
overcome  by  high  speed  but  it  is  unseamanlike  and  only  the 
gravest  emergencies  should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  having  a 
perfect  trim. 

The  effect  of  speed  on  handling  submerged  is  tabulated  below : 

HIGH  SPEED: 

1.  Requires  small  plane  angle. 

2.  Requires  small  angle  on  boat  to  change  depth. 

3.  Can  be  out  of  buoyancy  trim  as  much  as  4,000  or  5,000 

pounds. 

4.  Can  be  out  of  fore  and  aft  trim. 

5.  Planes  are  difficult  to  operate  and  boat  changes  depth  and 

angle  very  quickly. 

LOW  SPEED: 

1.  Requires  large  plane  angle. 

2.  Requires  large  angle  on  boat. 

3.  Must  be  trimmed  more  accurately  as  to  buoyancy. 

4.  Must  be  trimmed  more  accurately  fore  and  aft. 

5.  Planes  easy  to  operate,  boat  easy  to  control,  changes  depth 

and  angle  slowly. 

Periscopes.  A  periscope  (Plate  170)  is  an  Instrument  for 
conveying  to  the  eye  of  an  observer  inside  the  submerged  sub- 
marine an  image  of  objects  on  and  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  as  the  observer  would  see  them  directly  if  his  eye  were  at 
the  height  occupied  by  the  upper  end  of  the  periscope.  It 


SUBMARINES.  643 

consists  of  a  long  tube  projecting  upward  through  the  deck  of 
the  submarine  so  that  its  upper  end  will  be  several  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  water  when  the  submarine  is  submerged  to  a 
depth  sufficient  for  concealment.  An  opening  in  the  upper  end 
carries  a  prism  so  placed  that  rays  of  light  striking  the  prism  are 
reflected  downward  through  the  tube  where  they  strike  upon  the 
object  glass  of  what  is,  in  effect,  a  telescope.  The  light  rays 
from  the  lens  are  again  reflected  by  a  prism  to  a  horizontal  eye- 
piece at  the  lower  end  of  the  tube,  inside  the  control-room  of  the 
submarine,  and  thence  to  the  eye  of  the  observer,  who  thus 
sees  what  he  would  see  if  he  were  using  a  telescope,  with  his 
eye  at  the  point  occupied  by  the  upper  prism  of  the  periscope. 

Some  periscopes  are  fitted  for  scanning  the  sky  and  are  called 
altiscopes.  One  of  this  type  is  usually  provided  in  each  boat. 
The  latest  periscopes  are  bi-focal;  that  is,  they  have  two  powers 
of  magnification  in  addition  to  unity;  usually,  i,  5  and  6.  The 
lower  power  with  a  large  field  is  used  when  the  object  viewed  is 
near  or  when  a  search  is  being  made  for  an  object.  As  the  field 
of  the  high  power  is  very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  low  power, 
it  is  easier  to  pick  up  an  object  in  the  latter,  after  which  it  can  be 
examined  through  the  high-power  eye-piece.  When  nearing  an- 
other vessel  while  submerged,  the  low  power  eye-glass  should 
always  be  used  as  the  other  is  apt  to  give  an  incorrect  idea  of  dis- 
tance. Telemeter  scales  are  placed  in  the  fields  of  all  periscopes 
to  aid  in  estimating  distance  and  after  considerable  practice  they 
are  very  helpful ;  but  the  rule  to  shift  to  low  power  when  close 
aboard  should  never  be  disregarded.  Periscopes  are  provided 
with  azimuth  circles  so  that  bearings  may  be  taken,  and  all 
torpedo  firing  is  done  from  this  instrument;  therefore  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  it  properly  bore  sighted; — that  is, 
to  have  the  cross  wires  split  the  center  line  of  the  target  when 
the  scale  reads  zero.  They  are  fairly  strong  instruments  but  the 
same  care  used  with  all  other  optical  instruments  should  be 
observed  in  their  use. 

On  the  surface  a  submarine  will  carry  its  way  as  far  as  any 
other  vessel  of  the  same  tonnage;  but  submerged  the  way  is  lost 
very  quickly.  This  should  be  remembered  as  it  may  be  of 
value  when  the  boat  is  brought  to  the  surface  near  unexpected 
traffic.  Another  point  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  is  that 
backing  the  screws  submerged  tends  to  drag  the  stern  down. 
This  is  of  value  when  the  boat  is  heavy  forward  and  going  down 


644  SUBMARINES. 

rapidly;  in  this  case  backing  will  not  only  kill  the  way  but  will 
help  level  the  boat  when  the  planes  are  inadequate. 

When  submerged  the  turning  circle  is  increased  (Plate  171). 
The  same  principles  about  backing  the  inboard  screw  when 
turning  apply  as  in  surface  work.  In  turning  with  hard  over 
rudder,  a  heel  is  given  the  boat,  the  degree  depending  on  the 
speed.  As  this  throws  the  rudder  out  of  the  vertical  plane,  it 
takes  on  a  little  of  the  character  of  the  hydroplanes  and  makes 
depth-keeping  more  difficult.  This  is  a  point  to  be  watched 
when  firing  torpedoes,  or  when,  for  any  reason,  accuracy  of  depth 
is  essential.  When  holding  a  course,  no  more  than  five  de- 
grees of  rudder  angle  should  be  used. 

When  running  submerged  at  high  speeds,  the  bow  planes  are 
usually  set  at  an  angle  determined  by  the  trim,  which  will  allow 
a  minimum  use  of  the  stern  planes,  by  which  changes  of  depth 
are  controlled.  At  low  speeds,  the  reverse  is  true.  The  stern 
planes  are  set  and  the  bow  planes  used  like  the  wings  of  an  aero- 
plane, raising  or  lowering  the  boat  by  their  hydroplane  effect 
without  changing  the  inclination  of  the  boat.  If  the  stern 
planes  are  used  for  this  purpose  it  must  be  remembered  to  use 
them  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  used  in  changing  the 
inclination  of  the  boat.  To  give  the  boat  an  angle  down  by  the 
bow,  the  stern  planes  are  put  down,  throwing  the  stern  up  and 
the  bow  down.  If  the  "planing"  effect  is  wanted,  a  smaller 
angle  is  used;  and  on  account  of  the  low  speed,  the  water,  acting 
on  the  under  surfaces  of  the  planes,  will  tend  to  raise  the  boat 
as  a  whole  rather  than  to  change  the  inclination.  When  running 
at  fairly  high  speeds,  the  bow  planes  are  set  and  the  man  at  the 
stern  planes  "follows  the  bubble"  on  the  inclinometer.  As  the 
planes  are  connected  to  their  controls  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
down  angles  when  the  wheel  is  moved  forward,  this  will  give 
down  plane  when  the  bubble  moves  forward,  overcoming  the 
tendency  of  the  bow  to  rise. 

§V.     DO'S  AND   DONT'S. 

Do  not  attempt  to  pass  under  traffic  or  tow  lines.  It  is  much 
safer  to  wait  and  go  astern. 

Do  not  submerge  unless  all  bilges  are  reported  dry.  A  free 
water  surface  is  a  dangerous  thing  in  a  submarine,  because  of 
the  tendency  of  the  water  to  rush  forward  or  aft,  changing  the 
trim  suddenly  and  violently. 


Plate  No.    171. 


645 


SURFACE,  LEFT  RUDDER  (29°) 


SUBMERGED,  LEFT  RUDDER  (29°) 


TURNING   CIRCLES   OF  A   SUBMARINE. 


646 


SUBMARINES. 


If,  after  coming  to  the  surface,  the  boat  is  heavy  at  one  end, 
examine  the  valves  to  the  trimming  tank  at  that  end.  One 
may  have  been  left  open  or  a  sea  valve  to  the  bilges  may  be 
cracked.  Free  water  may  give  the  boat  a  sudden  and  dangerous 
lurch  at  a  moment  when  it  is  least  expected  or  desired. 

If  submerged,  do  not  flood  an  empty  torpedo  tube  by  opening 
the  outer  door.  This  is  a  sure  way  of  hitting  the  bottom. 
Always  pump  the  tubes  full  from  the  forward  trimming  tank. 
This  will  not  change  the  trim  or  add  weight  to  the  boat. 

Do  not  run  at  excessive  angles.  Oil  will  run  out  of  the  motor 
bearings.  Excessive  depths  or  the  bottom  will  soon  be  reached, 
especially  in  long  boats. 

If  chlorine  is  smelled  come  to  the  surface  at  once,  but  do  not 
blow  a  tank  surrounding  a  battery  or  one  which  could  leak  into  it. 
Blow  everything  else.  Get  the  load  off  the  battery  as  soon  as 
possible.  Pump  tanks  surrounding  a  battery. 

If  the  boat  is  fitted  with  a  duct  keel,  always  fill  it  before  the 
final  trim  is  obtained.  A  leak  into  this  passage  may  throw  the 
boat  out  of  trim  just  as  a  torpedo  is  fired. 

Do  not  wait  for  the  muffler  valves  to  leak.  Examine  them 
periodically. 

Watch  the  bilges.     Allow  no  free  water. 

Watch  the  exhaust  valve  drains. 

Watch  the  pressure  on  all  tanks.  Note  that  a  leaky  tube 
drain  may  give  excessive  pressure  on  forward  trim  when  firing 
torpedoes.  Crack  and  close  the  main  vents  occasionally. 

When  coming  up,  pass  from  fifty  feet  to  periscope  depth  as 
quickly  as  possible  without  excessive  angles. 

Collision  submerged  has  long  been  considered  fatal:  it  has 
been  done  without  losing  life.  But  do  not  try  it. 

Hitting  the  bottom  too  hard  may  ruin  the  battery. 

Going  ahead  to  "catch  her"  without  blowing  is  bad  practice. 

You  may  blow  two  blasts  on  the  whistle  submerged  but  only 
one  spout  will  show  and  a  misunderstanding  may  occur.  It  is 
better  to  expose  the  bridge  and  indicate  your  intentions  clearly 
in  plenty  of  time  to  avoid  collision.  Always  be  ready  to  blow. 

Look  out  for  main  ballast  blows  freezing  in  cold  weather, 
due  to  water  in  the  lines  and  expansion  of  air. 

Check  gyro-compass  with  magnetic  frequently,  particularly 
when  the  boat  is  rolling  or  pitching. 

Watch  battery  grounds.  Remember  that  with  grounds  on 
both  legs,  the  weaker  will  go  and  a  fire  may  result. 


SUBMARINES.  647 

The  man  on  the  listening  device  should  report  all  noises,  how- 
ever slight. 

Do  not  make  a  stationary  dive  off  soundings. 

Do  not  blow  a  partially  filled  tank. 

If  a  kingston  leaks,  put  about  five  pounds  pressure  in  the  tank 
when  on  the  surface. 

§  VI.     EMERGENCIES. 

Battery  fires  are  caused  by  short  circuits.  The  trouble  may 
be  in  an  acid-soaked  power  lead,  a  broken  battery  jar,  acid 
spilled  in  rough  weather,  or  any  one  of  a  great  many  things; 
but  the  first  treatment  is  always  the  same.  Get  the  power  off  the 
battery.  This  removes  the  cause  and  the  fire  now  becomes  an 
ordinary  one  and  will  succomb  to  ordinary  treatment.  If  the 
fire  is  of  no  great  extent  when  discovered,  a  fire  extinguisher  will 
probably  be  all  that  is  necessary.  A  large  fire  may  require  the 
compartment  to  be  battened  down.  If  this  is  the  case  be  sure 
that  all  the  voice  tubes  and  ventilation  ducts  are  closed.  A  bad 
fire  in  the  engine  room  will  always  go  out  if  the  engine  is  started 
and  the  air  supply  to  the  engine  room  cut  off. 

The  treatment  for  battery  explosions  is  entirely  preventive. 
After  the  explosion  the  wounded  will  require  attention  and  there 
will  be  a  fire  to  fight,  but  the  explosion  is  over  and  there  will 
probably  not  be  another.  Proper  ventilation  is  the  best  pre- 
ventive. If  the  explosive  gas  is  present,  a  motor  is  sure  to  spark 
and  supply  the  necessary  heat  to  explode  it.  Do  not  be  par- 
simonious of  the  water  in  the  battery.  Use  the  blowers  at  full 
speed  when  near  the  end  of  a  battery  charge.  Four  per  cent  of 
hydrogen  is  enough  to  cause  an  explosion.  The  blowers  are 
large  enough  to  carry  it  all  away  if  the  ventilation  system  is 
tight.  There  will  be  no  warning,  so  watch  the  ventilation. 

Chlorine  is  caused  by  the  passage  of  an  electric  current  through 
an  electrolyte  containing  salt  in  solution.  The  emergency 
treatment  here  is  the  same  as  that  for  a  battery  fire.  Get  the 
current  off  the  battery.  If  submerged,  come  to  the  surface  but 
do  not  put  pressure  on  a  battery  tank  unless  the  salt  water  was 
actually  seen  to  enter  the  battery  through  some  other  means  than 
the  battery  tank.  Blow  the  tank  not  adjacent  to  the  battery 
giving  off  the  chlorine,  and  pump  those  near  it.  As  chlorine 
gas  is  poisonous,  plenty  of  fresh  air  is  necessary  to  clear  the  gas 
from  the  boat.  If  only  a  small  amount  of  water  has  entered  the 


648  SUBMARINES. 

battery,  the  chlorine  may  be  got  rid  of  by  charging  the  battery 
at  a  high  rate.  This  will  produce  a  large  amount  of  gas  for  a 
time  but  after  a  couple  of  hours  all  the  salt  will  have  been  acted 
upon  and  no  more  chlorine  will  be  generated.  This  treatment 
is  harmful  to  the  battery  and  should  not  be  used  unless  impera- 
tive. If  large  amounts  of  salt  have  entered  the  battery,  the 
plates  will  have  to  be  taken  out  and  washed  and  all  electrolyte 
renewed. 

To  have  salt  water  in  the  lubricating  oil  is  always  a  serious 
matter.  The  results  of  this  are  the  wiping  of  bearings,  burning 
of  piston  heads  and  cracking  of  cylinders.  Water  may  enter 
lubricating  oil  through  a  variety  of  paths;  leaky  muffler  valves  on 
a  deep  dive,  a  leak  in  the  oil  cooler,  a  cracked  cylinder,  and  leaky 
rivets  in  the  stowage  tanks,  are  common  causes.  Salting  of  the 
oil  may  always  be  determined  before  the  condition  becomes 
dangerous,  by  the  use  of  silver  nitrate  solution.  The  oil  should 
be  tested  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  the  silver  nitrate  to  a 
sample  of  oil  at  least  once  every  hour  that  the  engines  are  running 
and  always  before  starting  an  engine.  Once  the  salt  gets  a  start 
there  is  a  lot  of  work  ahead  of  the  officers  and  crew  before  the 
engines  can  be  run  again. 

Finding  oneself  in  dangerous  depths  is  about  the  only  other 
emergency  that  is  peculiar  to  submarines.  This  condition  is, 
almost  without  exception,  due  to  having  the  boat  negatively 
buoyant.  The  seriousness  of  the  situation  depends  on  the 
depth  of  water  and  the  condition  of  the  hull.  If  a  large  com- 
partment is  flooded  and  the  water  is  much  over  two  hundred  feet 
deep,  there  is  not  much  that  can  be  done  from  within  the  boat. 
If  the  boat  is  stuck  in  the  mud  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  and 
the  hull  is  still  tight  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  she 
may  be  raised  by  the  crew.  Submarines  of  our  Navy  are  built 
and  tested  to  withstand  two  hundred  feet  of  water.  This  means 
a  pressure  of  ninety  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  pumps  and 
air  lines  are  designed  to  work  against  that  pressure.  If  stuck 
in  the  mud  in  deep  water,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  get  as  much 
positive  buoyancy  as  possible.  This  may  be  done  by  blowing  or 
pumping  tanks,  provided  the  pressure  is  not  too  great;  even  if 
it  is,  the  effort  must  be  made.  Remember  the  principle  of 
blowing  full  tanks  instead  of  partially  filled  ones,  for  in  an 
emergency  of  this  sort  one  can't  afford  to  waste  a  single  pound  of 
air.  Watch  the  pumps,  when  working  at  great  depths;  for  the 


SUBMARINES.  649 

glands  and  stuffing  boxes  are  sure  to  leak  and  may  blow  out. 
Always  be  sure  that  the  pump  is  running  before  opening  the 
outboard  valve,  otherwise  some  additional  water  will  have  to  be 
pumped  out,  as  the  pressure  will  back  it  in  through  the  pump. 
The  chances  are  that  a  submarine  will  get  stuck  in  the  mud  at 
the  bow,  as  this  is  pointing  down  when  the  dive  commences. 
This  leaves  the  screws  clear  for  use  and  makes  the  salvage  that 
much  easier.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  free  the  heavy  end  or 
the  end  that  is  being  held  by  the  mud.  Blow  the  forward 
tanks  first,  so  that  the  buoyancy  thus  gained  will  work  toward 
putting  the  boat  on  an  even  keel.  If  this  does  not  free  the  bow, 
the  screws  may  be  backed.  Backing  the  screws  has  a  three- 
fold value  when  in  this  condition.  As  was  mentioned  before, 
backing  the  screws  when  submerged  has  a  tendency  to  drag  the 
stern  down,  thus  forming  a  lever  to  break  the  bow  out  of  the 
mud;  it  also  gives  a  powerful  pull  away  from  the  mud,  and,  if 
continued  for  some  time,  may  wash  the  mud  away  from  the  bow 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  aid  in  freeing  the  boat.  Backing  on 
one  screw  and  going  ahead  on  the  other  gives  a  strong  turning 
moment  that  is  of  no  little  value;  if  the  directions  of  the  screws 
are  reversed  from  time  to  time  an  effect  of  sallying  may  be 
produced.  The  moving  of  heavy  weights  will  also  have  a  value, 
particularly  if  the  boat  is  held  by  only  a  small  portion  of  the  bow. 
If  the  torpedo  tubes  are  empty  and  can  be  opened,  blowing  water 
slugs  from  them  might  help  in  breaking  the  bow  clear.  The 
above  are  a  few  applications  of  the  principles  involved;  circum- 
stances will  have  to  govern  the  choice  of  methods. 

§VII.     HANDLING  ALONGSIDE. 

The  main  points  to  be  remembered  in  handling  a  submarine 
alongside  a  dock  or  tender  are  that  the  bow  and  stern  are  delicate 
and  that  the  boat  will  invariably  back  into  the  wind.  The  bow 
casting  is  very  strong,  but  only  a  foot  or  so  abaft  this  are  the 
torpedo  shutters,  which  will  not  stand  any  sharp  blow  or  any 
considerable  pressure  without  bending  or  breaking,  either  of 
which  will  put  the  torpedo  tubes  out  of  commission.  The  skegs 
on  most  of  the  older  boats  and  on  many  of  the  newer  ones  pro- 
ject far  out  from  the  hull.  As  these  skegs  support  the  rudder 
and  the  stern  planes  and  only  partially  guard  the  screws,  a 
small  blow  may  put  the  whole  after  end  of  the  boat  out  of  com- 
mission. Except  for  these  peculiarities,  submarines  are  very 


650  SUBMARINES. 

easy  to  handle.  There  is  a  large  reserve  of  power  for  both  back- 
ing and  going  ahead  which  can  be  almost  instantly  applied.  On 
account  of  the  tendency  to  back  into  the  wind,  care  must  be 
taken  in  getting  out  lines,  to  be  sure  that  the  stern  is  under  con- 
trol of  one  line  as  soon  as  possible.  Do  not  hesitate  to  use  power. 
Full  power  can  be  used  for  a  short  time  without  getting  much  way 
on  the  boat  and  may  be  just  what  is  needed  to  overcome  a  bad 
tide  or  a  strong  wind.  Do  not  confuse  power  and  speed,  however. 

When  manoeuvring,  do  not  neglect  the  rudder.  When  turning 
in  a  confined  area,  the  rudder  will  assist  the  screws  to  a  great 
extent.  The  rudder  must  be  used  with  regard  to  the  direction 
of  motion,  however,  and  not  to  the  screw  direction.  Do  not  shift 
the  rudder  until  the  way  is  entirely  killed,  when  backing  and 
filling.  The  screws  have  a  powerful  turning  force  and  can  turn  a 
submarine  around  in  a  length  and  a  half  if  there  is  no  wind. 

The  use  of  lines  in  securing  and  coming  alongside  with  a  sub- 
marine is  the  same  as  with  a  surface  craft.  Always  cross  the 
lines  so  that  they  may  be  used  to  warp  in,  whether  going  ahead  or 
astern. 

§VIII.     HEAVY  WEATHER. 

Submarines,  properly  handled,  will  live  through  any  storm. 
The  only  requirements  are  that  the  hatches  ba  secured  in  plenty 
of  time  to  prevent  water  entering  the  boat  and  that  there  is 
plenty  of  sea  room.  A  submarine  can  be  handled  from  within 
almost  as  well  as  from  the  bridge,  except  of  course  in  narrow 
waters;  so  on  the  approach  of  a  storm  do  not  run  the  risk  of 
losing  a  man  by  trying  to  keep  the  bridge  control  too  long.  Do 
not  pound  into  a  heavy  sea.  To  do  so  will  strain  the  hull  and 
will  surely  bend  or  break  the  torpedo  shutters.  A  submarine, 
like  any  other  propeller  driven  ship,  will  naturally  ride  most 
easily  with  her  stern  to  wind  and  sea.  If  forced  to  lie-to,  do  so 
in  this  position.  It  may  be  possible  to^  keep  a  man  on  the 
bridge  when  lying  to,  while  it  would  be  foolhardy  to  try  if  heading 
into  it.  If  it  is  of  advantage  to  run  before  the  sea,  it  can  be 
done  more  easily  by  regulating  the  speed  to  the  length  of  the 
waves.  This  will  have  to  be  done  by  running  on  the  motors, 
as  the  engines  will  not  go  slowly  enough.  If  the  speed  is  too 
great,  waves  will  come  over.  Oil  may  be  used  to  advantage  as 
with  surface  vessels;  a  good  way  to  apply  it  is  to  pump  it  out 
with  the  bilge  pumps.  If  the  bilges  are  dry  it  will  do  no  harm 


SUBMARINES.  651 

to  pump  a  little  water  in,  and  then,  after  adding  a  little  oil,  to 
pump  them  dry  again. 

No  difficulty  should  be  experienced  in  submerging  in  a  sea- 
way if  the  sea  is  brought  abeam  or  abaft  the  beam. 

§  IX.    TOWING. 

Submarines  are  fitted  with  a  towing  pendant  consisting  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  fathoms  of  six  or  seven  inch  wire.  This 
is  fitted  with  a  pelican  hook  for  making  fast  to  the  towing 
shackle  in  the  bow.  The  pendant  is  usually  carried  stopped  down 
on  deck,  pelican  hook  attached,  and  a  tripping  line  run  from  the 
hook  to  the  bridge. 

As  the  motors  are  the  most  reliable  part  of  the  motive  machin- 
ery of  a  submarine  they  are  usually  in  commission  when  the  boat 
has  to  be  towed.  This  makes  the  operation  of  picking  up  the 
tow  much  easier  than  is  the  case  with  larger  vessels.  Of  course 
if  the  submarine  has  not  the  use  of  her  motors  the  problem  of 
picking  up  the  tow  is  the  same  as  for  any  other  type  of  ship. 

If  a  large  ship  is  picking  up  the  tow  it  is  easier  for  the  sub- 
marine to  manoeuvre  for  the  tow  line  than  for  the  larger  vessel 
to  do  so.  If  the  towing  vessel  will  lie-to  with  the  wind  on  the 
quarter  or  bow,  the  submarine  can  come  up  under  the  lee  quarter 
and,  in  smooth  weather,  take  the  tow  line  itself,  thus  eliminating 
the  use  of  messengers  and  other  small  lines  that  would  encumber 
the  deck.  If  the  weather  is  too  bad  for  this,  it  may  be  possible 
for  the  submarine  to  handle  a  messenger  and  a  heavy  tow  line, 
but  it  is  improbable,  for  the  decks  are  small,  and,  in  bad  weather, 
very  wet. 

After  the  tow  line  is  made  fast,  the  submarine  may  be  of 
great  assistance  to  the  towing  vessel  in  getting  under  way.  By 
using  her  motors,  the  strain  of  starting  may  be  greatly  relieved 
and  the  danger  of  parting  the  line  reduced.  The  same  principles 
apply  in  towing  a  submarine,  as  to  speed  and  length  of  tow  line, 
as  with  other  surface  craft.  As  our  submarines  range  from 
three  hundred  to  two  thousand  tons  displacement,  it  is  impossible 
to  designate  the  size  of  the  tow  line;  it  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  submarine  has  more  drag  than  a  surface  craft 
of  the  same  tonnage  on  account  of  the  greater  percentage  of 
below-water  body. 

If  a  submarine  is  to  take  another  in  tow,  it  should  be  done 
about  as  follows.  As  only  the  very  latest  types  have  bitts  aft, 


552  SUBMARINES. 

a  line  should  be  passed  around  the  conning  tower,  using  plenty 
of  chafing  gear,  and  the  ends  taken  aft  to  a  point  about  one 
third  the  distance  from  the  conning-tower  to  the  tail,  before 
shackling  the  ends  together  and  making  the  tow-line  fast  to  this 
improvised  bridle.  This  will  allow  the  stern  to  swing,  and  make 
steering  easier.  Stop  the  bridle  firmly  to  the  cleats  abreast  the 
conning  tower  to  prevent  rendering. 

The  tow  line  should  be  coiled  down  near  the  stern,  with  a  good 
man  stationed  near  to  prevent  its  slipping  over  the  side  and 
fouling  the  screws.  With  the  tow  line  led  well  forward,  out- 
board of  everything,  on  the  weather  side,  pass  on  the  lee  side 
of  the  other  boat  as  close  as  the  weather  will  allow  and  send  a 
heaving  line  aboard.  If  the  weather  is  such  that  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  come  within  heaving  line  distance,  make  a  heavy  float 
fast  to  the  tow  line,  and,  after  coming  as  close  as  possible,  drop 
it  where  it  can  be  picked  up.  When  the  heaving  line  is  passed 
or  the  tow  line  is  in  the  water,  stop  dead.  The  two  boats  will 
drift  at  the  same  speed  and  if  the  tow  line  is  paid  out  at  sufficient 
speed  to  prevent  its  dragging,  the  other  boat  will  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  pulling  the  end  aboard  or  picking  it  up.  This  method 
has  the  disadvantage  that  the  tow  is  over  the  weather  quarter 
of  the  towing  boat  and  she  will  have  to  manreuvre  to  place  it 
on  the  other  side  with  consequent  danger  of  fouling  the  propellers, 
but  it  is  the  best  method  available  if  the  boat  to  be  towed  is 
completely  disabled.  If  the  boat  to  be  towed  has  the  use  of  her 
motors  the  tow  line  may  be  passed  as  outlined  with  the  larger 
vessel.  The  towed  boat  can  come  up  on  the  lee  side  of  the 
towing  boat  and  take  the  heaving  line,  or  she  can  manoeuvre  to 
pick  up  the  buoyed  tow  line  if  the  weather  is  heavy. 


(653) 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON.1 
II. 

It  is  proposed  here  to  discuss  in  rather  general  terms  some  of 
the  difficulties  connected  with  work  in  squadron  from  the  point 
of  view  of  seamanship — not  at  all  from  that  of  tactics.  We  may 
regard  tactics  as  prescribing,  in  a  very  definite  way,  certain  things 
which  must  be  done;  while  seamanship  deals,  in  a  much  less 
definite  way,  with  the  manner  of  doing  them.  The  two  subjects 
necessarily  overlap  each  other  throughout  a  considerable  field 
and  within  this  field  it  is  impossible  to  discuss  one  of  them  with- 
out touching  upon  the  other.  This  is  the  excuse  for  such  com- 
ment as  is  here  included  upon  tactical  formations  and  manoeuvers. 

All  work  of  ships  in  squadron  is  designed  as  a  preparation  for 
battle,  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  sufficient  consideration 
is  always  given  to  the  difficulties  which,  in  time  of  battle,  will  be 
added  to  those  which  are  connected  with  station-keeping  and 
manoeuvring  at  other  times.  The  smoke  from  the  guns  and  the 
funnels  of  ships  ahead — all  of  these  ships  being  under  forced 
draft — will  obscure  the  view  from  the  conning  tower  in  all  di- 
rections, but  especially  ahead.  The  ship  next  ahead  will  be  seen 
only  a  part  of  the  time ;  the  leader  of  the  column  probably  not  at 
all.  And  the  use  of  instruments  for  keeping  position  will  be 
altogether  impracticable. 

In  ordinary  cruising  and  manoeuvring  the  conditions  are  much 
better ;  the  next  ahead  can  be  seen  at  all  times,  the  leader  occasion- 
ally; and  sextants,  stadimeters  and  range-finders  are  always 
available  for  measuring  distances.  It  is  questionable,  however, 
to  what  extent  advantage  should  be  taken  of  these  conditions. 
Certainly  a  constant  effort  should  be  made  to  train  the  eye  in 
judging  distance  both  by  day  and  by  night — the  last  without  the 
aid  of  lights.  And  it  would  seem  desirable  to  recognize  the  fact 
that  only  under  very  exceptional  circumstances,  such  as  will 
rarely  exist  in  battle,  can  a  column  of  vessels  keep  their  distances 
from  the  leader. 

1  See  Notes  B,  '  'Handling  Ships,"  at  end  of  this  chapter. 


654      KEEPING    STATIONS    AND    MANOEUVRING    IN    SQUADRON. 

Whatever  method  is  used  for  estimating  distance,  it  will  usu- 
ally be  found  easier  to  keep  position  than  to  regain  it  after  it  has 
been  lost.  The  moment  a  tendency  is  recognized  to  close  up  or 
drop  back,  the  speed  should  be  changed  enough,  and  only  enough, 
to  check  the  tendency.  This  is  better  than  to  wait  until  the  error 
is  so  great  as  to  call  for  a  more  radical  change,  which,  if  pro- 
longed even  a  very  little  more  than  necessary,  throws  the  posi- 
tion out  in  the  other  direction. 

A  caution  is  called  for  here.  It  has  already  been  remarked 
that  a  column  of  ships  cannot  keep  distance  from  the  leader.  It 
seems  probable  that,  in  battle,  each  ship  will  be  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  keeping  distance  from  the  next  ahead ;  and  that  there 
will  often  be  a  good  deal  of  uncertainty  even  about  this.  There 
will  be  many  times,  however,  when  it  is  practicable  to  judge 
whether  the  next  ahead  is  or  is  not  approximately  in  position 
with  reference  to  her  own  next  ahead.  Thus  by  watching  as 
many  ships  ahead  as  can  be  seen,  whether  one  or  two  or  more, 
it  will  often  be  possible  to  discriminate  between  a  real  and  an 
apparent  fault  in  position  and  to  avoid  the  vexation  of  closing 
up  on  the  next  ahead  only  to  find  her  a  moment  later  dropping 
back  because  she  has  herself  been  ahead  of  position. 

In  spite  of  all  that  can  be  done,  a  ship  will  at  times  get  quite 
badly  out  of  distance.  It  may  be  that  her  revolutions  are  not 
quite  true  to  standard,  or  that  she  has  been  badly  steered,  or 
that  the  vessels  ahead  have  changed  their  speed.  When  distance 
has  been  lost  from  this  last  cause,  caution  must  be  used  in  closing, 
as  the  other  ships  may  at  any  time  resume  standard  speed. 

Here  it  may  be  remarked  that  more  than  half  the  troubles  in 
station-keeping  come  from  irregularity  in  the  speed  and  steering 
of  the  guide,  and  that  no  amount  of  trouble  should  be  thought 
too  great  to  keep  these  uniform.  Good  steering  can  be  insured 
by  careful  training  of  the  helmsmen,  and  the  electric  revolution- 
telegraph  which  is  now  installed  in  battleships  gives  the  officer  of 
the  deck  information  at  all  times  of  the  number  of  revolutions  ac- 
tually being  made.  The  officer-of-the-deck  sets  on  this  telegraph, 
by  means  of  three  dials,  the  number  of  revolutions  he  desires  to 
make.  This  is  indicated  in  the  engine  room  and  repeated  back 
over  the  instrument  so  that  a  duplicate  set  of  dials  on  the  bridge 
record  the  number  of  turns  that  the  engine  room  understands  it  is 
to  make.  The  officer-of-the-deck  can  always  tell  how  many  revo- 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         655 

lutions  he  has  ordered  by  looking  at  his  instrument,  which  also 
shows  that  the  engine  room  understands  correctly. 

While  a  perfectly  uniform  speed  is  more  important  on  the  part 
of  the  guide  than  on  that  of  other  ships,  it  is  of  immense  import- 
ance to  every  vessel  of  the  fleet,  both  for  her  own  comfort  and 
for  that  of  all  the  vessels  associated  with  her.  It  is  rather  sur- 
prising how  little  attention  is  usually  given  to  acquiring  this 
habit.  As  a  rule,  if  ships  keep  their  positions  reasonably  well, 
very  little  thought  is  given  to  the  methods  by  which  they  ac- 
complish this  result,  and  a  ship  which  is  incessantly  ranging  up 
and  dropping  back  a  little — without  getting  seriously  out  of  posi- 
tion— suffers  nothing  by  comparison  with  one  which  steams 
.steadily  hour  after  hour.  Yet  the  difference  between  the  two  is 
very  great,  especially  in  the  consumption  of  coal  and  in  the  de- 
mand upon  the  fire-room  and  engine-room  force.  It  is  worth 
while  to  give  great  attention  to  this  point  and  to  require  the 
closest  possible  approach  to  perfect  steadiness  on  the  part  of  the 
officer  of  the  deck  and  the  engineer's  force.  An  excellent  way 
to  develop  this  is  by  steaming  in  line.  Here  errors  in  speed 
manifest  themselves  at  once  and  yet  they  inconvenience  no  one 
but  the  offender.  But  for  good  results  here,  as  in  other  cases, 
the  steadiness  of  the  guide  must  be  beyond  suspicion. 

Under  conditions  as  they  exist  at  present,  some  variation  in 
speed  must  be  anticipated,  and  it  is  very  important  for  every 
ship  of  the  column  to  have  timely  notice  of  a  change  made  by  the 
ships  ahead.  The  speed-cones  as  at  present  used  give  informa- 
tion of  changes  in  units  of  one  knot.  The  rules  for  their  use 
could  easily  be  modified  to  admit  of  showing  smaller  changes. 
But  any  system  of  signalling  by  shapes  hoisted  at  a  yard-arm  is 
crude  and  unreliable  and  in  battle  would  probably  break  down  al- 
together. It  would  not  be  difficult  to  devise  an  electrically  con- 
trolled system  for  showing  in  a  sheltered  position  at  the  stern 
the  number  of  revolutions  which  the  ship  is  making,  or,  perhaps 
more  simply,  the  deviation  on  one  side  or  the  other  from  the 
number  which  is  for  the  moment  prescribed,  whether  this  be 
"  standard,"  "  half  "  or  "  slow."  Whatever  system  is  used,  the 
signal  for  a  change  should,  when  practicable,  be  shown  coinci- 
dently  with  the  change. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  importance  of  judging  distance 
without  the  use  of  instruments.  The  clearness  with  which  de- 


656         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

tails  can  be  seen  on  the  ships  ahead  is  a  great  help  here.  At 
certain  distances,  for  example,  the  name  on  the  stern  of  the  other 
ship  can  just  be  read.  It  will  almost  always  be  possible  to  select 
two  objects  on  the  other  ship  which  can  be  brought  in  range 
(vertically)  for  the  correct  distance,  provided  the  observer 
always  stands  at  a  fixed  point.  A  little  pitching  may  seem  to 
throw  this  out,  but  with  practice  the  mean  bearing  can  be  recog- 
nized. Even  at  night,  if  the  weather  is  reasonably  clear,  this 
plan  is  helpful,  the  spars  and  funnels  of  a  ship  400  yards  away 
being  plainly  visible  with  good  binoculars. 

It  is  sometimes  practicable  to  use  a  mark  on  our  own  ship  as 
a  means  of  determining  when  we  are  at  standard  distance  from 
the  next  ahead,  the  observer  standing  always  at  a  fixed  point  and 
bringing  this  mark  into  coincidence  with  the  water-line  or  some 
other  well-defined  mark  on  the  other  vessel.  The  objection  to 
this  is  that  such  a  mark  would  probably  not  be  available  in  action 
and  is  thus  worse  than  useless  as  a  guide  at  other  times.  It  may 
be  possible,  however,  to  fix  a  line  on  something  which  is  always 
available.  An  officer  looking  through  a  slit  in  the  conning  tower, 
for  example,  might  be  guided  by  the  angle  subtended  by  the  width 
of  this  slit — either  vertically  or  horizontally — his  eye  being  at  a 
fixed  point  from  which  this  angle  just  takes  in  the  height  of  a 
funnel  or  the  width  of  a  bridge  on  the  ship  ahead. 

It  is  important  to  recognize  the  effect  of  steering,  upon  the 
speed  of  the  ship.  A  poor  helmsman  may  make  it  impossible  for 
any  officer  to  keep  position.  Not  only  does  the  ship  in  steering 
wildly  range  over  a  greater  distance  than  is  right,  but  the  "  drag  " 
of  the  rudder  holds  her  back  and  reduces  her  speed  very  materi- 
ally. It  is  worth  while  to  give  great  attention  to  training  the 
helmsman,  insisting  not  only  that  a  steady  course  shall  be  kept, 
but  that  this  shall  be  kept  with  the  least  possible  amount  of 
helm. 

It  is  a  common  error  for  beginners  to  make  too  frequent  and 
too  radical  changes  of  speed  as  a  result  of  the  failure  to  allow 
for  the  interval  which  necessarily  elapses  between  the  signal  for 
increasing  or  reducing  the  revolutions  and  the  actual  change  of 
speed  and  position  to  be  produced  by  the  change  in  revolutions. 
It  is  realized  that  a  large  ship  holds  her  way  for  a  long  time 
after  the  engines  are  stopped,  and  that  she  does  not  gather  way, 
if  at  rest,  until  an  appreciable  time  after  the  engines  art  S 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         657 

but  it  is  not  always  realized  that  exactly  the  same  delay  must  be 
allowed  for  in  the  response  to  a  change  of  a  few  turns  when  the 
ship  is  already  making  way.  Thus  the  beginner,  impatient  to 
regain  position,  and  seeing  no  effect  from  his  signal  to  add  or 
subtract  one  or  two  revolutions,  is  tempted  to  call  for  two  or 
three  more ;  and  when,  finally,  the  ship  begins  to  forge  ahead  or 
to  drop  back,  his  inclination  is  to  let  this  go  on  until  he  is  nearly 
or  quite  in  position,  forgetting  that  the  effect  of  the  change  in 
revolutions  of  his  engines  will  continue  to  affect  the  speed  of  his 
ship  long  after  the  engines  have  resumed  their  standard  speed. 
This  leads,  of  course,  to  almost  endless  changes  in  the  revolu- 
tions and  keeps  the  ship  perpetually  ranging  ahead  of  position 
and  dropping  back  astern  of  it. 

Assuming  that  a  ship  has  dropped  astern  of  position,  say  a 
hundred  yards,  and  wishes  to  regain  her  place.1  Having  steadied 
her,  it  remains  to  regain  position  and  to  avoid  overrunning. 
Suppose  that  five  revolutions  correspond  to  one  knot.  This 
means  that  five  revolutions  per  minute  will  give  2000  yards  in  an 
hour.  One  revolution  will  thus  give  400  yards  an  hour,  or  100 
yards  in  15  minutes.  If,  therefore,  we  add  one  to  the  revolutions 
which  hold  her  steady,  we  may  expect  to  regain  position  in  15  min- 
utes, which  is  much  too  long  an  interval.  To  reduce  the  time  to 
five  minutes,  we  must  add  not  one  turn,  but  three.  We  shall  not 
be  actually  in  position  at  the  end  of  the  five  minutes,  for  it  will 
take  a  perceptible  time  to  pick  up  the  extra  speed ;  but  the  interval 
for  continuing  the  extra  revolutions  will  be  five  minutes,  since  it 
will  take  approximately  the  same  time  to  run  off  the  extra  mo- 
mentum that  it  took  to  pick  it  up,  and  the  ship  should,  theoreti- 
cally, settle  into  place  with  the  speed  which  will  just  keep  her 
there. 

Similar  considerations  govern  the  reverse  operation  of  drop- 
ping back  when  we  find  ourselves  ahead  of  position. 

In  all  changes  of  speed,  and  indeed  at  all  times  when  working 
in  squadron,  it  is  not  only  good  "  comradeship  "  but  good  seaman- 
ship, to  give  all  possible  consideration  to  the  next  astern.  It 
may  be  difficult  for  him  to  run  into  you,  as  is  often  said,  but  this 
is  no  reason  for  trying  to  make  it  easy  for  him  to  do  so.  If  the 

*It  is  the  "doctrine"  of  the  Fleet  to  db  this  smartly  (See  Notes  B  at 
end  of  this  chapter)  but  the  danger  of  overrunning,  as  above  described, 
must  not  be  forgotten. 


658         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

next  ahead  comes  dropping  back  suddenly  upon  you,  and  the 
next  astern  is  rather  closer  than  he  should  be,  there  is  no  harm 
in  sheering  out  a  little  until  all  hands  have  time  to  adjust  them- 
selves. And  in  the  simpler  case  where  you  are  merely  called 
upon  to  open  out  for  regaining  your  own  position,  it  is  well  to 
do  this  slowly,  giving  indication  by  speed  signals  of  your  inten- 
tion to  reduce  revolutions.  If  you  find  yourself  running  up  on 
your  leader,  you  should  of  course  sheer  out  onto  his  quarter  until 
he  draws  away  or  you  drop  back. 

It  is  an  axiom  of  tactics  that  in  column  a  ship  is  better  ahead 
of  position  than  astern  of  it.  This  is  for  the  reason  that  by 
running  more  or  less  ahead  she  does  not,  as  a  rule,  subject  any 
other  ship  to  inconvenience.  The  next  ahead  will  not  usually 
attempt  to  get  out  of  the  way,  and  the  next  astern  is  under  no 
obligation  to  follow  up.  On  the  other  hand,  a  ship  falling  ma- 
terially behind  her  station  crowds  back  the  next  astern  and  in- 
conveniences all  ships  in  rear. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  if  too  much  emphasis  is 
placed  upon  this  axiom,  there  may  be  a  tendency  for  all  ships  to 
close  unduly,  each  on  the  next  ahead,  and  this  may  result  in  con- 
gestion throughout  the  column  or  a  considerable  part  of  it;  and 
while  there  is  comparatively  little  danger  in  such  congestion  so 
long  as  a  steady  course  is  steered,  the  danger  becomes  very  seri- 
ous if  the  column  changes  course  by  more  than  a  few  points.  If 
a  signal  for  such  a  change  is  hoisted  while  a  number  of  ships  are 
crowding  up  on  each  other,  it  may  be  presumed  that  every  ship 
will  try  to  drop  back,  thus  producing  more  or  less  confusion; 
but  whether  they  attempt  this  or  not,  the  difficulties  of  the  turn 
will  be  much  increased. 

It  is  doubtless  correct  for  a  vessel  which  is  ahead  of  position 
when  the  signal  for  a  change  of  course  goes  up,  to  try  to  get  into 
position  before  the  turning  point  is  reached,  but  there  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  the  disposition  frequently  manifested  to  drop  back, 
whether  in  position  or  not,  to  the  maximum  distance  tolerated  by 
tactical  regulations.  If  dropping  back  legitimately,  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  pick  up  standard  speed — not  in  revolutions  alone,  but 
in  actual  speed  made  good — in  time  to  make  the  turn  with  stan- 
dard speed. 

In  compound  formations  there  is  especial  reason  for  insisting 
that  the  individual  columns  shall  not  be  lengthened  out  unduly, 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         659 

because  the  rear  of  a  column  which  is  taking  up  more  than  its 
share  of  sea-room  will  crowd  the  head  of  the  next  column  when 
the  fleet  passes  into  simple  formation.  In  compound  formations, 
therefore,  we  may  place  more  emphasis  upon  our  rule  that  it  is 
better  to  be  ahead  of  station  than  astern  of  it.  And  here,  too, 
as  there  are  fewer  ships  in  the  individual  column,  the  results  of 
congestion  are  less  serious. 

In  spite  of  all  precautions,  interference  will  occasionally  arise 
between  the  rear  of  one  subdivision  of  the  fleet  and  the  head  of 
the  next  one,  in  passing  from  one  formation  to  another,  and  it 
is  well  to  prescribe  rules  as  to  who  shall  give  way  in  such  a 
situation,  and  how.  A  convenient  rule  is  to  require  the  rear 
vessel  of  a  leading  section,  when  she  finds  herself  so  far  astern  of 
position  as  to  embarrass  the  leader  of  the  next  section,  to  give 
way  to  the  side  of  safety ;  letting  the  leader  of  the  other  division 
swing  into  his  proper  place,  and  continuing  on  herself,  more  or 
less  outside  the  formation,  until  she  finds  a  chance  to  work  into 
place. 

In  running  at  night  without  lights,  not  only  can  the  ship 
ahead  be.  seen — though  perhaps  only  very  dimly — but  her  wake 
is  likely  to  show  up  with  more  or  less  phosphorescence.  The 
difficulties  of  this  situation  are  less  than  is  sometimes  supposed. 
All  must  be  ready  for  switching  on  the  navigation  lights  upon 
the  approach  of  other  vessels,  and  for  manoeuvring  to  keep  clear 
as  required  by  law- — except,  of  course,  in  time  of  war. 

In  a  Fog. 

Running  in  a  fog  has  been  much  simplified  by  the  adoption 
of  "  position-buoys."  It  is  found  well  to  keep  the  buoy  of  the 
ship  ahead  a  little  on  one  bow  and  nearly  abreast  of  the  stem. 
If  each  ship  keeps  an  after  search-light  trained  upon  her  own 
buoy  at  night,  the  situation  is  still  farther  improved.  The  search- 
light shows  the  buoy  if  it  is  "  watching "  and  shows  approxi- 
mately where  it  should  be,  if  it  tows  under  for  awhile.  Moreover, 
the  search-light  itself  can  be  made  out  for  from  500  to  1000  yards 
through  a  very  dense  fog.  Search-lights  are  useful  by  day  as 
well  as  by  night,  and  should  be  used  at  all  times  in  a  fog. 

It  is  important  to  keep  well  closed  up  in  a  fog.  If  a  ship  loses 
touch,  it  is  difficult  to  regain  it. 


66O         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

Unless  in  case  of  an  emergency,  only  small  changes  in  course 
should  be  made  in  a  fog.  If  the  course  is  to  be  changed  as  much 
as  four  points,  it  is  better  to  make  two  changes  of  two  points 
each,  allowing  time  between  for  all  ships  to  get  straightened  out. 

If  danger  of  collision  threatens  with  a  ship  outside  the  fleet, 
it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the  ships  of  the  fleet  are  to  be 
considered  in  any  manceuver  that  is  made  for  keeping  clear.  It 
is  as  indefensible  in  law  as  in  seamanship  to  foul  a  ship  of  the 
fleet  in  keeping  clear  of  an  outsider.  The  ships  astern  may  be 
relied  upon  to  help  keep  clear  as  soon  as  they  are  notified  by 
signal,  but  the  signals  provided  for  this  emergency  are  far  from 
satisfactory.  In  case  of  backing  the  engines,  the  International 
Signal  of  three  blasts  must  of  course  be  given  instantly ;  but  with 
the  other  signals  that  are  always  sounding  in  a  fog  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  this  will  be  recognized  as  promptly  as  is  desir- 
able. In  any  event,  the  caution  here  given,  to  remember  your 
own  ships  as  well  as  the  stranger,  cannot  be  amiss. 

Although  the  subject  of  avoiding  collision  in  a  fog  is  fully 
treated  in  another  chapter,  attention  may  here  be  called  to  the 
difference  between  the  case  in  which  one  ship  strikes  another  on 
the  broadside,  and  that  in  which  the  two  ships  scrape  alongside. 
The  importance  of  this  in  connection  with  ships  in  squadron  lies 
in  the  fact  that  all  the  ships  are,  in  general,  headed  in  the  same 
direction,  so  that  if  one  of  them  stops  without  turning  very 
much,  the  next  astern,  coming  up,  if  she  cannot  avoid  touching, 
can  usually  manage  to  scrape  alongside  rather  than  to  strike  a 
direct  blow.  It  might  perhaps  be  argued  from  this  that  if  a  ship 
in  squadron  finds  it  suddenly  necessary  to  go  full  speed  astern 
to  clear  a  stranger,  she  should  try  to  avoid  turning  more  than  is 
necessary.  The  next  astern,  coming  up,  has  thus  the  maximum 
chance  of  avoiding  collision  altogether  or  of  striking  a  glancing 
rather  than  a  cutting  blow. 

The  question  of  speed  in  a  fog  is  very  fully  discussed  in  Chap- 
ters XIV  and  XV. 

Special  sound  signals  are  used  for  manoeuvring  in  a  fog. 
Those  at  present  established  are  crude  and  unsatisfactory.  It 
is  probable  that  submarine  signals  and  the  wireless  telephone  will 
ultimately  be  substituted  for  them. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  a  good  lookout  at  the  bow  and  to 
provide  efficient  means  of  communication  with  the  bridge.  This 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON.        66l 

lookout  should  be  able  to  see  the  vessel  ahead  at  almost  all  times. 

Breakdown. 

A  vessel  which  breaks  down,  hauls  out  of  the  column  at  once 
and  should  be  very  prompt  in  giving  notice  to  the  ships  astern. 
Rules  are  laid  down  as  to  the  side  for  hauling  out,  and  break- 
down signals  are  established. 

An  accident  to  the  steering  gear,  if  the  helm  is  well  over  to 
one  side,  may  make  it  necessary  or  advisable  to  haul  out  on  the 
wrong  side,  in  which  case  speed  may  be  increased.  The  engines 
will,  of  course,  be  used  for  steering,  and  if  the  helm  is  not  too 
far  over  to  the  wrong  side  it  will  be  easy  to  swing  against  it  by 
giving  full  speed  to  the  off  screw  and  so  to  haul  out  according 
to  rule ;  but  if  the  situation  calls  for  slowing  materially  on  the 
inner  screw,  with  some  delay  and  uncertainty  in  getting  clear,  it 
is  better  to  keep  up  the  speed  and  haul  out  on  the  other  side. 

In  case  the  helm  is  jammed  not  far  from  amidships,  it  should 
be  practicable  to  keep  in  position  by  the  screws  and  so  avoid 
showing  the  breakdown  signal ;  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  about 
this  it  is  well  to  fall  out  and  avoid  the  danger  of  trouble. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  everything  ready  for  shifting 
quickly  from  steam  or  electric  to  hand-steering  gear,  or,  if  the 
accident  does  not  call  for  throwing  out  the  steam  gear,  then  to 
shift  from  one  steering-station  to  another,  without  nervousness  or 
confusion.  Capable  men  should  be  stationed  in  the  steering  en- 
gine-room at  all  times  ready  to  meet  any  emergency,  and  the  de- 
tail of  men  for  the  hand-steering  gear  should  be  considered  quite 
as  important  as  the  life-boat  crew.  The  lines  of  communication 
from  the  bridge  to  the  various  steering  stations  should  be  per- 
fected, and  kept  always  in  working  order.  Finally,  frequent 
drills  should  make  it  a  matter  of  simple  routine  to  meet  any  emer- 
gency connected  with  the  steering. 

Man  Overboard. 

Rules  are  prescribed  for  this  as  a  tactical  manceuver,  and 
signals  are  provided  for  notifying  the  fleet.  If  trfe  man  goes  over 
from  the  ship  ahead  of  you,  you  should  be  able  to  see  him  as  you 
run  up  towards  him.  By  stopping  at  once,  and  backing  if  it 
seems  advisable  to  do  so,  you  should  be  able  to  bring  him  fairly 


662         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

close  alongside  and  to  toss  a  buoy  or  a  line  close  to  him.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  suction  of  a  screw  continues  for  some 
time  after  the  screw  is  stopped,  so  that  if  you  are  going  to  run 
beyond  the  man  you  must  take  care  not  to  let  him  get  near  the 
screw  until  its  wash  has  subsided.  It  is  a  pretty  manoeuver  to 
bring  the  man  alongside  and  pick  him  up  with  the  ship,  but  unless 
the  ship  is  practically  dead  in  the  water  the  wash  alongside  may 
be  embarrassing,  and  if  he  goes  down  he  may  come  up  under  the 
bottom.  The  life-boat  will,  of  course,  be  ready  and  can  be  low- 
ered very  near  him,  and  it  is  not  well  to  take  any  chances  that  the 
man  will  keep  afloat  long  enough  for  you  to  pick  him  up  in  any 
except  the  quickest  and  surest  way,  which  will  usually  be  by 
means  of  a  boat. 

Keeping  Position  in  Line. 

The  most  important  requirement  for  keeping  position  in  line 
is  to  be  absolutely  sure  about  the  course  of  the  guide.  A  slight 
error  in  this  not  only  leads  the  ship  which  is  in  error  to  close  or 
open  distance  without  understanding  why,  but  misleads  her  also 
as  to  her  bearing.  It  is  helpful  to  have  conspicuous  marks  estab- 
lishing a  thwartship  line  on  the  guide,  by  which  other  ships  may 
know,  not  only  that  they  have  her  abeam,  but  that  they  are  also 
abeam  of  her. 

Battleships  and  destroyers  are  fitted  with  gyro-compasses  and 
"  repeaters,"  which,  when  used  in  connection  with  one-metre 
range-finders,  greatly  facilitate  keeping  position. 

If  out  of  bearing,  it  is  better  to  be  astern  than  ahead,  because 
when  the  signal  comes  to  form  column  it  is  easy  to  drop  into  place 
by  easing  the  helm  and  slightly  increasing  speed. 

If  a  ship  which  is  in  position  as  regards  both  bearing  and  dis- 
tance forges  ahead  of  the  line  or  drops  astern  of  it,  she  changes 
not  only  her  bearing,  but  her  distance ;  the  distance  becoming  too 
great  in  either  case — that  is  to  say,  whether  she  is  ahead  or  astern 
of  the  line.  Yet  the  remedy  is  merely  to  change  speed,  without 
working  in  or  out  with  reference  to  the  guide.  If  a  ship,  finding 
herself  a  little  out  of  position  as  regards  both  bearing  and  dis- 
tance, attempts  to  correct  these  two  elements  by  changing  two 
variables  simultaneously— closing  in  toward  the  guide,  for  ex- 
ample, at  the  same  time  that  she  drops  back  toward  the  proper 
bearing — it  is  impossible  to  foresee  just  how  she  will  come  out 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         663 

It  is  much  better,  assuming  that  the  total  error  is  not  very  great, 
to  correct  one  element  at  a  time,  and  to  begin  by  getting  on  the 
proper  bearing,  after  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  close  in  or  open 
out  by  a  small  change  of  course  and  speed.  It  should  not  be 
necessary  to  change  the  course  more  than  one-eighth  of  a  point, 
or  at  most  one-quarter  of  a  point,  and  tables  can  be  prepared  to 
indicate  the  change  of  speed  which  will  hold  the  vessel  steady  on 
her  bearing  as  she  heads  in  or  out  by  this  angle.  The  use  of  a 
definite  angle  here,  with  the  definite  change  of  speed  indicated  by 
a  table,  removes  the  problem  from  the  realm  of  guess-work  to 
that  of  rules ;  although  here,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  handling  a 
ship,  the  rules  must  always  be  illuminated  by  judgment. 

It  should  be  observed  that  any  change  of  distance  in  line  calls 
for  an  increase  of  speed,  whether  it  is  a  matter  of  closing-in  to- 
ward the  guide  or  of  opening-out  from  her. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  value  of  steaming  in 
line  as  a  matter  of  training  for  steaming  at  unvarying  speed. 

On  an  Echelon  Line  of  Bearing. 

For  keeping  position  in  echelon,  it  is  even  more  important  than 
in  line  abreast,  to  be  sure  of  the  exact  course  which  the  guide  is 
steering.  It  is  helpful,  if  practicable,  to  have  marks  on  one's 
own  ship,  fixing  the  line  of  bearing,  which  will  almost  always  be 
either  two,  four,  or  six  points  on  the  bow.  Here,  as  in  the  case 
of  line  formation,  the  gyro-compass  and  repeaters,  with  the  small 
range-finders,  greatly  simplify  the  problem  of  keeping  position. 
The  essential  point  is  to  so  place  the  observer  that  he  may — 
always  under  the  general  direction  of  the  officer  of  the  deck — 
watch  the  bearing  and  distance  and  regulate  these  by  a  touch, 
from  time  to  time,  of  the  helm  or  the  revolutions. 

If  open  slits  are  used  in  the  conning  tower,  the  sides  of  these, 
or  light  colored  marks  painted  on  them — the  observer's  position 
being  fixed — give  a  convenient  line  when  conning  from  this 
point,  if  nothing  more  satisfactory  is  available  outside. 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  "  Line  Abreast,"  it  is  well,  if  a  little  out 
of  position,  to  correct  the  bearing  first,  and  then  the  distance,  thus 
using  only  one  variable  at  a  time.  There  is  this  difference  to  be 
noted  between  echelon  and  line  abreast  as  regards  a  change  of 
distance.  It  has  been  explained  that  in  line  abreast,  any  change 
of  distance  on  the  guide  calls  for  an  increase  of  speed,  whether 


664        KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON. 

to  close  in  or  open  out.  In  echelon,  to  close  in  toward  the  ad- 
vanced flank  calls  for  an  increase  of  speed  (to  hold  the  bearing 
steady)  and  for  a  greater  increase  than  when  in  line.  But  to 
open  out  in  echelon,  while  keeping  the  bearing  steady,  calls  for  a 
reduction  in  speed.  To  work  off  toward  the  withdrawn  flank 
without  reducing  speed  would  throw  us  ahead  and  more  or  less 
across  the  bow  of  the  vessel  next  toward  the  withdrawn  flank. 
The  importance  of  this  point  increases  as  the  sharpness  of  the 
line  of  bearing  increases;  that  is  to  say,  as  the  echelon  departs 
more  and  more  widely  from  line  abreast  and  approaches  more 
and  more  closely  to  column.  When  the  withdrawn  flank  is 
dropped  back  eight  points — forming  column — all  change  of  dis- 
tance becomes  entirely  a  matter  of  change  in  speed. 

To  Change  Course  in  Succession  in  Column,  Turning  Eight  Points 

or  Less. 

One  of  the  most  important  difficulties  connected  with  the  ma- 
noeuvring of  ships  in  squadron  arises  from  the  uncertainty  which 
inevitably  exists  at  any  given  time  with  regard  to  the  tactical 
diameter  of  any  individual  ship  under  the  conditions  of  trim  and 
of  weather  existing  at  the  moment. 

Turning  trials  are  often  made  so  hurriedly  and  under  such 
unfavorable  conditions,  as  to  be  of  little  value  at  the  best ;  and 
even  when  they  are  made  with  every  care,  in  a  smooth  sea  and 
with  little  wind,  they  give  results  which  are  standard  only  for 
similar  conditions,  and  which  will  vary  widely  with  variations 
in  draft  and  trim,  and  in  wind  and  sea. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  methods  which  are  in  use  for  determ- 
ining turning  circles  and  other  tactical  data  are  crude  and  un- 
satisfactory and  it  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  some  more  scien- 
tific method  should  be  devised  and  put  into  effect  under  rules 
which  will  not  only  permit,  but  require,  the  accumulation  of 
complete  tactical  information  with  regard,  at  least,  to  every  man- 
of-war  which  is  ever  expected  to  manceuver  in  company  with 
other  ships. 

When  all  has  been  done  in  this  direction  which  can  be  done, 
and  absolutely  exact  information  acquired,  the  fact  will  still 
remain  that  the  tactical  diameter  of  a  ship  when  trimming  by  the 
stern  will  be  greater  than  when  she  is  on  an  even  keel,  and  much 
greater  than  when  she  happens  to  be  trimming  by  the  head. 
Similarly  the  diameter  of  a  ship  which  at  a  given  time  is  trim- 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         665 

ming  by  the  stern  will  be  materially  greater  when  she  is  turning 
up  into  a  fresh  breeze  than  when  she  is  turning  away  from  it. 
The  effect  of  these  and  similar  variations  of  condition  makes  it 
impossible  to  say  of  any  ship  except  in  a  very  general,  and  often 
a  very  misleading,  sense,  that  her  tactical  diameter  is  a  fixed 
number  of  yards  for  a  fixed  speed  and  a  fixed  helm  angle,  and 
then  demand  that  the  ship  shall  under  all  conditions,  turn  in  a 
circle  of  this  diameter,  using  a  standard  helm  angle  prescribed 
as  the  result  of  trials  made  with  one  particular  set  of  conditions. 

For  a  given  standard  circle — which  is  what  is  desired  in  ma- 
nceuvers — the  helm  angle  must  of  necessity  be  varied  from  time 
to  time  within  certain  limits,  and  it  is  the  judgment  shown  in 
this  variation  which  makes  the  difference  between  success  and 
failure  in  squadron  work. 

In  making  a  turn,  the  leader  of  the  column  should  be  scrupu- 
lously careful  to  use  the  same  helm  angle  at  all  times,  to  put  the 
helm  over  to  this  angle  in  the  same  interval  of  time,  to  ease  the 
helm  and  reverse  it  always  at  the  same  point  of  the  turn.  It  is 
particularly  objectionable  for  the  leader  to  swing  past  the  new 
course  and  then  come  back  to  it.  And  the  leader  should  make  no 
change  in  revolutions  during  the  turn,  unless  to  avoid  danger. 

The  other  ships  of  the  column  must  adapt  their  circles  to  the 
standard  thus  established  by  the  leader,  their  problem  being  to 
follow  around  in  his  wake,  preserving  the  formation  as  accurately 
as  practicable. 

To  put  the  helm  over  at  the  right  instant  and  by  just  the  right 
amount  calls  for  good  judgment,  and,  it  would  almost  seem,  for 
a  special  instinct.  Many  officers  believe  that  the  difficulty  here 
is  best  met  by  noting  the  instant  when  the  next  ahead  begins  to 
turn,  and  adding  to  this  a  time-interval  calculated  beforehand 
for  speed  and  distance.  This  seems  reasonable,  but  is  not  usu- 
ally found  satisfactory  in  practice.  The  bearing  of  the  next 
ahead,  or  of  the  second  ahead,  should  be  helpful,  but  this  again 
is  found  to  fail  in  practice.  Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  guide, 
when  it  is  available,  is  the  path  of  the  ship  ahead  as  marked  out 
by  the  broad  sweep  of  the  wake  which  she  leaves  in  turning. 
This  starts  with  a  pronounced  "  kick  "  toward  the  off  side,  where 
the  stern  has  swung  over  at  the  beginning  of  the  turn,  and  con- 
tinues as  a  broad  curving  arc  of  disturbed  water  one  side  of 


666         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

which  marks  the  path  of  the  stem,  the  other  that  of  the  stern. 
Practice  will  make  it  possible  to  judge  with  fair  accuracy  how 
far  the  bow  of  the  following  ship  should  be  allowed  to  enter  this 
wake  before  the  helm  is  put  over,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  a  fresh  breeze  blowing  across  will  carry  the  wake  to  lee- 
ward, and  that  at  night  the  wake  cannot  always  be  distinguished. 
Moreover,  it  is  at  the  best,  only  a  guide  for  turning  in  the  wake  of 
the  next  ahead,  and  she  may  have  turned  very  wide  of  the  leader. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  officers  who  are  most  successful 
in  this  manceuver  rely  upon  the  general  "  look  "  of  things  ahead 
rather  than  upon  any  rules  which  could  be  formulated  for  the 
help  of  others ; — in  other  words,  they  more  or  less  unconsciously 
sum  up  a  number  of  factors  and  are  guided  by  the  balance  of 
all  rather  than  by  any  one  alone. 

A  ship  well  down  toward  the  rear  of  the  column  cannot  gov- 
ern herself  directly  by  the  leader.  She  has,  however,  a  good 
view  of  the  ships  ahead,  all  of  which,  except  the  one  which  has 
last  turned,  may  be  assumed  to  have  corrected  any  errors  made 
in  turning,  and  to  be  now  following  in  the  leader's  wake.  Car- 
rying back  the  line  formed  by  these  ships  she  should  be  able  to 
judge  fairly  well  how  her  next  ahead  is  coming  out,  and  to 
determine  whether  to  turn  outside  or  inside  or  to  follow  around 
as  exactly  as  she  can.  The  difficulty  here  is  far  greater  by  night 
than  by  day,  and  is  enormously  increased  when  lights  are 
screened. 

It  is  important  to  watch  the  steering  after  the  next  ahead 
begins  to  turn,  and  to  take  care  that  the  ship  is  held  on  her  com- 
pass course  and  not  allowed  to  swing  off,  following  the  ce  kick  " 
made  by  the  stern  of  the  ship  ahead.  It  is  helpful  here  to  glance 
at  the  ships  astern,  which  are  still,  of  course,  preserving  the  old 
direction,  thus  getting  a  line  by  which  to  make  sure  that  your 
helmsman  is  not  swinging  off  in  spite  of  good  intentions. 

It  is  better  to  start  the  turn  a  little  early  rather  than  at  all  too 
late.  If  the  bow  is  pushed  too  far  across  the  wake  of  the  ships 
ahead,  it  catches  the  current  from  their  screws  and  is  thrown  off 
still  more,  with  the  result  that  a  small  initial  error  is  greatly 
magnified.  A  ship  which  turns  outside  must  accept  the  situation 
and  straighten  out  on  a  course  parallel  to  the  column  and  out- 
side of  it.  To  attempt  to  work  into  position  across  the  bow  of 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         667 

the  next  astern  while  the  latter  is  turning  would  involve  danger 
of  being  rammed.  It  will  be  necessary,  after  having  turned  out 
side,  to  increase  speed  a  little,  thus  making1  up  for  the  larger  cir- 
cle traversed.  A  ship  which  finds  herself  turning  a  little  inside 
could  correct  the  error  by  easing  her  helm  and  reducing  speed 
slightly,  waiting  for  this  until  the  turn  has  progressed  to  a  point 
where  the  condition  of  affairs  can  be  made  out  with  certainty ; 
but  most  officers  think  it  unwise  to  tolerate  this,  if  only  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  likely  to  encourage  the  altogether  unpardonable 
practice  of  turning  decidedly  inside  and  then  easing  the  helm, 
merely  to  avoid  the  embarrassment  of  judging  when  and  where 
to  turn  properly ;  or  the  equally  unpardonable  practice  of  "  cut- 
ting corners  "  to  make  up  distance. 

A  ship  which  has  turned  inside  will  usually  have  to  reduce 
speed  more  or  less  to  drop  into  her  position,  but  must  resume 
standard  in  time  to  avoid  hampering  the  next  astern. 

The  time  for  easing  the  helm  and  reversing  it  to  meet  the 
ship  on  her  new  course  will  vary  with  different  ships.  It  is  gen- 
erally found  well  to  begin  easing  at  about  two  points  from  the 
course,  bringing  the  helm  to  amidships  with  one  point  left  to  go, 
and  then  to  reverse  it  as  much  and  as  fast  as  is  found  necessary 
to  meet  her  without  swinging  past  the  course.  It  is  especially 
important  for  the  leader  to  be  absolutely  consistent  in  this  matter. 

Each  ship  before  turning  should  note  carefully  what  her  new 
compass  course  is  to  be. 

Finally,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  importance  of  being 
always  as  nearly  as  possible  in  position,  as  regards  both  bearing 
and  distance,  before  beginning  to  turn.  To  be  outside  or  inside 
of  the  point  where  the  leader  has  put  the  helm  over  means  an  out- 
side or  an  inside  turn — if  we  assume  that  the  helm  used  is  that 
which  duplicates  the  turn  of  the  leader.  A  still  more  important 
point  is  that  the  ship  should  be  steady  on  her  proper  course  when 
the  time  comes  to  put  the  helm  over.  //  she  is  off  her  course  or 
if  she  is  swinging,  a  variable  and  uncertain  factor  is  introduced 
into  the  turn.  It  is  important  also  that  the  speed  should  be  uni- 
form and  standard.  If  a  ship  is  closing  up  or  dropping  back  as 
she  approaches  the  turning  point,  even  though  standard  speed 
be  ordered  at  the  last  moment,  she  will  continue  to  gain  or  lose 
distance  throughout  the  turn. 


668         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  point  out  the  exceptional  embarrassment 
which  may  result  from  being  very  close  to  the  next  ahead  and  on 
her  inner  quarter  when  she  begins  to  turn.  This  situation  may 
arise  from  the  next  ahead  being  out  of  position,  in  which  case  it 
emphasizes  two  of  the  rules  which  have  been  laid  down  above; 
first,  that  it  is  better  to  be  ahead  of  position  than  astern,  since  by 
being  ahead  you  embarrass  nobody  but  yourself,  and  second  that 
it  is  good  seamanship  as  well  as  good  comradeship  to  avoid  em- 
barrassing your  next  astern.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  real 
error  of  position  on  your  own  part,  it  emphasizes  the  caution 
already  given  not  to  overwork  the  first  of  these  two  rules  by 
making  a  practice  of  being  ahead  of  position. 

Turning  More  Than  Eight  Points. 

In  a  turn  of  more  than  eight  points  it  is  very  dangerous  to 
turn  inside.  A  ship  which  finds  herself  in  this  position  should 
reduce  speed  in  the  early  part  of  the  turn  to  avoid  running  up 
on  the  next  ahead,  whom  she  will  presently  find  swinging  in 
across  her  bow  as  the  column  doubles  back  toward  its  original 
line.  The  best  that  she  can  do  is  to  keep  turning,  at  reduced  speed, 
and  with  hard-over  rudder,  abreast  her  proper  place  in  the  column, 
but  always  inside  of  it.  There  will  be  a  temptation  to  work  back 
into  place  by  easing  the  helm,  but  this  will  check  her  swing  and 
she  can  never  pick  it  up  again.  The  result  is  that  if  she  gets  into 
place  momentarily,  it  will  be  only  to  cut  across  the  curve  on  which 
the  other  ships  are  turning,  and,  worst  of  all,  to  receive  a  kick 
from  the  screw  current  of  the  ships  ahead  on  her  inner  bow, 
throwing  her  still  further  out  and  more  or  less  across  the  stem 
of  the  following  ship,  which,  swinging  as  she  will  be  under  hard- 
over  helm,  is  practically  powerless  to  do  anything  toward  keep- 
ing clear  of  a  ship  in  such  a  position. 

The  only  thing  to  do,  then,  is  to  turn  on  a  circle  parallel  to 
that  of  the  column,  but  with  smaller  radius.  This  means  a 
sharper  turn  and  calls  for  more  than  standard  turning  helm  and 
possibly  for  stopping  the  inner  screw.  Here,  as  in  the  other 
abnormal  situations,  due  notice  should  be  given  by  the  cones  or 
otherwise,  of  all  changes  of  speed.  The  next  astern  can,  in  case 
of  danger,  help  to  keep  clear  of  a  ship  which  is  distinctly  inside 
of  her,  by  easing  her  helm. 

A  ship  turning  outside  the  proper  path  is  safe  but  needs  a 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         669 

material  increase  of  speed  to  keep  abreast  of  position.  The 
danger  of  attempting  to  work  into  place  in  the  column  is  even 
greater  than  in  an  eight-point  turn,  so  there  is  nothing  to  do  but 
to  keep  up  as  well  as  possible  and  be  ready  to  resume  position 
after  the  turn  is  completed. 

The  difficulties  and  dangers  of  a  "  counter-march  "  are  so  many 
and  its  utility  is  so  slight  that  in  some  fleets  it  has  been  given  up, 
its  place  being  taken,  when  a  change  of  16  points  is  to  be  made, 
by  two  8-point  turns. 

Turning  Simultaneously. 

To  turn  simultaneously  through  8  or  16  points  is  a  test  of  many 
points  in  the  work  of  the  squadron ;  since  any  error  in  position, 
speed,  or  tactical  diameter  is  brought  out  very  strikingly.  In 
one  respect,  the  apparent  result  may  be  misleading,  since  the 
guide  now  changes  (usually)  and  it  may  happen  that  ships  which 
were  exactly  in  position  with  the  old  guide  and  which  have 
turned  perfectly,  are  altogether  out  when  the  turn  is  completed, 
as  a  result  of  faults  on  the  part  of  the  new  guide. 

As  soon  as  signal  is  made  for  this  or  any  other  manceuver 
which  involves  a  change  of  guide,  each  ship  should  try  to  get  her 
distance  and  bearing  from  the  new  guide  so  that  she  may  know 
where  she  is  likely  to  find  herself  at  the  end  of  the  manoeuver, 
and  what  will  be  necessary  for  getting  into  position.  By  watch- 
ing the  guide  as  the  end  of  the  first  eight  points  is  approached 
and  completed,  much  can  be  learned  about  the  way  the  ships  are 
turning  with  reference  to  each  other,  and  this  is  a  good  time  also 
to  get  the  distance,  if  practicable.  The  adjoining  ships  on  either 
hand  should  also  be  watched,  as  intervals  are  sometimes  closed 
rather  unaccountably  in  a  turn  of  this  kind,  and  ships  run  up 
dangerously  close  without  clear  evidence  as  to  which  one  is  at 
fault.  (See  remarks  below  as  to  reasons  for  variations  of  speed 
in  the  turning  of  different  ships.) 

As  the  new  course  is  approached,  certain  allowances  must  be 
made  (unless  prohibited  by  tactical  regulations)  to  perfect  the 
alignment  on  the  new  guide. 

It  is  a  fact  often  noted  in  fleet  manoeuvers  where  vessels  of 
different  type  are  associated,  that  some  ships  lose  much  more 
speed  than  others  in  turning.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this 
difference.  With  ships  of  different  length,  but  otherwise  simi- 


670         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

lar,  the  longer  ship  will  expend  a  larger  proportion  of  her  power 
in  turning,  and  thus  her  speed  will  drop  more  than  that  of  the 
short  ships.  A  ship  with  full  deadwood  aft  expends  more  power 
in  turning  than  one  with  the  deadwood  cut  away,  and  therefore 
loses  more  speed.  A  ship  with  large  turrets  or  other  heavy 
weights  at  bow  and  stern  requires  more  power  to  take  up  her 
swing  at  the  beginning  and  more  power  to  check  it  at  the  end, 
than  one  whose  weights  are  more  evenly  distributed,  and  will 
thus  have  less  power  left  for  maintaining  her  speed. 

For  the  above  reasons,  it  is  very  important  to  group  similar 
vessels  together  as  far  as  possible. 

Anchoring  Simultaneously. 

In  standing  in  for  an  anchorage  it  is  customary  to  slow  to 
five  or  six  knots  while  still  some  distance  away  and  to  stop  when 
at  a  distance  such  that  it  is  thought  the  ships  will  reach  up  to 
their  berths  with  sufficient  way  left  for  anchoring.  Supposing 
all  the  ships  to  be  in  position  and  moving  at  uniform  speed  when 
the  fleet  is  stopped,  it  is  assumed  that  they  will  continue  in  posi- 
tion. Unfortunately,  this  is  not  the  case  unless,  as  very  rarely 
happens,  they  are  all  of  the  same  displacement.  Nor  does  it 
always  happen  that  all  are  running  at  the  same  speed  when  the 
signal  to  stop  is  hauled  down. 

In  running  500  yards,  very  marked  changes  of  position  may 
take  place  in  a  fleet  where  the  displacement  varies  as  much  as  it 
commonly  does  in  most  fleets  of  to-day  or  where  some  variation 
of  speed  exists  at  the  instant  of  stopping.  It  is  worth  consider- 
ing whether  it  might  not  be  well  to  keep  the  engines  turning 
over  at  dead  slow  up  to  the  instant  of  letting  go  the  anchors. 
This  would  make  it  possible  to  keep  the  ships  in  position,  and 
their  headway  need  not  be  greater  than  it  usually  is  under  the 
present  practice. 

It  is  important  that  "  half -speed  "  and  "  slow-speed  "  should 
be  standardized  as  carefully  as  "  standard  speed  "  and  that  the 
leader  of  the  column,  when  indicating  either  of  these  speeds, 
should  maintain  the  proper  number  of  revolutions  as  carefully 
as  at  other  times.  A  little  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  leader 
when  approaching  the  anchorage  can  make  serious  trouble  for 
the  ships  astern.  Similarly,  of  course,  carelessness  on  the  part 
of  any  ship  in  the  column  throws  out  all  ships  astern  of  her. 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         67! 

Getting  Underway.1 

Notice  having  been  given  in  advance,  of  the  hour  for  getting 
underway,  signal  is  made  a  few  minutes  before  this  hour  to 
"  heave  short  "  and,  at  the  proper  time,  to  "  get  underway."  If 
tlie  ships  chance  to  be  heading  in  the  proper  direction,  and  if  the 
flagship  or  other  vessel  which  is  to  lead  out  of  harbor  is  at  the 
head  of  the  column,  the  manceuver  is  very  simple.  If  the  ships 
are  heading  in  some  other  direction,  they  should  keep  this  head- 
ing after  the  anchors  are  up,  until  signal  is  made  to  turn.  '  If  the 
flagship  is  at  the  inner  end  and  proposes  to  lead  out,  it  is  advis- 
able, unless  conditions  of  wind  and  tide  introduce  some  difficulty, 
for  the  ships  to  turn  a  little  short  of  the  course  on  which  they  will 
run  out ;  that  is  to  say,  they  should  head  one  or  two  points  toward 
the  line  along  which  the  flagship  will  pass  as  she  leads  out.  Each 
ship  is  then  ready  to  drop  into  place  as  her  turn  is  reached. 

It  is  much  more  common  to  see  ships  slow  about  getting  into 
position  than  to  see  them  closed  up  too  far,  the  result  being  that 
in  a  fleet  leaving  port  the  leaders  are  often  seen  running  at  half 
speed  while  the  rear  vessels  are  closing  up  under  reserve  speed. 
This  looks  badly  and  there  is  no  reason  for  it  except  undue  slow- 
ness or  timidity  about  taking  position. 

Handling  Turbine  Ships. 

Most  men-of-war  of  recent  design  have  turbine  engines,  and 
must  be  handled  somewhat  differently  from  ships  with  recipro- 
cating engines.  Attention  may  be  called  to  the  following  points 
of  difference: 

Turbine  ships  have  small  screws,  which  are  run  at  high  speed. 
In  ships  with  reciprocating  engines  the  conditions  are  reversed, 
these  ships  having  large  screws  which  run  at  comparatively  low 
speed. 

As  turbines  cannot  be  reversed,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  sepa- 
rate rotors  for  backing;  and  as  it  is  not  economical  to  divide 
the  available  space  equally  between  the  power  for  going  ahead 
and  that  for  backing,  it  results  that  the  backing  rotors  are  com- 
paratively small. 

1  See  Notes  B  at  end  of  chapter. 


672         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

In  many  cases  turbine  ships  develop  less  than  half  the  power 
in  backing  that  they  have  for  going  ahead. 

This  is  a  point  that  can  never  be  lost  sight  of  for  a  moment 
when  manoeuvring  in  formation  with  ships  having  reciprocating 
engines.  It  is  also  of  great  importance  in  crowded  waters  or  in 
a  fog,  in  turning  in  a  narrow  space,  in  going  alongside  a  dock, 
and  in  many  other  situations  where  it  may  be  necessary  to  reduce 
the  headway  quickly. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  loss  which  results  from  these  con- 
ditions is  in  the  power  to  turn  in  a  limited  space,  where  a  ship 
with  reciprocating  engines  and  a  good  spread  between  her  (large) 
screws  can  often  be  made  to  spin  around  on  her  heel  by  going 
ahead  on  one  screw  and  backing  on  the  other. 

As  it  is  necessary  for  reversing  in  a  turbine  ship  to  shift  from 
one  set  of  rotors  to  another,  there  is  considerable  time  lost  as 
compared  with  a  corresponding  shift  in  the  case  of  reciprocating 
engines.  It  is  found  on  the  Nevada  that,  under  average  condi- 
tions, about  a  minute  and  a  half  is  required. 

As  the  head  of  steam  is  reduced  in  shifting  from  one  set  of 
rotors  to  another,  there  is  a  material  drop  in  pressure  where 
much  manoeuvring  is  called  for,  with  the  result  that  a  ship  which 
is  obliged  to  shift  several  times  in  turning,  as  may  be  necessary 
in  getting  underway  with  other  ships,  is  likely  to  find  herself 
unable  to  pick  up  speed  promptly  after  straightening  out  on  her 
course.  This  may  be  guarded  against  by  having  a  good  reserve 
of  boiler  power. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  turbines  in  use  in  the  U.  S. 
Navy,  viz. :  The  Parsons  and  the  Curtiss. 

The  following  notes  refer  to  ships  having  the  Parsons  type 
as  installed  on  the  Florida  and  Utah. 

There  are  four  propellers  driven  by  turbines  on  each  shaft. 
The  high-pressure  ahead  rotors  are  on  the  wing  shafts,  the  in- 
termediate and  low-pressure  on  the  centre  shafts;  the  high- 
pressure  backing  rotors  are  on  the  wing  shafts,  the  low-pressure 
backing  on  the  centre  shafts.  The  backing  turbines  are  small 
and  the  combination  has  less  than  half  the  power  of  the  ahead 
combination.  Due  to  the  less  efficient  clearance  of  the  blades, 
the  backing  turbines  use  up  steam  very  rapidly  and  therefore  the 
backing  efficiency  of  the  engines  is  really  less  than  the  rated 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         673 

horse-power  of  the  backing  turbines  would  lead  one  to  suppose. 
It  should  be  noted  also  that  after  backing  for  a  comparatively 
short  time  there  is  not  a  full  head  of  steam  left  for  going  ahead 
until  steam  is  worked  up  again. 

Getting  Underway.  When  getting  underway  the  low  efficiency 
of  the  backing  turbines  must  be  kept  in  mind  at  all  times. 

When  casting  in  restricted  waters  the  sternboard  should  be 
made  towards  the  most  restricted  area  on  account  of  quicker 
effect  of  the  propellers  in  going  ahead. 

The  turning  effects  of  the  propellers  in  combination  with  the 
rudder  are  the  same  as  with  reciprocating  engines,  but  slower. 
The  effect  of  wind  is  the  same,  the  ship  usually  falling  off  when 
going  astern. 

In  a  tide-way  it  is  most  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  ship 
responds  to  her  engines  much  more  slowly  than  in  the  case  of 
reciprocating  engines  with  large  propellers,  particularly  in  back- 
ing. With  way  on  ahead  the  ship  answers  her  rudder  prac- 
tically as  efficiently  with  her  engines  backing  as  when  they  are 
stopped  or  going  ahead. 

When  getting  underway  in  squadron  where  it  is  necessary  to 
gain  -and  keep  position,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  much 
manoeuvring  in  turning  materially  reduces  the  head  of  steam,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  work  it  up  again  before  full  or  even 
standard  speed  can  be  maintained.  A  very  wise  precaution  is  to 
have  more  power  available  than  the  prescribed  speed  requires  un- 
til clear  of  the  harbor,  when  a  boiler  may  be  taken  off. 

Coming  to  Anchor.  When  approaching  an  anchorage  the  low 
efficiency  of  the  backing  turbines  must  be  kept  in  mind  always. 
With  steam  for  fourteen  knots  or  under  it  is  not  advisable  to  let 
go  the  anchor  with  more  than  four  knots  way  on.  The  engines 
should  be  stopped  far  enough  from  the  anchorage  for  the  ship  to 
lose  her  headway  to  about  four  knots  when  the  anchor  is  let  go. 
This  gives  the  fire-room  force  opportunity  to  bottle  up  steam  for 
backing.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  when  steam  is  shut  off  from 
the  rotors  the  propellers  revolve  freely,  so  there  is  no  drag  of 
the  propellers  to  deaden  headway.  Headway  may  be  deadened 
by  quickly  putting  the  rudder  full  over  each  way.  If  the  harbor 
is  an  open  one  it  is  well  to  keep  standard  speed  to  the  point 


674         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

where  the  engines  should  be  stopped  and  let  the  ship  slide  up 
to  her  berth,  rather  than  slowing  gradually  by  two-thirds  and  one- 
third  speed  and  then  stopping  near  the  anchorage  point. 

Cruising  and  Manoeuvring  in  Formation.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  always  that  the  ship  responds  slowly  to  changes  of  speed  of 
the  engines.  The  propellers  are  much  smaller  than  in  case  of  re- 
ciprocating ships  with  two  screws.  When  cruising  in  formation 
with  ships  having  reciprocating  engines,  their  comparatively  quick 
changes  of  speed  must  be  taken  into  account  and  their  action 
anticipated  as  much  as  possible.  If  astern  of  a  reciprocating  ship 
and  the  signal  stop  is  made,  the  turbine  ship  will  close  up  rapidly. 

When  turning,  the  rudder  tends  to  check  the  speed  materially 
and  distance  must  be  watched  closely.  If  it  becomes  necessary 
to  give  more  than  the  standard  rudder  in  the  turn,  the  engines 
should  be  speeded  up  immediately.  If  the  rudder  is  put  over 
full,  the  ship  will  lose  distance  rapidly  in  spite  of  full  speed  on 
the  engines.  Therefore  it  is  better  to  turn  outside  than  to  attempt 
to  turn  short  into  column  with  a  full  rudder. 

When  manoeuvring  in  company  with  reciprocating  ships  very 
great  care  and  vigilance  are  required  at  all  times,  and  the  rudder 
should  be  depended  on  rather  than  engines  in  avoiding  collision. 

In  a  Fog.  In  a  fog  also  the  rudder  must  be  relied  on  rather 
than  the  engines.  The  rudders  are  large  and  the  steering  qualities 
excellent.  Stopping  and  backing  the  starboard  engines  when 
turning  to  starboard,  and  the  port  engines  when  turning  to  port, 
of  course  will  quicken  the  turning  very  materially.  Headway  is 
lost  slowly  by  backing  the  engines,  but  quickly  by  using  full 
rudder. 

Breakdown.  The  ship  will  carry  her  way  a  long  time,  as  the 
propellers  do  not  drag.  Headway  will  be  lost  quickly  by  using  a 
full  rudder  in  turning. 

Man  Overboard.  Rules  are  prescribed  for  this  as  a  tactical 
manoeuvre.  But  when  acting  singly  or  otherwise,  when  possible 
to  do  so,  the  quickest  way  to  reach  the  man  is  to  turn  with  a  full 
rudder,  stopping  engines  until  the  man  is  clear  and  then  starting 
them  again.  Keep  engines  going  until  about  half-way  around, 
then  stop.  The  ship  will  slide  up  close  to  the  man  and  headway 
will  be  deadened  enough  to  get  boats  away. 

The  following  notes  refer  especially  to  Curtiss  turbines. 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         675 


The  remarks  on  Parsons  turbines  apply  also  to  Curtiss  turbines 
in  all  cases  where  a  ship  has  four  propellers.  In  oil-burning 
ships  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  allowances  for  time  to  build 
up  steam  pressure  for  going  ahead  again  after  backing,  even 
though  the  steam  pressure  has  dropped  due  to  the  large  volume 
of  steam  required  for  backing.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  as 
soon  as  the  fire-room  receives  the  signal  "Full  speed,"  enough 
burners  are  at  once  turned  on  to  run  the  steam  quickly  up  to 
the  working  pressure.  The  point  is  that  the  volume  of  oil  flame 
under  the  boilers  can  very  quickly  be  varied  at  will,  which  is  of 
course  not  the  case  with  vessels  burning  coal. 

On  the  Nevada,  which  is  equipped  with  only  two  propellers 
and  Curtiss  turbines,  the  time  required  to  manipulate  the  neces- 
sary valves  for  stopping  and  backing  is  practically  constant  for 
all  speeds.  This  time  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds.  But 
the  total  interval  of  time  elapsing  from  going  ahead — say  at 
twelve  knots — to  astern,  depends  entirely  on  the  boiler  power 
available.  With  full  boiler  power  it  would  not  take  more  than 
one  minute  to  reverse  the  engines  from  full  speed  ahead.  With 
only  one- third  boiler  power  available  (which  is  the  minimum) 
it  takes  about  two  minutes  to  reverse  and  have  the  engines  going 
one-third  astern.  With  one-half  to  two-thirds  boiler  power  avail- 
able, about  il/2  minutes  would  be  required  to  back  at  three-quar- 
ters the  maximum  astern  speed. 


Boiler  power  available. 

Engines  going 
ahead. 

Engines  going 
astern. 

Elapsed  time. 

\la,ximum  (12  boilers) 

Full  speed 

Full  speed 

i  minute 

\  to  f  (6  to  8  boilers) 

15  knots 

i  \  minutes 

\  (4  boilers,  minimum  for  backing  . 

5-10  knots 

*• 

2  minutes 

The  above  times  are  approximate. 

Generally  speaking,  the  turbine  ship  having  two  propellers  can 
be  backed  more  quickly  than  the  turbine  ship  having  four  pro- 
pellers, since  it  takes  less  time  for  the  steam  to  pass  through  the 
turbines,  and  since  the  propellers  are  somewhat  larger.  How- 
ever, the  total  backing  power  is  about  equal  in  both  Parsons  and 
Curtiss  installations. 

Manoeuvring.  Vessels  of  the  Nevada  class  have  their  deadwood 
cut  away  much  more  than  other  recent  types.  This  results  in  im- 


676         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

proved  tactical  qualities,  but  this  improvement  tends  to  complicate, 
rather  than  simplify,  the  handling  of  the  ship  in  formation  with 
the  older  ships,  such  as  the  Wyoming  and  New  York  classes.  The 
reason  for  this  is  as  follows :  Absence  of  deadwood  has  very  little 
effect  as  long  as  the  ship  travels  a  straight  course,  but  as  soon  as 
she  begins  to  turn  she  turns  very  rapidly.  This  causes  the  ship 
to  advance  much  further  than  the  older  ships  when  given  the 
amount  of  rudder  necessary  to  turn  in  the  same  tactical  diameter. 
Conversely,  if  she  is  given  enough  helm  to  cause  her  immedi- 
ately to  follow  in  the  wake  of  one  of  the  older  ships,  she  will 
describe  a  much  smaller  circle.  Thus  the  vessel  cannot  be  turned 
in  a  prescribed  tactical  diameter  by  using  a  standard  helm  with- 
out getting  considerably  out  of  position.  That  is,  a  varying 
amount  of  helm  must  be  used  in  manoeuvring  with  the  older 
types  of  vessels. 

Another  peculiarity  of  this  ship  is  the  difficulty  of  steering 
with  the  engines.  There  being  but  two  propellers,  which  are 
small  (18  ft.)  and  set  close  to  the  center  line  (24  ft),  their  steer- 
ing effect  is  almost  negligible.  In  fact,  if  the  ship  is  swinging  it 
is  practically  impossible  to  check  her  with  the  engines  alone.  At 
slow  speeds,  when  there  is  considerable  wind  and  sea,  the  ship 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  come  up  into  the  wind,  and  it  is  often 
necessary  to  steam  under  one  engine  and  with  a  considerable 
rudder  in  order  to  steer  a  set  course.  In  a  harbor,  with  little 
manoeuvring  room,  and  with  but  little  way  on  it  is  difficult  to 
turn  against  the  wind.  This  condition  is  probably  found  only 
on  the  Nevada,  since  her  sister  ship,  the  Oklahoma,  has  recipro- 
cating engines,  and  the  later  types,  Arisona  and  Pennsylvania, 
have  four  screws. 

In  a  Fog.    Backing  the  inboard  engine  when  turning  with  full 
rudder  does  not  quicken  the  turn,  but  causes  the  ship  to  advance 
fty  yards  less  and  transfer  fifty  yards  less  than  when  turning 
with  full  rudder  and  both  engines  going  ahead.   There  appears  to 
>e  a  slight  advantage  in  backing  the  inboard  engine  to  avoid  colli- 
sion, though  the  headway  is  much  reduced  by  the  time  the  ship 
has  turned  90°. 

Man  Overboard.    There  is  no  necessity  for  stopping  the  engines 

o  prevent  striking  a  man  overboard.    In  the  first  place  the  tops  of 

the  screws  are  submerged  n  feet  and  the  outboard  edge  does  not 

ject  beyond  the  side  of  the  ship ;  in  the  second  place  the  screws 

itmue  to  revolve  for  some  time  at  practically  the  same  speed 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON.        677 

after  the  throttles  are  closed,  provided  the  ship  has  way  on.  The 
best  thing  to  do  is  to  manoeuvre  to  lower  a  boat  as  soon  as  possible 
and  as  close  as  possible  to  the  man.  By  using  full  rudder  and 
turning  180°  with  both  engines  going  ahead  and  then  backing 
both  engines  the  ship  will  be  practically  dead  in  the  water  at 
the  point  where  the  rudder  was  first  put  over. 

In  other  respects  the  manoeuvring  qualities  of  the  Nevada  are 
similar  to  those  described  for  the  Florida  and  Utah. 

Notes  On  Handling  the  Idaho. 

Steering.  The  Idaho  has  electric  and  steam  steering  gear,  the 
shift  from  one  to  the  other  being  made  through  clutches  in  the 
steering  gear  room.  Frequent  drill  enables  the  steering  room 
watch  to  shift  in  thirty  seconds  or  less  after  hearing  the  bell  sig- 
nal from  the  steering  station.  In  order  to  be  sure  that  both  sys- 
tems are  at  their  maximum  efficiency  it  is  customary  to  use 
each  system  twelve  hours  out  of  every  twenty-four  hours  at  sea. 

The  Idaho  has  Parsons  Turbines,  four  shafts.  Her  engines 
are  used  in  "  Direct  Combination  "  or  "  Cruising  Combination." 
The  direct  combination  may  be  used  for  all  speeds  and  is  best  for 
manoeuvring  and  backing.  It  is  the  only  combination  for  speeds 
over  seventeen  knots.  The  cruising  combination  may  be  used 
for  all  speeds  up  to  seventeen  knots  and  for  manoeuvring  and 
backing,  though  it  is  more  awkward  than  the  direct  combination 
due  to  the  fact  that  a  small  high  pressure  turbine  is  connected  to 
each  inner  shaft  by  a  mechanical  gear,  which  is  thrown  out  for 
the  direct  combination.  Backing  reverses  the  motion  through  the 
gear,  which  is  more  awkward  than  if  the  gear  were  not  there. 
Practice  is  to  get  under  way,  manoeuvre,  and  come  to  anchor,  with 
the  direct  combination,  though  the  Pacific  Fleet  is  considering  an 
order  making  it  mandatory  to  use  the  cruising  combination  for 
all  speeds  under  a  certain  designated  one. 

To  shift  from  direct  to  cruising  combination  requires  one  min- 
ute fifteen  seconds,  varying  somewhat  with  the  speed  of  the  ship. 
The  shafts  have  to  be  stopped  to  make  this  shift.  It  is  best  to 
back  before  making  the  shift  so  as  to  prevent  the  main  shafts 
turning  due  to  headway. 

To  shift  from  cruising  to  direct  combination  takes  thirty  sec- 
onds, varying  somewhat  with  the  speed  of  the  ship.  Clutch  can 
be  disconnected  with  shafts  revolving  slowly. 


678         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

Time  necessary  to  reverse  from  fifteen  knots  ahead  to  full 
speed  astern  is  about  ten  seconds  when  in  direct  and  fifteen  sec- 
onds when  in  cruising  combination.  The  relative  backing  to 
ahead  power  is  about  seventy-five  per  cent. 

Handling  of  Ship.  The  two  shafts  on  the  same  side  work  to- 
gether and  it  is  only  necessary  to  think  in  terms  of  the  starboard 
and  port  engines.  The  Idaho  handles  like  any  twin  screw  (out 
turning)  ship  except  that  she  does  not  answer  as  readily.  It  is 
difficult  to  get  any  results  unless  there  is  way  on  the  ship.  To  get 
results  in  turning  it  is  better  to  use  standard  speed  on  the  ahead 
engines  and  full  speed  on  the  astern  engines  than  it  is  to  use  one 
third  and  two  third  speeds. 

Turning  Eight  Points  or  Less.  The  rudder  is  first  put  over  a 
little  more  than  standard  to  get  the  ship  started.  After  the  ship 
has  turned  a  given  amount,  depending  on  the  amount  of  the  turn 
to  be  made  and  determined  by  experience,  the  rudder  is  eased  to 
standard.  It  is  then  put  amidships  and  reversed  in  time  to  keep 
the  ship  from  swinging  past  the  course. 

Except  as  above  noted,  the  remarks  which  precede  as  to  han- 
dling turbine  ships  apply  to  the  Idaho. 

Notes  on  Handling  the  Jupiter. 

Before  discussing  the  handling  of  the  Jupiter,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  installation. 

The  ship  is  propelled  by  two  induction  motors  using  alternating 
current  furnished  by  a  turbine-driven  generator.     So  far  as  the 
generation  of  power  goes,  the  Jupiter  is  a  single-screw  ship, 
5  all  power  used  by  the  motors  comes  from  the  one  generator 
which  is  driven  by  one  turbine;  but  so  far  as  manoeuvring  goes! 
is  a  twin-screw  ship,  as  the  power  is  carried  from  the  single 
generator  to  two  motors  and  two  shafts. 

The  generator  has  two  poles  and  each  motor  thirty-six  poles, 
that  eighteen  revolutions  of  the  generator  are  necessary  for  one 
revolution  of  the  motor,  which  is  secured  to  its  respective  pro- 
slier  shaft.    In  other  words,  the  propeller  revolutions  (neglect- 
shp  m  the  motor,  which  is  less  than  2%)   are  always  one- 
eighteenth  of  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  revolving  field 
ot  the  generator. 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         679 

The  revolving  field  of  the  generator  is  on  the  same  shaft  as 
the  rotor  of  the  turbine  so  that  one  revolution  of  the  turbine  gives 
one  revolution  to  the  generator  and  1/18  of  a  revolution  of  the 
motors  and  propellers. 

Thus,  in  order  to  change  the  speed  of  the  propellers,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  vary  the  speed  of  the  turbine  which  drives  the 
generator;  and  all  changes  of  speed  in  the  vessel  are  made  in 
this  way.  In  other  words,  if  the  turbine  and  generator  are  mak- 
ing 1800  r.p.m.  the  motor  will  make  100  r.p.m.,  which  gives 
thirteen  knots.  If  the  turbine  is  slowed  to  900,  or  one-half  the 
revolutions,  the  motors  automatically,  due  to  their  construction 
and  to  the  fact  that  they  are  induction  motors,  will  make  50 
revolutions,  or  speed  for  six  and  one-half  knots. 

Object  and  Effect  of  Resistances.  There  are  two  water-cooled 
resistances  in  the  engine-room  which  can  be  thrown  in  or  out  of 
circuit  with  the  rotor  of  either  motor,  and  as  these  are  cross-con- 
nected they  must  be  thrown  in  or  out  on  both  motors  at  the  same 
time. 

These  resistances  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  speed 
of  the  motors  and  propellers.  Their  function  is  to  enable  the 
motors  to  exert  their  go  ahead  or  backing  power  on  the  propeller 
shaft  instantaneously.  The  effect  of  these  resistances  is,  in  fact, 
to  give  the  motors  and  propellers  a  practically  instantaneous  full- 
power  reversal  in  either  direction,  either  at  fifteen  knots  or  at 
any  speed  below  that,  the  speed  at  which  the  motors  operate 
when  the  resistances  are  "in"  depending  entirely  upon  the  speed  of 
the  turbine  and  the  generator  field,  as  has  been  stated.  It  takes 
about  four  seconds  to  throw  these  resistances  in  or  out  of  circuit. 

As  the  motors  are  less  economical  running  with  the  resistances 
"in,"  they  are  habitually  kept  "out"  except  in  manoeuvring  where 
instantaneous  reversal  is  desirable. 

If  running  at  a  speed  of  fifteen  knots,  the  highest  speed  the 
vessel  can  attain,  the  resistances  can  be  thrown  in  and  the  motors 
reversed  up  to  a  speed  of  ten  knots,  in  four  seconds.  Either 
motor  may  be  stopped  while  the  other  is  running  in  either  direc- 
tion. 

Turning.  A  point  that  forces  itself  upon  one's  attention,  and  a 
vital  one  so  far  as  manoeuvring  goes,  has  to  do  with  the  turning  of 
a  vessel,  the  motors  (and  propellers)  of  which  must  of  necessity 
operate  at  the  same  number  of  revolutions  whether  both  are 


68O         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

going  ahead  or  one  is  going  ahead  and  the  other  astern.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  difficulties  which  might  be  expected  to  result 
from  these  conditions  vanish  under  the  test  of  actual  manoeuvring. 
The  turning  of  the  ship  is  accomplished  by  the  application  of 
power  to  the  propellers  in  different  directions,  for  certain  periods 
of  time.  Consider  the  Jupiter  turning  to  the  right  with  full 
right  rudder  at  10  knots  (77  r.p.m.)  under  the  port  motor, 
starboard  motor  being  stopped.  It  is  desired  to  turn  faster. 
The  starboard  motor  is  signalled  to  back ;  and  a  second  after  the 
switch  is  thrown,  that  motor  is  making  seventy-seven  revolutions, 
— no  more  and  no  less, — astern.  The  ship  picks  up  to  the  de- 
sired velocity.  The  signal  is  given  to  stop  the  starboard  motor, 
and  instantly  the  power  is  off.  The  inertia  of  the  ship  over- 
comes any  jerky  motion.  In  other  words,  with  two  motors  that 
can  supply  absolutely  definite  amounts  of  power  to  the  pro- 
pellers as  often  as  thirty  times  a  minute,  any  uncertainty  as  to 
what  is  going  on  is  removed,  and  greater  facility  of  control 
attained. 

It  is  one  thing  to  have  an  order  appear  on  the  engine-room 
telegraphs  and  quite  another  to  obtain  an  absolutely  definite  and 
practically  instantaneous  response.  The  handling  of  the  New 
Mexico,  when  both  pairs  of  motors  are  operated  from  one  of 
her  two  turbo  generators,  will  be  similar  to  that  of  the  Jupiter; 
but  when  the  starboard  and  port  pairs  of  motors  take  their  power 
from  separate  turbo  generators,  of  which  there  are  two  instead 
of  one  as  in  the  Jupiter,  the  starboard  and  port  pairs  of  pro- 
pellers can  operate  at  different  speeds  as  reciprocating  engines 
do,  but  with  much  greater  promptness.  One  should  be  able  to 
"thread  the  eye  of  a  needle"  with  the  New  Mexico  if  the  two 
independent  turbo-generators  are  in  use. 

Fleet  Work.  The  manoeuvring  of  the  Jupiter,  as  required  by 
the  nature  of  the  duties  she  must  perform,  is  somewhat  more  com- 
plicated than  falls  to  a  reciprocating  engine  battleship,  for  the 
reason  that  the  Jupiter,  which  displaces  22,000  tons,  draws  31  feet 
when  fully  loaded,  and  as  little  as  20  feet  when  nearly  discharged. 
She  is  542  feet  long,  has  only  65  feet  beam,  and  has  a  considerable 
amount  of  top  hamper,  making  the  effect  of  wind  a  very  im- 
portant factor,  especially  when  the  ship  is  light. 

Moreover  the  full  horse-power  is  7200  or  about  Yz  H.P.  per 
ton  of  displacement,  which  is  about  a  third  of  that  at  the  dis- 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         68 1 

posal  of  a  reciprocating  engine  battleship.  As  the  cargo  is  dis- 
charged, the  ship  is  habitually  trimmed  down  with  water  ballast ; 
and  for  best  handling  trim  a  drag  of  from  three  to  four  feet 
is  kept.  If  trimmed  deeper  by  the  stern,  the  wind  effect  on  the 
bow  resembles  that  upon  a  destroyer,  and  with  the  overhanging 
bow,  an  element  of  danger  is  introduced  which  calls  for  extreme 
caution  in  going  alongside  ships  or  coal  piers. 

Going  Alongside  a  Battleship.  In  illustrating  the  procedure  of 
going  alongside,  the  Texas,  which  is  a  clear-sided  vessel  and 
longer  than  the  Jupiter,  will  be  considered,  and  special  difficulties 
met  with  in  connection  with  other  vessels  will  be  briefly  mentioned 
later. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  Texas  is  anchored  and  that  no  obstacles 
interfere  with  an  ideal  approach.  Standard  speed  for  going 
alongside  is  ten  knots ;  no  reserve  speed  is  provided  for,  as  all 
handling  is  done  well  below  the  ten-knot  limit. 

(1)  In  approaching  the  battleship,  pass  under  her  stern  and 
get  her  compass  heading  by  a  bearing  of  her  masts  when  in 
range.     This   is   necessary  because   the  Jupiter's  bridge  is   far 
forward  and  it  is  difficult  to  judge  the  exact  angle  of  approach. 
Moreover,  the  curved  form  of  the  battleship  is  deceptive,  and 
startling  changes  of  viewpoint  frequently  occur  as  the  two  ves- 
sels come  into  close  proximity. 

(2)  Place  the  collier  about  1,500  yards  from,  and  two  points 
on  the  port  quarter  of,  the  battleship,  the  collier  to  be  practically 
dead  in  the  water  at  this  time  and  on  about  the  same  heading  as 
the  battleship. 

(3)  Kick  the  collier  ahead  with  the  motor,  using  y$  speed  or 
2/3  if  necessary  to  give  her  steerage  way,  and  nothing  more  than 
steerage   ivay,   then   stop   motors.      Approach   at   steerage  way, 
using  the  engines  as  necessary.     Avoid  getting  any  more  than 
steerage  way  on  the  collier,  as  a  moderate  speed  is  no  longer 
moderate  when  the  vessels  draw  together;  and  if  backing  be- 
comes necessary,  the  control  of  the  collier  may  be  lost.    Always 
keep  the  situation  so  in  hand  that  you  force  the  vessel  to  the 
battleship.    Never  allow  yourself  to  get  close  aboard  and  abreast 
of  her,  trusting  to  backing  both  engines  to  make  a  safe  landing 
alongside. 

(4)  Gradually  change  course   so   that  your  ship  approaches 
the  battleship  at  an  angle  of  one  point.     This  keeps  the  sterns 


682         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

of  the  ships  separated  and  places  the  bow  closer  than  any  other 
part  of  the  collier.  Any  effect  of  wind  or  current  tends  to  set 
you  slowly  in ;  and  besides  this,  if  the  battleship  swings  stern 
to  starboard  you  can  haul  off  a  point  and  still  be  parallel,  with- 
out getting  the  s'tern  in  and  bringing  the  propellers  of  the  two 
vessels  together. 

(5)  As  soon  as  the  vessels  are  within  heaving-line  distance, 
pass  your  lines  aboard;  or  if  a  boat  is  available,  send  over  a 
heaving-line  bent  to  a  good  hauling-line.     By  this  hauling-line 
the  bow-line  and  a  spring  are  run  simultaneously  and  carried 
as  far  forward  as  possible  on  the  battleship. 

(6)  Work  your  ship  parallel  to  the  battleship,  make  fast  the 
spring  leading  forward,  tend  the  head-line,  and  if  any  current 
is  running  the  collier  will   drop  alongside;  otherwise  back  y$ 
speed  on  port  motor  to  assist.    The  advantage  of  using  a  spring 
leading  forward,  over  one  leading  aft,  is  that  the  resultant  of 
the  wind  and  current  forces,  to  which  the  battleship  rides,  all 
tend  to  make   the  collier   do   likewise.     Moreover,   less   engine 
power  is  required  to  get  alongside,  the  strain  on  the  spring  is 
taken  on  the  battleship's  anchor  chain,  and  there  is  no  tendency 
to  tow  her  up  towards  her  anchor,  as  with  a  spring  leading  aft, 
when  the  collier  is  forced  ahead. 

(7)  Get  stern  lines  over  as  convenient,  but  there  is  usually 
no  urgency  in  this  matter  unless  a  wind  blows  from  the  battle- 
ship.    Get  out  a  spring  leading  aft  from  a  point  well  forward, 
and"  place  hatches  as  desired  by  the  battleship.     Never  bother 
as  to  where  the  hatches  will  come  till  you  are  safely  alongside 
and  suitable  lines  are  run  to  control  the  ship. 

(8)  Sometimes  while  close  alongside,  delay  occurs  in  getting 
lines  over.     Pick  out  a  mark  on  the  battleship,  say  an  awning 
stanchion,  and  hold  the  ship  in  position  till  lines  are  run. 

The  Broadside  Landing.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  wind  of 
force  four  or  even  stronger  is  blowing  you  down,  broadside,  upon 
the  battleship  to  which  you  must  go.  Under  these  conditions  it  is 
advisable  to  get  abreast  of  the  battleship  and  parallel  to  her,  but 
outside  of  heaving-line  distance.  No  strain  should  be  taken  on 
the  bowline  or  bow  spring  when  run,  but  the  slack  should  be  hove 
in  as  the  collier  drifts  down.  Keep  the  bow  out  about  a  quarter  of 
a  point  and  allow  the  after-fenders  to  take  before  the  forward 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         683 

ones.  If  any  current  is  running  and  the  wind  sets  the  collier 
toward  the  battleship,  it  is  hard  to  work  the  bow  out  against 
them.  If  the  bow  blows  down  rapidly  let  go  the  port  anchor, 
to  check  her.  Conversely  it  is  well  to  be  prepared  to  pull  the 
bow  out  when  the  wind  is  blowing  from  the  battleship  when 
coming  up  from  astern ;  for  the  bow  of  the  collier  is  then*  under 
her  lee  while  the  stern  is  not. 

Getting  Clear.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
officers  commanding  colliers  that  do  fleet  work  as  to  whether 
"backing  away'*  or  "going  ahead"  is  the  better  method  of  getting 
clear  of  a  battleship.  It  is  usually  to  "  Go  ahead,"  if  possible,  for 
the  following  reasons : 

(1)  The  pivoting  point   of   the  Jupiter  is   about   %   of   her 
length  from  the  bow;  it  is  therefore  much  easier  to  throw  the 
stern  clear  than  the  bow,  if  in  danger  of  contact. 

(2)  The  bow  is   allowed   to    fall  off  not  more  than  half  a 
point  before  going  ahead;  and  in  this  position  any  current  tends 
to  separate  the  vessels ;  and  if  the  wind  is  ahead,  that  acts  in  the 
same  direction.     A  short  spring  is  used  from  a  point  forward 
of  the  propeller,  where  it  cannot  foul.     This  is  kept  fast  while 
the  bow  is  falling  off,  and  run  in  when  the  collier  starts  ahead. 

(3)  When  the  collier  starts  ahead  and  the  ships'  sterns  tend  to 
draw  together,  backing  the  starboard  motor  throws  the  screw 
current,  or  "quick  water."  in  between  the  ships,  and  first  forces 
the  stern  away  and  then  separates  the  vessels  bodily.    Of  course 
the  backing  is  only  continued  long  enough  to  get  the  separating 
effect,  and  not  long  enough  to  materially  check  the  collier's  way. 
When  starting  away,  set  a  course  diverging  not  more  than  half 
a  point  from  the  battleship's  heading,  :and  throw  the  stern  out 
with  small  right  rudder;  then  back  the  starboard  motor  to  sepa- 
rate ships,  if  necessary. 

(4)  The  collier. can  then  be  gradually  eased  across  the  battle- 
ship's bow,  keeping  clear  of  her  chain,  and  allowing  for  current 
if  any. 

(5)  A  vessel  is  under  better  control  going  ahead  than  while 
backing,  and  good  control  is  essential  in  close  quarters. 

Backing  Away.  In  using  this  method  it  is  necessary  to  watch 
for  the  following  difficulties:  In  order  to  get  clear,  the  stern 
must  first  be  worked  off  about  half  a  point.  This  forces  the  flar- 
ing bow  of  the  collier  close  to  the  battleship. 


684         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

The  current,  or  wind,  if  the  latter  is  from  ahead,  tends  to 
force  the  bow  towards  the  battleship. 

Backing  tends  to  back  the  stern  into  the  wind,  if  it  is  ahead 
or  on  the  port  side,  which  increases  the  tendency  of  the  bow  to 
sweep  the  battleship. 

By  going  ahead  on  the  starboard  propeller  without  stopping  the 
collier's  sternboard,  a  turning  effect  is  gained;  but  as  the  pivot- 
ing point  is  well  forward,  this  does  not  give  as  prompt  or  satis- 
factory results  as  are  obtained  in  working  the  stern  off  in  going 
ahead.  Nevertheless  no  trouble  need  be  anticipated  in  backing 
away,  if  care  and  skill  are  exercised. 

Remember  that  the  bow  toward  the  battleship  must  pass  her 
propeller  before  clearing,  and,  if  too  close  aboard,  may  foul. 

With  a  breeze  blowing  the  collier  toward  the  battleship,  it  is 
highly  dangerous  to  attempt  to  back  away. 

Points  to  Keep  in  Mind. 

(1)  Never  be  in  a  hurry  to  get  alongside — take  it  easy. 

(2)  If  the  collier  handles  i>adly,  due  to  wind  or  other  condi- 
tions, back  out  while  there  is  time. 

(3)  When  lines  are  run  to  a  battleship,  use  as  little  engine 
power  as  possible.    The  vessels  will  come  together  quite  rapidly 
enough.     Do  not  force  matters. 

(4)  Keep  as  large  a  reserve  of  power  as  possible. 

(5)  Coming   up   parallel   to   a  battleship,   then  backing  both 
engines,  is  dangerous.     Your  starboard  screw  current  tends  to 
throw  her  across  your  bow,  with  her  stern  away  from  you. 

(6)  Have  both  anchors  hanging  below  the  hawse-pipes  and 
ready  for  letting  go  instantly,  while  working  in  the  fleet. 

(7)  In  going  alongside  a  small  vessel,  ask  her  to  heave  short 
before  you  run  lines.     Let  go  your  anchor  and  have  her  heave 
up  at  the  same  time.    Then  bring  her  alongside  the  collier. 

(8)  If  by  any  chance  the  flaring  bow  overlaps  the  forecastle 
of  a  ship,  and  you  fear  that  it  may  do  some  damage,  go  .ahead 
full  speed  on  the  starboard  propeller  and  back  the  port  propeller 
full  speed.     Do  not  attempt  to  back  away;  you  will  sweep  the 
battleship's  side.     Do  not  let  the  collier  go  astern.     Hold  your 
spring  leading  forward,  bring  the  ships  parallel,  and  then  into 
position   for  coaling.     If  damage  is  done  under  these  circum- 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN  SQUADRON.         685 

stances  it  will  be  less  than  will  result  from  attempting  to  back 
out  with  wind  or  current  setting  you  on. 

(9)  Be  ready  to  get  underway  at  short  notice  while  alongside 
a  ship. 

(10)  Trim  your  ship  with  water  ballast  as  coal  comes  out, 
thus  keeping  her  manageable  at  all  times. 

(n)   Be  on  the  lookout  for  a  change  of  heading  on  the  vessel 
you  approach.     She  may  swing  unexpectedly. 


SOME  DUTIES  OF  THE  OFFICER  OF  THE  DECK. 

In  concluding-  this  chapter  it  may  be  helpful  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  young  officers  to  the  magnitude  of  the  responsibility 
which  rests  upon  an  officer  in  charge  of  the  deck  of  a  battleship 
at  sea  in  company  with  a  large  number  of  other  ships.  Officers 
easily  become  so  accustomed  to  the  routine  of  cruising  and  ma- 
noeuvring without  accident,  that  they  forget  how  close  they  may 
be  at  any  instant,  not  only  to  accident,  but  to  disaster. 

It  is  not  alone  the  mishaps  of  one's  own  ship  which  must  be 
reckoned  with,  but  those  occurring  to  the  ships  ahead  as  well. 
It  is  true  that  if  the  next  ahead  stops  her  engines  suddenly,  she 
still  holds  her  way  for  a  time,  and  if  the  officer  on  her  bridge  is 
alert  and  self-possessed,  he  gives  instant  notice  of  the  accident 
and  hauls  out  of  column.  If  the  next  astern  is  also  alert  and  self- 
possessed,  he  sees  the  signal  instantly  and  acts  judiciously,  and 
the  danger  is  not  great.  The  same  is  true  of  other  accidents ; 
such  as  a  failure  of  the  steering  gear,  a  "  man  overboard,"  or  an 
unexpected  manceuver  to  avoid  a  vessel  or  other  danger  sud- 
denly discovered  ahead. 

But  suppose  the  officer  on  the  bridge  of  the  ship  ahead  is  slow 
to  act,  or  loses  his  head  and  does  the  wrong  thing,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  neglects  to  signal  that  anything-  is  wrong.  If  now 
the  officer  on  the  bridge  of  the  next  astern  is  as  alert  as  he  should 
be,  and  as  ready  to  recognize  and  to  meet  the  situation,  all  will 
still  be  well ;  but  if  he  is  giving  his  attention  to  other  things, 
perhaps  studying  the  chart,  perhaps  making  an  entry  in  the  log, 
perhaps  engaged  in  something  far  less  justifiable  than  these,  he 
may  lose  the  brief  interval  in  which  he  has  time  to  act,  or  may 
be  forced  to  act  so  quickly  that  his  judgment  will  be  at  fault, 


686         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

and  it  may  be  his  lot  to  become  the  responsible  actor  in  an  appall- 
ing tragedy. 

It  is  perhaps  essential  that  matters  of  internal  routine  should 
make  some  demand  upon  the  attention  of  the  officer  of  the  deck 
at  sea  in  squadron,  but  these  demands  should  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  should  never  for  an  instant  cause  him  to  forget 
the  vastly  more  important  demands  connected  with  the  safety 
of  the  ship.  There  should  at  all  times  be  some  responsible  person 
on  the  bridge  who  is  closely  watching  the  movements  of  the  ship 
ahead,  and  to  this  rule  no  exceptions  should  be  made.  If,  there- 
fore, the  attention  of  the  officer  of  the  deck  is  for  a  brief  time 
necessarily  diverted  to  something  else,  he  should  caution  his  as- 
sistant to  keep  an  eye  upon  the  ships  ahead. 

It  is  well  to  prepare  oneself  for  prompt  action  by  frequently 
picturing  the  emergencies  which  may  arise  and  settling  upon  the 
proper  methods  of  meeting  them.  This  habit,  coupled  with  the 
vigilance  which  will  result  from  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the 
emergency,  if  it  is  to  come,  will  come  without  warning  and  when 
least  expected,  will  give  the  only  assurance  that  is  possible,  of 
readiness  to  meet  it  with  credit. 

It  is  one  of  the  unfortunate  features  of  an  officer's  preparation 
for  his  duties,  that  very  few  emergencies  can  be  simulated — with 
their  attendant  features  of  danger  and  surprise- — for  purposes  of 
training.  The  situation,  for  example,  in  which  a  vessel  suddenly 
looms  up,  from  a  dense  fog,  close  aboard  of  one  of  the  vessels 
of  a  battleship  fleet,  requiring  instant  decision  as  to  the  ma- 
nceuver  which  will  be  best  for  keeping  clear  at  once  of  the 
stranger  and  of  the  neighboring  vessels  of  the  fleet,  is  one  in 
which  no  officer  can  hope  for  much  practice,  except  in  his  own 
imagination.  And  so  with  many  other  situations. 

Much  is  gained  by  making  sure  that  all  emergency  arrange- 
ments are  in  working  order,  and  that  the  men  stationed  to  operate 
them  are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  their  duties;  the  break- 
down flag  rounded  up  to  its  place;  the  signal  gun  ready,  with 
ammunition  at  hand;  fireworks  of  any  kind  prescribed,  in  their 
appointed  place;  the  life-boat  ready  for  lowering-,  the  crew 
mustered  and  inspected ;  men  detailed  to  run  aloft  in  case  of  man 
overboard,  to  keep  him  in  sight  and  signal  to  the  boat;  a  force 
detailed  for  shifting  steering-gear  in  the  event  of  a  breakdown; 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         687 

men  at  the  engine-room  telegraphs  for  regulating  the  speed ; 
men  at  the  cones  or  other  speed-signals  for  communicating  with 
the  ships  astern ;  the  position-buoy  ready  for  going  over  promptly 
if  there  is  a  possibility  of  fog,  etc. 

While  keeping  lookouts  up  to  their  work,  an  officer  should  not 
trust  to  them  but  should  remember  that  he  is  his  own  best  look- 
out, and  that  if  he  sees  danger  first,  he  gains  time  which  may  be 
vital  for  avoiding  it.  This  is  especially  important  in  a  fog. 

There  is  even  greater  gain  in  reading  signals  for  oneself 
instead  of  trusting  to  signal-men  who  may  be  "both  stupid  and 
careless.  And  it  is  a  good  rule  to  verify  all  tactical  signals  by 
reference  to  the  Signal  Book  or  to  a  memorandum  in  which  the 
most  important  of  the  tactical  signals  are  set  down. 

It  is  important  also  to  note  whether  neighboring  ships  have 
apparently  read  the  signal  correctly  and  are  starting  out  to  per- 
form the  manceuver  properly,  as  a  mistake  made  by  any  one  ship 
may  be  more  dangerous  to  others  than  to  herself. 

Not  only  the  officer  and  junior  officer  of  the  watch  but  the 
quartermaster  and  helmsman  also  should  know  to  which  side  the 
ship  is  required  to  haul  out  in  case  of  breakdown. 

The  officer  of  the  deck  should  never  enter  the  chart-room  at 
night  except  in  case  of  necessity.  To  do  so,  not  only  takes  him 
away  from  a  station  which  he  ought  never  to  leave,  but  makes 
his  eyes  useless  for  an  appreciable  time  after  he  comes  out.  So 
with  poring  over  the  log  or  a  chart — though  the  last  may  of 
course  be  essential. 

It  is  important  to  keep  the  engineer  officer  of  the  watch  in- 
formed in  advance  as  to  changes  of  speed  in  so  far  as  these  can 
be  foreseen,  and  to  let  him  know  how  long  a  given  condition  will 
probably  continue.  If  stopped  or  running  slow  this  may  save 
"  bio  wing-off."  It  will  also  enable  him  to  prepare  for  keeping 
position  when  "  standard  "  speed  is  again  called  for. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Rules  of  the  Road  do  not 
apply  to  vessels  running  at  night  without  lights.     A  fleet  run- 
ning in  this  way  must  therefore  keep  clear  of  all  vessels  carry 
ing  lights. 


688         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

"Notes  B" 

HANDLING  SHIPS 

Official  Rules  Prescribed  for  Atlantic  Fleet   (1921) 

1.  Maintain  position.     This  requires  constant  attention  and  alertness. 

2.  Regain  station  quickly.     During  maneuvers,  if  a  ship  loses  her  position 
she  must  regain  it  quickly.     This  requires  radical  changes  of  revolutions  and 
course. 

3.  Until  ships  are  in  correct  position,  the  next  maneuver,  as  a  rule,  cannot 
be  performed. 

4.  When  cruising,  work  with  small  changes  of  revolutions. 

5.  Guide.     The  Guide  must  exactly  maintain  the  prescribed  speed  and 
steer  a  steady  course. 

6.  Uniform  steaming.     Uniform  steaming  of   Fleet    Units   is  demanded 
under  all  circumstances,  both  for  cruising  and  for  the  line  of  battle. 

7.  Do  not  be  astern  of  your  station  when  in  column. 

8.  Do  not  be  ahead  of  your  station  when  in  line  of  bearing. 

9.  Change   speed  with   directing   ship.     When   in   column,  and   speed  is 
changed  by  signal  or  otherwise,  make  the  change  with  the  directing  ship. 
Do  not  wait  to  follow  the  movements  of  some  dilatory  ship  that  may  be 
ahead  of  you. 

10.  Check  revolutions.     When  in  formation,  the  revolutions  should  be 
checked  by  revolution  indicators  on  the  bridge  at  least  every  ten  minutes. 

11.  Steering.     Good  steering  is  essential  alike  for  station   keeping  and 
for  accurate  "Dead  Reckoning." 

12.  Train  your  eye.     Train  your  eye  to  judge  distance.     Do  not  be  wholly 
dependent  upon  rangefinders  and  speed  indicators. 

13.  Watch  "coming  on."     Alertness  on  the  part  of  the  officer-of-the-deck 
will  prevent  the  watch  "coming  on"  causing  the  ship  to  lose  position.     New 
steersmen  and  new  hands  at  the  throttle  require  supervision. 

14.  You  may  be  the  one  in  error.     The  ship  ahead  is  always  wrong  and  the 
ship  astern  nearly  always  so.     Notwithstanding  this  condition,  it  is  entirely 
possible  with  skillful  handling  of  your  own  ship  to  hold  your  correct  position 
in  formation.     If  other  ships  are  handled  badly,  the  greater  will  be  the  oppor- 
tunity to  train  the  officer-of-the-deck  of  your  own  ship.     Do  not  blame  other 
ships,  but  keep  your  own  in  position,  regardless  of  difficulties  created  by 
others. 

15.  Responsibility  for  safe  navigation.     It  should  invariably  be  thoroughly 
understood  in  every  ship,  whether  she  is  in  company  with  a  fleet  or  detached, 
that  her  own  officers  are  always  responsible  for  her  safe  navigation.     There- 
fore, when  in  column  in  cramped  waters,  do  not  blindly  follow  your  leader 
under  the  supposition  that,  because  he  may  have  safely  passed  foul  ground 
ahead,  you,  perhaps  some  distance  astern,  are  bound  to  do  the  same.     There 
is  generally  either  tide,  set,  or  wind, to  consider, and  it  is  sometimes  remarkable 
how  much  the  end  of  a  long  line  of  ships  may  be  deflected  from  its  proper 
course  by  one  or  a  combination  of  these. 

16.  This  applies  when  entering  or  leaving  a  harbor,  or  passing   through 
the  entrance  of  a  breakwater: — look  out  for  your  own  navigation. 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         689 

17.  Rules  of  the  road.     The  "Rules  of  the  Road"  govern  all  movements, 
and  nothing  justifies  a  ship  getting  to  her  position  (however  smartly)  at  the 
risk  of  her  safety  or  another's. 

1 8.  Speed  on  dispatch  duty.     It  is  well  known  (and  provided  judgment  is 
also  present)  that  the  faster  the  ship  is  moving  through  the  water  the  easier 
she  is  to  handle.     Therefore,  when  at  work  on  any  detached  duty  amongst 
the  fleet,  till  that  duty  is  completed,  use  the  engines  with  the  cones  right  up, 
giving  plenty  of  rudder,  and  you  cannot  go  far  wrong;  but  remember  the  rule, 
"Never  let  your  boat  go  faster  than  your  brain." 

19.  Turn   sharply.     When   leaving  a   formation,   ships   should   turn   out 
sharply,  when  practicable,  so  as  to  render  the  intent  quickly  apparent. 

20.  Rule  for  handling  ship  while  lowering  or  picking  up  boat.     When  not 
in  contracted  waters  and  you  are  obliged  to  stop  to  lower  a  boat  or  have  a 
boat  come  alongside,  do  not  keep  your  engines  backing  so  long  that  the  back 
water  works  forward  of  the  davits  or  gangway  (as  the  case  may  be).     A  little 
headway  will  do  no  harm — and  you  may  back  again  later,  if  necessary.     It 
is  confusing  to  a  coxwain  to  suddenly  find  himself  in  a  contrary  current,  and 
more  so  to  the  coxwain  not  specially  skilled. 

21.  Obeying   signals   in   flagship.     A   signal   of   execution   in   a   flagship 
should  always  be  immediately  obeyed  in  that  ship. 

22.  Do  not  follow  ship  making  error.     Ships  should  not  follow,  or  be 
guided  by,  the  motions  of  ships  which  clearly  misinterpret  a  signal. 

23.  Getting  underway,  heave  in  together.     Upon  the  execution  of  a  "get 
underway"  signal,  ships  should  heave  in  and  get  their  anchors  as  quickly  as 
possible.     All  ships  should  be  riding  to  the  prescribed  scope  of  chain  when 
the  signal  is  executed. 

24.  It  is  more  important  to  get  underway  promptly  than  to  moor  with 
rapidity. 

25.  Speed  of  windlass.     The  anchor  windlass,  when  heaving  in,  should 
always  be  run  at  its  designed  speed. 

26.  Use  engines  to  ease  strain  on  chain.     If  there  is  a  strain  on  the  chain 
when  the  "get  underway"  signal  is  hoisted,  the  main  engines  should  be  used 
to  slacken  the  chain  so  that  there  will  be  no  delay  in  heaving  in. 

27.  Keep  pointed.     When  a  ship  is   "away,"   she  should   only  use   her 
engines  sufficiently  to  keep  her  head  pointed  in  the  direction  it  was  before  the 
anchor  was  tripped,  unless  a  casting,  course,  or  formation  signal  has  been 
executed. 

28.  Getting  underway.     When  signal  is  made  to  cast  to  starboard  (or  to 
port),  ships,  while  casting,  must: 

(a)  Adhere  rigorously  to  the  anchorage  line  of  bearing; 

(b)  Maintain  their  bearing  from  the  guide; 

(c)  Turn  with  the  guide— not  before  nor  after— to  the  prescribed  heading; 

(d)  Be  ready  to  take  standard  speed  with  the  guide;  and, 

(e)  Be  ready  to  promptly  perform  the  next  evolution. 

29.  Turning  on  your  heel.     To  turn  a  ship  on  her  heel  and  at  the  same 
time  preserve  exact  bearing  and  distance: 

(a)  Go  full  speed  astern  with  the  propeller  on  the  side  on  which  you  require 
her  head  to  come  up; 

(b)  The  instant  she  begins  to  move,  go  full  speed  ahead  with  the  propeller 
on  the  other  side; 


690         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

(c)  Keep  the  inner  propeller  at  full  speed  astern  the  whole  time  and  work 
the  other  engine  against  it  as  may  be  necessary. 

(d)  Do  not  forget  to  stop  both  engines  in  time  to  steady  on  the  desired 
heading. 

30.  Take  station  passing  column.     Having  no  way  upon  your  ship,  to 
take  up  your  station  in  a  passing  column  you  should  go  ahead  one-third  speed 
when  your  "next  ahead"  is  about  twenty  degrees  abaft  your  beam;  take  the 
guide's  speed  when  your  "next  ahead"  is  abeam. 

31.  Watch  shore  ranges.     When  getting  underway  and  when  anchoring, 
watch  shore  ranges,  if  practicable,  to  determine  what  your  ship  is  doing  over 
the  bottom. 

32.  Exchanging  stations.     When  exchanging  stations  in  column  be  careful 
not  to  edge  in  too  close  to  the  bow  of  what  will  be  your  next  astern. 

33.  Forming  column  from  line  of  bearing.     A  ship  forming  column  on  a 
guide  from  a  bow,  beam  or  quarter  bearing,  must  conform,  more  or  less, 
with  the  rudder  and  speed  of  the  ship  next  towards  the  guide. 

34.  When  scattered  use  full  speed  to  form.     If  the  ships  are  scattered  and 
signal  is  made  to  form,  individual  ships  should  steam  at  full  speed  and  take 
station  as  quickly  as  possible. 

35.  Tactical  diameter  when  forming.     When  standing  down  to  take  station 
in  a  column,  keep  your  ship  just  outside  your  tactical  diameter  from  the  col- 
umn.    You  cannot  foul  the  column  if  your  rudder  is  hard  over,  although  by 
bad  judgment  you  may  turn  up  short  or  otherwise.     Steam  at  full  speed. 

36.  Do  not  edge  in.     Never  drop  in  to  your  position  in  a  fleet  underway 
by  slowing  down  and  edging  in.     Much  time  is  lost  thereby  and  it  is  a  lubberly 
performance. 

37.  Come  hi  on  stern  of  next  ahead.     When  taking  up  your  position  in  a 
column  be  careful  as  you  close  in  to  note  the  course  of  the  column  in  com- 
parison with  your  own  heading.     Come  in  on  the  stern  of  your  next  ahead 
and,  providing  you  are  going  fast  enough,  you  cannot  interfere  with  your 
next  astern,  which  is  always  the  danger. 

38.  Joining  from  ahead.     When  taking  up  your  position  in  column  from 
ahead,  you  can  always  roughly  estimate  the  course  of  the  column  by  the 
relative  angle  of  the  masts;    if  they  are  in  line,  you  know  at  once.     This 
done,  come  swinging  down  on  the  opposite  course,  and  remember  that  when 
you  put  the  rudder  over  for  the  last  turn,  the  ship  you  are  forming  on  is 
moving  ahead  the  whole  time. 

39.  Communicating    by   boat.      When   closing   in    to   communicate  with 
another  vessel  which  is  stopped,  nothing  looks  better  to  others,  or  is  more 
satisfactory  to  yourself,  than  that  your  ship  should  be  nicely  stopped  at 
the  right  place — which  means  that  the  boat  which  you  are  lowering  should 
have  as  short  a  pull  as  possible.     But  you  must  always  bear  in  mind  that   the 
bow  of  your  ship  must  be  inclined  out  from  the  side  of  the  other,  and  also 
remember  how  big  masses  in  water  attract  each  other  and  suck  together; 
and  that  the  other  ship  is  making  something  good  to  leeward. 

40.  Going  alongside  dock.     On  running  up  alongside  a  ship,  and  the  same 
applies  to  going  alongside  a  dock,  as  you  draw  up  to  the  vessel  ahead  (till  you 
are  accustomed  to  it)  you  are  likely  to  be  deceived  as  to  the  distance  you  will 
be  off  when  you  arrive  abreast,  and  you  will  find  that  you  are  nearly  always 
much  closer  than  you  expected. 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANCEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         69! 

41.  Line  of  bearing.     By  remembering  the  following  points,  the  usual 
difficulties  encountered  by  the  beginner,  when  steaming  in  line  of  bearing, 
may  be  readily  overcome. 

42.  The  bearing  must  continually  be  verified  and,  if  necessary,  be  at  once 
corrected  by  increasing  or  decreasing  speed. 

43.  When  your  bearing  is  correct,  remember  that: 

(a)  The  distance  may  be  changed  by  altering  course  slightly  (2°,  4°,  6°) 
and  changing  your  speed. 

(b)  A  change  of  course  away  from  the  advanced  flank  (i.e.,  towards  the 
normal  to  the  line  of  bearing)  will  cause  the  ship  to  forge  ahead  rapidly  if  the 
speed  is  not  immediately  reduced. 

(c)  Small  changes  of  speed  are  generally  not  sufficient  to  prevent  a  ship 
getting  ahead  of  her  proper  bearing  when  she  alters  her  course  away  from  the 
advanced  flank.     A  change  of  course  of  but  3  degrees  away  from  the  advanced 
flank  will,  as  a  rule,  demand  a  speed  less  than  standard. 

(d)  A  change  of  course  towards  the  advanced  flank  will  cause  the  ship 
to  drop  back,  if  the  speed  is  not  increased  simultaneously. 

44.  When  both  distance  and  bearing  are  incorrect: 

(a)  Increase  speed  and  change  course,  if  abaft  the  bearing. 

(b)  Decrease  or  maintain  speed  (according  to  the  amount  that  the  course 
has  been  changed  at  the  same  time)  if  materially  ahead  of  the  bearing. 

45.  If  the  distance  is  correct  and  you  are  ahead  of  the  proper  bearing,  a 
reduction  of  speed  without  altering  course  will  increase  your  distance.     There- 
fore, when  you  are  ahead  of  your  bearing,  in  addition  to  reducing  speed, 
simultaneously  change  course  towards  the  advanced  flank. 

46.  If  ahead  of  your  bearing,  and  your  distance  is  so  little  that  when  you 
drop  back  it  becomes  necessary  to  change  course  away  from  the  advanced 
flank,  a  rapid  regaining  of  the  correct  bearing  is  possible  only  by  a  consider- 
able reduction  of  speed. 

47.  If  abaft  your  bearing  and  your  distance  is  either  correct  or  too  little, 
an  increase  of  speed  only  will  bring  you  on  the  bearing  but  will  further  reduce 
your  distance.     You  must,  therefore,  in  addition  to  increasing  speed,  change 
course  slightly  away  from  the  advanced  flank,  bu£  be  careful  to  avoid  forging 
ahead  of  the  proper  bearing. 

48.  If  abaft  your  bearing  and  your  distance  is  too  great,  you  must  change 
course  somewhat  towards  the  advanced  flank  and  then  you  may  energetically 
increase  your  speed. 

49.  Bearing  Rule.     In  general,  stick  to  the  rule,  "Keeping  correct  bearing 
must  be  rated  higher  than  keeping  correct  distance ;  and  above  all,  you  must 
never  forge  ahead  of  the  line." 

50.  When  ordered  to  take  up  position  astern  of  any  ship  at  equal  speed 
from  any  bearing  except  direct  ahead,  you  will  arrive  in  her  wake  at  approx- 
imately the  same  distance  from  her  as  when  you  started,  if,  when  the  signal 
is  hauled  down,  you  take  the  bearing  of  her  foremast  and  steer  that  course. 

51.  Column.     In  changes  of  direction  by  column  movement,  the  following 
points  must  be  observed: 

52.  The  formation  must  be  accurately  maintained. 

53.  The  masts  of  each  ship,  immediately  upon  completing  the  prescribed 
change  of  course,  should  be  on  the  proper  line  of  bearing  from  the  column 
leader. 


692         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

54.  Each   ship   should   be   at    proper   distance   immediately   before   and 
immediately  after  the  prescribed  change  of   course  has  been  made.     Never 
be  appreciably  too  close  when  your  next  ahead  reaches  the  turn.     In  order  to 
avoid  this,  speed  must  be  reduced,  if  necessary,  when  the  evolution  signal  is 
hoisted,  but  remember  that  every  reduction  of  speed  causes  some  disturbance 
to  ships  astern.     In  large  turns  especially  (90°  to  180°)  too  little  distance  is 
uncomfortable  and  likely  to  result  in  your  turning  outside. 

55.  If  you   reduce   speed   before  turning,  because  too  close,   then  when 
beginning  to  turn  or  very  soon  thereafter,  resume  standard  speed;   otherwise, 
you  will  be  sure  to  drop  behind.     In  some  circumstances  even  an  increase  of 
speed  will  be  necessary. 

56.  Fault  to  Turn  Late.     It  is  an  ugly  fault  to  start  a  turn  so  late  that 
even  full  rudder  cannot  prevent  your  ship  over-running  the  correct  bearing 
from  the  column  leader. 

57.  Result  of  Late  Turn.     By  making  a  turn  too  late,  a  ship  increases  the 
turning  arc  established  by  the  column  leader  and  this  impedes  correct  turning 
by  ships  following,  besides  making  the  column  ragged. 

58.  Stern.     The  stern  of  a  ship  while  turning  deviates  outboard  from  the 
original  track. 

59.  Steady  Compass  Course.     Each  ship  should  keep  a  steady  compass 
course  up  to  the  turning  point.     If  no  suitable  objects  for  the  steersman  are 
available  ahead,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  depend  sufficiently  upon  the  steering 
compass,  look  astern  in  order  to  detect  at  once  any  turning  of  the  ship  by 
the  swinging  of  the  stern  to  the  right  or  left  from  the  rest  of  the  column 
following. 

60.  Chasing  Tails.     It  is  improper  to  maintain  heading  on  the  stern  of 
your  next  ahead  while  the  latter  is  making  the  turn. 

61.  The  resulting  effect  of  a  ship  chasing  tails  is  to  increase  the  tendency 
of  following  ships  to  sag  away,  thus  making  it  almost  impossible  for  them  to 
turn  correctly. 

62.  The  marked  swinging  out  of  the  stern  of  the  ship  ahead  makes  at 
first  a  rather  alarming  impression  at  the  normal  distance  with  the  modern 
long  ships.     It  takes  some -time  before  the  stern  begins  to  return  again  to 
the  tangent;    and,  as  your  own  ship,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  speed  of  the 
ship  ahead,  will  at  first  run  up  on  her,  you  are  likely  to  think  that  there  is 
danger  of  collision.     In  reality,  such  is  not  the  case  if  your  ship  is  properly 
in  station.     Your  ship,  it  is  true,  will  approach  rather  near  to  the  stern  of  the 
ship  ahead,  but  as  soon  as  you  begin  turning,  the  distance  will  be  opened  again 
by  your  own  loss  of  speed  and  the  taking  up  of  speed  by  your  next  ahead. 

63.  Turning  Point.     Begin  turning  at  exactly  the  same  point  as  the  column 
leader  and  not  at  the  turning  point  of  your  next  ahead  if  he  turns  short  or 
outside. 

64.  Wake  Rule  on  Turn.     If  your  next  ahead  has  turned  properly  keep 
your  stem  inside  the  rough  water  of  his  wake.     The  distance  inside  should 
be  approximately  equal  to  the  beam  of  your  ship. 

65.  Early  vs.  Late  Turn.     Better  begin  turning  too  soon  than  too  late. 
Turning  too  soon  may  be  easily  rectified  by  easing  the  rudder  and,  if  necessary, 
reducing  the  speed.     When,  for  any  reason,  the  rudder  was  moved  too  late, 
at  once  apply  a  larger  angle  and  increase  the  speed,  because  otherwise  you 


KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON.         693 

will  always  drop  behind.  During  the  course  of  turning,  notably  during  its 
last  part,  the  observing  of  the  angle  between  the  column  already  formed  on 
the  new  course  and  the  midship  line  from  the  conning  station  to  the  stem,  will 
furnish  a  good  clue  to  determine  whether  the  ship,  with  the  rudder  kept  as 
it  is,  will  still  come  around  in  time  or  not. 

66.  Do  Not  Repeat  Errors  of  Ship  Ahead.     When  the  ship  ahead,  by 
faulty  turning,  goes  outside  the  arc  of  turning  of  the  column  leader,  take 
your  direction  from  the  column  leader.     If  necessary,  increase  the  amount 
of  rudder  in  order  not  to  come  too  close  to  the  ship  ahead.     In  turns  up  to 
90  degrees  in  such  a  case,  you  may,  without  fear,  head  at  first  for  the  middle 
or  even  the  bow  of  your  next  ahead.     If  need  be,  there  always  remain  the 
stopping  of  the  inboard  engine  and  a  reduction  of  speed.     When  the  fault  of 
the  ship  ahead  is  great,  you  will,  in  most  cases,  range  alongside  of  her  at  a 
pretty  close  distance. 

67.  Hold  Your  Course.     While  your  next  ahead,  having  turned  outside, 
returns  to  his  station,  the  distance  between  his  inner  quarter  and  your  bow 
may  be  a  little  close.     You  must  not  ease  your  rudder,  if  you  are  in  station. 
Reduce  speed,  if  necessary,  but  when  doing  so  do  not  forget  your  next  astern. 

68.  Increase  Speed  While  Edging  In.     The  ship  edging  into  the  column 
must  increase  her  speed  while  so  doing. 

69.  Get  Turn  in  Hand.     Upon  all  occasions,  when  turning  in  column, 
endeavor  to  get  the  turn  well  in  hand.     If  your  ship  is  inclined  to  turn  short, 
the  rudder  can  always  be  eased;   but,  if  the  turn  is  made  too  late,  the  rudder 
has  to  be  put  hard  over  and  once  it  is  there  no  more  can  be  done. 

70.  Start  Turn  Promptly.     A  ship  must  start  her  turn  promptly  even 
though  it  requires  a  hard  over  rudder  to  do  so. 

71.  Check  Bearing  in  Column.     As  a  guide  leading  a  division  through 
a  tideway,  perhaps  it  is  safer  to  put  the  ships  of  the  column  on  a  bearing 
from  the  guide,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  attempt    to    follow  round  in  the 
wake  of  the  next  ahead;    but,  in  all  cases,  every  ship  in  the  column  should 
endeavor  to  pass  over  the  same  ground. 

72.  Fog.     Do  not  drop  astern  of  your  station  while  in  a  fog. 

73.  Correct  Errors  on  Turn.     When  making  a  simultaneous  turn  from 
column  to  line  or  to  line  of  bearing,  and  vice-versa,  check  your  distance  from 
the  guide  and  from  the  next  ship  towards  the  guide.     Correct  errors  in  distance 
during  the  turn. 

74.  Turn  Rules.     In  simultaneous  turns,  ships  must: 

(a)  Start  the  turn  promptly  when  the  signal  is  executed; 

(b)  Regulate  their  speed  and  rudder  angle  so  that  they  will  be  in  station 
when  they  have  swung  to  the  prescribed  heading; 

(c)  Remember  that  a  change  of  the  prescribed  rudder  angle  generally 
necessitates  a  change  of  speed; 

(d)  Watch  carefully  their  next  towards  the  guide; 

(e)  Follow  standard  procedure  for  easing  the  rudder  and  meeting  her; 

(f)  Not  swing  beyond  the  new  heading. 

75.  Standard  Speed  and  Rudder.     The  practice  of  rigorously  adhering  to 
the  standard  rudder  and  never  changing  the  speed    of  the  engines   by  signal 
from  the  bridge  while  turning  is  not  correct.     Standard   rudder  and  standard 
speed  is  only  a  general  rule  and  must  be  departed  from  as  occasion  requires. 


694         KEEPING  STATIONS  AND  MANOEUVRING  IN   SQUADRON. 

76.  Approaching  Anchorage.     Radical  Speed  Changes.     When  approaching 
an  anchorage,  or  at  any  other  time  in  formation,  when  the  speed  is  much 
reduced  and  the  ship  is  out  of  position,  it  should  not  be  attempted  to  regain 
position  by  a  small    change  of  revolutions.     The  change  should  be  radical 
for  a  short  period  of  time,  in  order  that  the  ship  regain  her  station  quickly. 
Remember  that  the  speed  of  the  ship  is  not,  necessarily,  equivalent  to  the 
speed  of  the  engines.     Considerable  time  is  required  to  overcome  the  momen- 
tum of  a  heavy  ship.     When  a  ship  is  at  rest,  or  nearly  so,  slow  speed  for 
regaining  position  is  of  little  more  value  than  getting  out  an  oar.     To  produce 
results  quickly,  the  engines  must  be  worked  with  considerable  power. 

77.  Backing  without  Swinging.     When  it  is  intended  to  back  the  engines 
while  the  ship  is  going  ahead,  if  there  is  time,  the  ship  should  be  first  going 
steadily  on  her  course,  with  rudder  amidships.     If  the  ship  is  swinging  at  all, 
she  will  swing  more  violently  in  the  same  direction  as  soon  as  the  engines 
are  backed  and  the  only  way  that  this  swing  can  be  checked  is  by  going  ahead 
full  speed  on  both  engines  with  the  rudder  hard  over,  and  as  soon  as  the  bow 
starts  swinging  in  the  other  direction,  reverse  the  engines  and  the  ship  will 
come  back  to  her  course.     The  handling  of  the  ship  under  such  conditions 
must  be  prompt. 

78.  Swinging  Stern.     When  anchoring  in  succession  or  when  approaching 
another  ship,  and  it  is  desired  that  the  ship's  stern  shall  swing  in  a  particular 
direction,  the  swing  must  be  started  before  engines  are  backed.     The  ship 
may  be  relied  upon  to  continue  that  swing  after  the  engines  start  backing. 

79.  Anchoring  Backing  Power.     When  anchoring  in  formation,  as  well 
as  when  approaching  an  anchorage  in  a  crowded  harbor,  or  the  vicinity  of  other 
ships,  a  ship  should  maintain  plenty  of  steam  pressure,  in  order  to  have  ample 
backing  power  to  control  the  ship  in  case  of  emergency. 

80.  Never  Snub  Chain.     In  anchoring,  a  ship  should  never  be  snubbed 
by  the  chain.     The  momentum  of  such  a  heavy  weight  is  great  even  at  low 
speed  and  may  be  relied  upon  as  sufficient  to  part  or  weaken  the  chain.     Chain 
should  be  veered  until  way  is  lost  then  hove  in  as  necessary. 

81.  Approach  Anchorage  Boldly.     When  anchorage  water  is  clear,  ships, 
whether  in  formation  or  not,  should  approach  the  anchorage  boldly.     Nothing 
looks  worse,  or  is  more  indicative  of  timidity  and  lack  of  self-confidence  on 
the  part  of  the  Commanding  Officer,  than  to  drift  up  to  the  anchorage,  under 
barely  steerageway,  with  a  ship  or  ships  which  handle  quickly,  thereby  losing 
control  of  the  ship  as  well  as  position  in  formation. 

82.  Let   Go   Anchor   with   Execution   Signal.     All   ships   should   anchor 
simultaneously  the  instant  the  anchorage  signal  is  executed.     It  is  unfair  to 
your  next  astern  if  you  "hang  on"  to  make  up  lost  distance  and  he  has  properly 
obeyed  the  signal. 

83.  To  Moor.     To  moor  in  a  harbor: 

(a)  Steady  your  ship  on  the  anchorage  bearing; 

(b)  Then  devote  your  attention  to  letting  go  the  first  anchor; 

(c)  Do  not  snub  the  chain,  but  have  plenty  of  way  on  and  let  the  chain 
lay  itself  out  straight ; 

(d)  Endeavor  to  have  the  ship  at  rest  just  after  the  second  anchor  has 
been  let  go; 

(e)  Then  go  full  speed  astern,  keeping  in  mind  your  next  astern. 


( 695 ) 


CHAPTER  XXV 
TOWING. 

§  I.    The  TOW-LINE. 

Generally  speaking,  the  longer  and  heavier  the  tow-line  used, 
the  easier  the  towing  will  be.  A  decided  dip  or  "  catenary  " 
gives  the  same  advantage  here  as  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  riding 
at  anchor  with  a  good  scope  of  chain; — that  is  to  say,  the  sag- 
ging bight  acts  as  an  elastic  spring,  preventing  variations  in 
the  tension  from  being  thrown  upon  the  line  in  sudden  jerks; 
and  the  sag  of  the  bight  depends  not  only  on  its  length  but  on 
its  weight.1  Unfortunately,  however,  too  great  weight  is  a 
serious  inconvenience  in  handling  and  running  lines.  This  is 
the  principal  objection  to  chain-cable,  which  in  many  ways  is 
an  ideal  tow-line.  Another  objection  is  that  if  the  vessels  are 
obliged  to  stop,  the  weight  of  the  chain  may  prove  sufficient  to 
drag  them  into  collision.  In  the  excellent  work  on  Seaman- 
ship by  Captains  Todd  and  Whall,  the  use  of  chain-cable  (alone) 
is  recommended  for  all  cases  of  heavy  towing;  one  of  the  au- 
thors testifying  to  its  availability  as  the  result  of  his  own  ex- 
perience upon  several  occasions.  This  is  high  authority,  but 
the  present  author  has  collected  the  views  of  more  than  forty 
prominent  shipmasters,  every  one  of  whom  says  that  under  no 
circumstances  would  he  attempt  to  tow  by  chain  alone,  unless 
compelled  to  do  so. 

Wire-rope  is  very  convenient  for  handling,  and  makes  an  ex- 
cellent tow-line  for  smooth  water,  but  is  much  too  light  to  give 
a  satisfactory  spring  for  all-around  work  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions. All  of  its  advantages  may  be  realized  and  its  disad- 
vantages eliminated,  by  the  use  of  a  Towing  Engine,  which  sub- 

1  Observe  that  the  dip  does  not  in  the  least  reduce  the  tension  of 
steady  towing.  What  it  does  is  to  furnish  an  elastic  link  between  the 
ships,  by  which  the  forces  already  described  as  arising  in  a  seaway  are 
absorbed  gradually  instead  of  being  thrown  upon  the  line  with  the  sud- 
denness and  disastrous  effect  of  "  impact." 


696  TOWING. 

stitutes  the  elasticity  of  steam  pressure  for  that  due  to  a  long 
and  heavy  line.  This  will  be  referred  to  at  greater  length  here- 
after. 

Both  chain  and  wire  have  a  serious  disadvantage  in  that  they 
are  not  buoyant,  as  are  lines  made  from  vegetable  fiber. 

Manila,  while  heavy  enough  to  give  a  good  dip  if  used  in 
sufficient  length,  is  not  too  heavy  for  convenient  handling  and 
its  buoyancy  is  a  great  advantage,  particularly  where  lines  are 
to  be  run  by  boats  or  hauled  across  over  considerable  distances. 
It  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory  line  that  can  be  used 
for  moderate  towing;  but  although  heavier  than  wire  of  corres- 
ponding strength,  it  is  still  much  too  light  for  towing  in  a  sea- 
way. Its  weight  is  increased  in  some  cases  by  hanging  a  good 
sized  kedge  to  the  bight  between  the  two  ships ; — a  device  which 
is  evidently  available  with  wire,  as  well  as  with  manila.  A  more 
common  plan  is  to  use  a  combination  of  chain-cable  with  a 
manila  or  wire  hawser,  or  both,  the  hawser  being  made  fast  to 
the  towing  ship  and  the  chain-cable  paid  out  by  the  tow. 

When  the  conditions  for  getting  the  lines  across  from  one 
ship  to  the  other  are  fairly  good,  a  combination  of  wire  and  chain 
is  perhaps  the  best ;  but  in  bad  weather,  or  when,  for  any  reason, 
the  ships  cannot  come  close  together  for  running  the  lines,  the 
buoyancy  of  manila — its  "  floatability" — shows  up  as  an  enormous 
advantage,  especially  where  the  vessel  which  is  to  receive  the  line, 
get  it  on  board,  and  secure  it,  is  a  small  craft,  such  as  a  de- 
stroyer. The  use  of  a  manila  hauling  line  helps  out,  but  cannot 
do  away  with  the  difficulties  connected  with  dragging  a  wire- 
line across  a  long  stretch  of  water  and  securing  it  on  the  cramped 
forecastle  of  a  small  vessel  which  is  perhaps  plunging  into  a 
heavy  sea.  A  good  plan  is  to  combine  manila  and  wire,  the  tow- 
ing vessel  first  paying  out  the  manila  line,  which  is  hauled  across 
by  the  tow  and  secured,  after  which  the  towing  ship  shackles 
the  wire-line  to  the  manila  and  starts  ahead  very  slowly,  paying 
out  the  wire-line  as  she  gathers  way. 

For  towing  even  a  vessel  as  small  as  a  destroyer  in  rough 
weather — and  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  rough  weather  may 
be  encountered  in  almost  any  towing  expedition — the  full  length 


TOWING.  697 

of  an  8-inch  manila  line  with  the  added  length  of  a  5-inch  or 
6-inch  wire,  will  he  none  too  much. 

Where  the  tow  is  able  to  haul  across  and  handle  a  wire-line, 
and  especially  where  she  proposes  to  use  with  it  a  good  length  of 
her  own  bower-cable,  a  6-inch  or  7-inch  wire-line  is  recommended. 
The  length  that  is  needed  will  vary  with  circumstances,  but  it  is 
far  better  to  have  too  much  than  too  little ;  and  the  use  of  a 
margin  of  safety  which  seems  unreasonably  large  may  result  in  a 
very  comfortable  security  from  .the  vexatious  accidents  and  de- 
lays which  are  so  common  in  towing. 

Where  a  battleship  is  to  be  towed,  the  full  length  of  a  special 
7-inch  wire-line  (200  fathoms)  is  recommended,  in  addition  to 
75  or  90  fathoms  of  bower-cable.  With  such  a  line  there  should 
be  no  troublesome  break-downs  unless  the  speed  is  forced  unduly. 
(See  remarks  below  on  "Speed  and  Resistance.") 

Securing  on  the  Towing  Ship.  In  securing  the  line,  considera- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  possible  necessity  for  letting  go  in  a 
hurry.  It  is  clear  that  there  are  many  emergencies  which  may 
arise  in  which  the  line  must  be  gotten  rid  of  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time ;  such  as  a  sudden  threat  of  collision.  This  is  a  point 
which  is  not  always  given  the  consideration  to  which  its  im- 
portance entitles  it. 

For  convenience  in  letting  go,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  break 
in  the  line  near  the  stern ;  that  is  to  say,  to  have,  at  or  near  this 
point,  a  shackle  connecting  two  parts  of  the  line,  together  with 
some  arrangement,  like  a  pelican-hook,  for  slipping  quickly. 

The  objection  to  letting  go  at  any  point  well  inboard  of  the 
ship  is  that  a  dangerous  "  whip  "  is  certain  to  result  as  the  end  of 
the  line  goes  out. 

To  have  the  end  only  just  inside  the  stern-chock  on  the  towing1 
ship  means  that  practically  the  whole  length  of  the  tow-line  must 
be  paid  out,  and  that  any  variation  in  length  must  be  taken  care 
of  by  the  tow.  As  it  happens,  this  is  usually  the  simplest  way  to 
arrange  matters,  provided  the  bower  cable  of  the  tow  is  in  use  as 
a  part  of  the  line,  as  it  almost  always  is.  It  is  very  easy  to  heave 
in  or  veer  away  on  this,  as  may  be  necessary  for  shortening  or 
lengthening  the  line. 


698 


Plate   No.    172. 


Plate  No.    173. 


699 


TOWING. 


^  A  point  of  some  importance  in  towing  in  a  seaway  is  to  keep  the  ships 
"in  step"  as  nearly  as  may  be;  that  is,  to  use  such  a  length  of  line  that 
they  shall  meet  the  waves  and  ride  over  them  together.  If  the  length 
of  the  line  is  such  that  one  vessel  is  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  as  the 
other  is  on  the  crest,  the  line  will  for  a  moment  slacken,  then  tauten 
out  with  a  sudden  jerk;  whereas  if  they  meet  the  waves  at  the  same 
time  the  tension  on  the  line  will  remain  comparatively  steady.  The  wave- 
lengths of  a  sea  are  usually  approximately  uniform  at  any  given  time,  and 
it  should  not  be  difficult  to  arrange  the  line  as  above  described  by  heaving 
in  or  veering  away  the  cable  on  the  tow.  In  towing  for  a  long  time  and 
covering  a  great  distance,  extreme  variations  may  of  course  be  found  in 
wave-lengths,  and  the  inconvenience  of  changing  the  length  of  the  line 
from  time  to  time  may  more  than  offset  the  advantage  to  be  gained ;  but 
it  is  worth  while  to  recognize  this  point  and  to  be  ready  to  take  advantage 
of  it  when  circumstances  permit. 

If  the  towing  ship  has  a  chock  at  the  stern  and  amidships  or 
nearly  so,  the  line  should  be  brought  in  through  this.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  use  a  short  length  of  chain  for  the  lead  through  the 
chock,  shackling  outside  to  an  eye  in  the  end  of  the  wire-line,  and 
inside  to  a  pendant  or  span  from  the  turret,  the  bitts,  or  else- 
where, according  to  the  arrangement  decided  upon  for 'securing. 
The  chain  through  the  chock-  not  only  takes  the  chafe— under 
which  the  wire  would  cut  through— but  by  its  flexibility  does 
away  with  the  dangerous  "  nip  "  which  would  be  thrown  into 
the  wire  if  the  tow  chanced  to  take  a  rank  sheer  off  onto  the 
quarter. 

If  it  is  thought  that  the  chain  may  suffer  from  chafe,  a  per- 
fectly efficient  sleeve  may  be  made  by  wrapping  it  with  a  sheet  of 
copper  from  j£  to  ^-inch  thick. 

If  chain  is  not  to  be  used  for  taking  the  chafe  in  the  chock, 

the  toW-line  must  be  very  carefully  protected  by  chafing-gear, 

which -it  is  well  to  put  on  in  the  shape  of  a  long  and  bulky  «  pud- 

The  stiffness  of  such  a  pudding  reduces  the  sharpness  of 

the  nip  which  without  it  would  be  thrown  upon  the  wire  from 

me  to  time  by  the  sheering  of  the  ships. 

The  arrangements  for  securing  the  line  inboard  on  the  tozvin* 
ship  will  vary  widely  with  conditions. 

In  men-of-war,  a  pendant  of  wire  or  chain  is  sometimes  taken 

und  the  after  turret,  as  in  Plates  172  and  173.      The  first  of 

e  plates  shows  the  method  used  in  the  British  Navy  where 

ne  battleship  tows  another.     Two  lines  are  used  here-a  plan 

•ch  has  some  advantages  and  a  good  many  disadvantages     The 


TOWING.  7OI 

second  plate  shows  what  is  considered  to  be  upon  .the  whole  the 
best  arrangement  for  heavy  towing.  A  wire  pendant  may  of 
course  be  used  around  the  turret,  instead  of  the  chain  here  shown. 

In  a  ship  having  no  turret,  the  pendant  may  be  taken  around  a 
deck-house,  with  a  few  turns  around  .the  bitts  on  each  side,  as  in 
Plate  173. 

Where  the  strain  is  not  too  heavy  to  be  taken  by  the  bitts,  the 
arrangement  will  be  that  shown  in  Plate  174,  the  line  being  taken 
around  as  many  sets  of  bitts  as  are  available.  To  divide  the 
strain  here,  it  is  advisable  to  take  only  one  or  two  turns  around 
the  first  bitts,  thus  leaving  the  line  free  .to  "  render  "  slightly  and 
so  transfer  a  portion  of  the  strain. 

In  all  of  the  arrangements  shown  in  the  plates,  pelican-hooks 
are  used  for  letting  go.  In  the  case  illustrated  in  Plate  172,  the 
hook  has  the  weight  of  the  tow  at  all  times. 

In  the  other  cases,  the  strain  is  taken  momentarily  on  the  hook, 
relieving  the  shackle  and  admitting  of  knocking  out  the  shackle- 
pin,  after  which  the  pelican-hook  is  slipped.  This  arrangement 
entails  a  little  delay,  which,  however,  need  not  exceed  a  few 
seconds,  and  the  whole  arrangement  is  more  secure  than  that  of 
Plate  172. 

If  it  is  not  convenient  to  use  an  extra  shackle  for  the  pelican- 
hook,  the  hook  may  be  used  directly  on  the  chain,  as  in  Fig.  2, 
Plate  174. 

If  no  pelican-hook  is  at  hand,  a  strap  may  be  used  on  the  chain 
or  wire,  outside  of  the  shackle,  and  a  heavy  purchase  hooked  to 
this  and  taken  to  the  winch.  For  letting  go,  the  strain  is  taken 
by  the  winch  long  enough  to  disconnect  at  the  shackle,  after 
which  the  strap  is  cut.  (Fig.  3,  Plate  174.) 

There  are  some  conditions  under  which  it  is  convenient  to  use 
a  span  on  the  towing  ship,  the  two  parts  being  brought  in  through 
the  quarter-chocks.  Generally  speaking,  this  makes  it  rather 
easier  for  the  towing  ship  to  steer  and  the  advantage  gained  in 
this  respect  may  become  important  in  cases  where  a  small  ship  is 
dealing  with  a  heavy  tow.  Where  the  line  leads  from  a  chock 
directly  over  the  rudder,  it  binds  the  stern  so  that  it  can  only 
swing  in  obedience  to  the  helm,  bv  dragging  the  tow  with  it.  A 
large  ship  can  take  care  of  this  situation  by  the  power  of  her 
steering  gear,  assisted,  if  necessary,  by  the  screws ;  but  a  small 
ship  with  a  heavy  tow  and  with  the  line  leading  through  the 


702 


Plate  No.    174. 


GO 


Plate  No.    175. 


703 


Fig.2. 


Towing  a  Vessel 

with  Bower  Chain 

and  Bridle. 


(This  may  be  Bow  of  Vessel  towed 
or  Stem  of  Vessel  towing.) 


SECURING  TOW-LINES 


704 


TOWING. 


stern  chock,  if  she  steers  at  all  will  be  very  sluggish.  Tugs  which 
are  specially  fitted  for  towing  have  their  bitts  well  forward  of 
the  rudder,  allowing  a  chance  for  the  stern  to  swing ;  the  fittings 
abaft  the  bitts  being  such  as  to  let  the  line  sweep  freely  across 
from  one  quarter  to  the  other. 

Where  a  span  is  used  it  may  be  of  chain,  wire  or  manila,  chain 
being  probably  the  best.  In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  arrangements 
must  be  made  for  letting  go  quickly  if  necessary. 

Where  chain  is  used  for  the  span,  two  lengths  of  bower-cable 
are  gotten  aft,  one  on  each  side,  and  passed  through  the  quarter- 
chocks.  The  outer  ends  are  then  brought  in  over  the  rail  and  con- 
nected together  by  an  anchor  shackle,  to  which  the  end  of  the 
towing  hawser  or  chain  is  also  made  fast  (Plate  175).  A  bull- 
rope  is  made  fast  to  the  shackle,  for  lowering  the  span  over  the 
stern  after  the  lines  have  been  secured  and  for  heaving  the  span 
up  to  the  rail  if  the  line  parts  or  if  it  is  desired  to  let  go. 

The  details  of  securing  the  lines  inboard  must  of  course  depend 
upon  circumstances,  but  it  is  important  to  distribute  the  strain 
over  as  many  sets  of  bitts  as  possible. 

A  convenient  plan  is  to  bring  the  tow-line  in  through  the 
quarter-pipe  on  one  side  and  bend  a  hawser  to  it  from  the  other 
quarter-pipe  at  such  a  point  outside  that  the  two  parts  shall  form 
a  span  of  convenient  length.  The  lines  may  be  made  fast  around 
the  bitts  and  to  the  mast  or  a  deck  house  in  practically  the  same 
way  as  in  the  methods  already  described.  This  plan  has  the 
advantage  that  by  letting  go  the  second  line  we  get  rid  of  the 
span  at  once  and  have  to  deal  only  with  the  tow-line  itself. 

On  board  the  tow,  the  hawser  is  usually  bent  to  the  bower-cable 
(Plates  175,  176),  although  there  may  of  course  be  many  condi- 
tions under  which  some  other  arrangement  will  be  necessary.  If 
the  cable  cannot  be  used,  it  is  desirable  to  use  at  least  a  short 
length  of  chain  to  take  the  chafe  in  the  chock  in  the  same  manner 
as  already  described  for  securing  on  the  towing  ship.  If  even 
this  is  impracticable,  abundant  chafing-gear  must  be  used,  and 
this  should  be  examined  several  times  a  day  and  renewed  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary. 

Where  the  bower  cable  is  used,  the  line  is  bent  or  shackled  to 
it  and  the  cable  veered  away  to  the  desired  length,  after  which 
the  windlass  brakes  are  set  up  and  springs,  to  take  the  real  strain 
of  towing,  are  put  on  as  in  Plate  176.  It  is  well  to  have  a  shackle 


Plate   No.    176. 


705 


SECURING  LINES  IN  TOWING, 


706  TOWING. 

between  the  windlass  and  the  point  to  which  the  springs  are  bent 
and  to  keep  tools  at  hand  for  unshackling'  if  it  becomes  necessary 
to  let  go  in  a  hurry.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  tow 
should  not  let  go  in  this  way  except  in  case  of  extreme  emergency, 
as  the  line,  weighted  with  a  considerable  length  of  heavy  chain, 
would  sink  immediately,  hanging  as  a  dead-weight  from  the  stern 
of  the  towing  vessel,  where  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to 
handle  and  would  be  in  danger  of  fouling  the  screws.  This 
applies  only  .to  cases  where  the  tow  is  a  vessel  of  some  size,  and 
where  she  is  towing  by  her  bower  cables.  It  is  evident  that  where 
a  large  ship  is  towing  a  small  one,  the  natural  way  of  casting  off 
is  for  the  tow  to  let  go,  leaving  the  line  to  be  handled  by  the  large 
ship.  There  is  here,  however,  no  question  of  a  heavy  chain-cable 
hanging  from  the  end  of  .the  line. 

In  the  more  general  case  where  the  bower-cable  of  the  tow  is 
in  use,  the  natural  way  to  let  go  is  for  the  tow  to  heave  in  her 
cable  and  then  cast  off  the  line. 

There  may,  of  course,  be  cases  where  the  towing  vessel  is  the 
proper  one  .to  let  go,  leaving  the  tow  to  handle  the  whole  of  the 
line.  And  cases  may  arise  in  which  both  vessels  must  let  go, 
sacrificing  the  line  to  avoid  some  serious  danger. 

NOTE. — It  is  well  to  remember  that  in  an  emergency  the  towing 
vessel  may  safely  back  her  engines  without  letting  go  the  line  and 
without  danger  of  fouling  the  screws;  but  this  must  not  be  continued 
long  enough  to  check  her  headway  altogether — much  less  to  let  her 
gather  stern-board — as  to  do  this  would  involve  danger  not  only  of 
getting  the  line  into  the  screws,  but  of  being  rammed  by  the  tow.  On 
the  tow,  the  helmsman  should  ahvays  be  alc.'t  and  ready  to  sheer  out  in 
case  of  ranging  up  onto  the  towing  vessel. 

A  plan  which  has  many  advantages  for  securing  the  line  on 
the  tow,  is  to  bend  it  to  the  crown  of  the  anchor  and  let  the  anchor 
go,  veering  chain  to  .the  proper  length.  Not  only  does  this  save 
the  time  required  for  unshackling,  but  it  leaves  the  anchor  on  the 
bight  of  the  line,  where  it  should  be  very  helpful  in  the  matter  of 
"  dip."  If  the  strap  shown  in  Plate  110  is  at  hand,  it  will  be  very 
convenient  here. 

Naturally,  this  plan  would  not  work  in  shallow  water,  as  the 
anchor  would  take  on  the  bottom. 


TOWING.  707 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  difficulties  connected  with 
handling  lines  on  the  cramped  forecastle  of  a  small  craft  like  a 
destroyer.  Another  point  to  be  noted  here  is  that  the  bower- 
cables  of  these  small  craft  are  not  well  suited  for  use  as  a  part  of 
the  tow-line,  and  even  if  they  were  otherwise  adapted  to  the 
work  the  difficulty  in  letting  them  go  for  casting  off  in  a  hurry — • 
especially  in  bad  weather — would  be  an  insuperable  objection  to 
their  use.  A  plan  for  securing  the  lines  on  vessels  of  this  type  is 
shown  in  Plate  177.  Here  a  wire  pendant  is  passed  around  the 
conning-tower  and  to  this  is  shackled  a  pelican-hook  which  en- 
gages a  length  of  chain  sufficient  to  pass  through  the  "  bull-nose  " 
and  leave  a  little  drift  outside. 

The  pelican-hook  should  be  large  and  heavy,  as  it  takes  the 
full  weight  of  the  tow.  It  must  be  fitted  with  a  lanyard  leading 
to  the  bridge,  by  which  it  can  be  tripped  without  sending  anyone 
onto  the  forecastle.  To  the  end  of  the  chain  is  shackled  a  pendant 
of  wire-rope  long  enough  to  lead  aft,  outside  of  all,  to  the  bridge 
or  some  other  point  at  which  it  is  convenient  to  handle  lines  even 
in  bad  weather. 

The  line  from  the  towing  ship,  which  is  preferably  of  manila 
for  reasons  already  explained,  is  hauled  over  to  this  point  of  the 
tow  and  shackled  to  the  wire  pendant,  after  which  the  bight  is 
let  go,  giving  a  clear  lead. 

For  casting  off,  it  is  only  necessary  to  trip  the  pelican-hook. 

Where  time  permits,  it  is  very  desirable  to  prepare  for  towing 
operations  by  splicing  eyes,  with  heavy  thimbles,  into  all  lines 
which  are  to  be  used,  and  providing  shackles  for  connecting  up 
at  all  points,  thus  doing  away  with  the  necessity  for  using  bends 
and  hitches,  which  weaken  manila  very  seriously  and  are  fatal 
to  the  efficiency  of  wire.  At  least  two  short  lengths  of  good  chain 
should  be  provided  for  the  leads  through  the  chocks  on  both  the 
towing  ship  and  the  tow,  and  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  have  two  or 
three  other  lengths  of,  say,  a  fathom  each,  for  use  at  any  point 
where  they  may  be  wanted.  Two  or  three  wire  pendants  with  a 
thimble  eye  at  each  end  will  be  needed  also.  The  plates  illustrat- 
ing this  chapter  will  make  it  clear  where  these  various  parts  are 
needed. 

The  pelican-hooks  should  be  so  heavy  as  to  give  a  very  large 
margin  of  safety.  This  is  especially  important  where  the  stress 


708  TOWING. 

of  towing  comes  continuously  on  the  hook.  The  link  which  en- 
gages the  hook  should  be  long  enough  to  let  the  tongue  of  the 
hook  slip  freely  through  on  letting  go  and  if  the  chain  which  is 
to  be  used  is  not  fitted  with  an  end  link  of  this  character,  a 
shackle  should  be  used.  This  is  often  the  most  convenient  plan, 
and  it  illustrates  the  importance  of  keeping  on  hand  a  number  of 
spare  shackles  for  general  utility.  Such  shackles  are  preferably 
larger  and  more  open  than  those  commonly  used  with  chain- 
cables. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  stud  may  be  knocked  out  of 
a  link  to  admit  of  using  it  with  a  shackle,  without  weakening  the 
link. 

For  getting  the  line  across,  in  good  weather,  any  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  methods  will  answer.  It  may  be  run  with  a  boat,  a  good 
length  of  the  line  being  coiled  in  the  stern-sheets  and  the  remain- 
der paid  out  as  the  boat  pulls  away.  The  towing  ship  is  usually 
the  one  to  send  the  line  and  should  place  herself,  for  this  purpose, 
to  windward  of  the  tow.  This  not  only  gives  the  boat  an  easy 
pull  to  leeward,  but  makes  a  lee  for  her  to  work  in.  If  the  ships 
can  come  close  enough  together  to  admit  of  heaving  the  line 
across,  this  is  of  course  a  convenient  method.  For  this,  it  is  well 
for  the  tow  to  come  up  under  the  lee  quarter  of  the  other  ship, 
being  careful  not  to  range  up  alongside  far  enough  to  let  her 
stern  overlap  the  stern  of  the  other  vessel.  So  long  as  her  stern 
is  well  clear,  she  is  free  to  sheer  out  and  haul  off  if  she  finds 
herself  getting  too  close  or  if  the  other  vessel  seems  to  be  drifting 
down  upon  her. 

If  the  vessels  are  practically  abeam  of  each  other  and  too  close 
for  comfort,  neither  one  can  haul  off  because  to  do  so  means  that 
she  must  throw  her  stern  in  toward  the  other  vessel. 

For  getting  the  line  across  under  these  conditions,  it  is  well 
to  begin  with  a  light  fish-line,  weighted  at  the  end  with  a  piece  of 
lead  or  iron  of  convenient  size  to  fit  comfortably  in  the  hand  and 
to  admit  of  a  long  throw.  The  line  is  flaked  down  on  deck,  clear 
for  running,  and  the  weight  is  thrown  like  a  baseball.  It  is 
possible  to  cover  in  this  way  several  times  the  space  that  can  be 
covered  by  the  usual-  "  heaving  "  line.  The  heavier  lines  are  of 
course  hauled  across  later. 

Other  methods,  especially  applicable  to  bad-weather  conditions, 
are  described  below  (§  III). 


Plate  No.    177, 


709 


710  TOWING. 

§  II.     SPEED  AND  RESISTANCE. 

In  smooth  water,  the  tension  on  the  tow-line  will  be  constant, 
after  the  inertia  is  overcome,  so  long-  as  the  speed  does  not  vary. 
The  following  table  gives  the  approximate  values  of  this  tension 
for  ships  of  various  sizes  when  towed  at  speeds  from  2  to  8  knots. 

APPROXIMATE  TOW-ROPE  RESISTANCES  FOR  SMOOTH  WATER. 


Displacement 
Vessels  towe 
Tons. 

of 
(j 

Speed. 

Z  knots. 

4  knots. 

6  knots. 

8  knots. 

1000 

310  Ibs. 

1250  Ibs. 

2800  Ibs. 

-5000  Ibs. 

2000 

540  " 

2050  " 

4800  " 

8600  " 

3000 

675  " 

2700  " 

6050  " 

10800  " 

4OOO 

830  " 

3300  " 

7500  " 

13500  " 

5000 

960  " 

3800  " 

8600  " 

15000  " 

6000 

1075  " 

4250  " 

9500  " 

I7OOO  " 

Note  that  if  the  vessel  towed'  is  long  and  fine,  the  resistances  will  be 
less  than  those  above,  while  if  she  is  short  and  bluff,  they  will  be  greater. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  resistances  of  the  above  table 
suppose  the  vessels  to  be  actually  moving  with  the  speeds  given. 
When  the  tow  is  at  rest,  the  problem  of  overcoming1  her  inertia 
and  getting  her  up  to  the  uniform  speed  desired,  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  towing  her  after  she  acquires  this  speed ;  and  as 
something  of  a  jerk  is  inevitable,  it  is  essential  to  use  a  line 
considerably  longer  and  stronger  than  would  be  necessary  for 
steady  towing. 

The  tauter  the  line  can  be  made  before  the  towing  vessel  starts 
her  engines  ahead,  the  better  it  will  be.  She  will  of  course  start 
as  slowly  as  possible,  and,  having  overcome  the  inertia  of  the  tow, 
work  up,  a  fraction  of  a  turn  at  a  time,  to  the  speed  required.  In 
gathering  way  at  the  very  beginning  it  is  well  to  give  a  few  turns 
ahead,  then  stop  the  engine,  then  give  a  few  more  turns  and  stop, 
and  so  on. 

To  the  resistances  of  the  above  table  must  be  added  a  large 
percentage  for  the  dragging  screws  of  a  steamer.  This  may  be 
as  much  as  75  per  cent  of  the  resistance  of  the  hull  alone.  More- 
over, the  resistance  increases  very  rapidly — and,  what  is  of  more 
importance,  becomes  very  irregular — where  we  have  to  deal  with 
even  a  very  moderate  sea,  especially  if  the  sea  is  ahead.  The 
wind  must  also  be  taken  into  account,  its  effect  varying  with  the 
cross-sectional  area  exposed  by  the  tow. 


TOWING.  711 

As  a  rough  rule  we  may  say  that  the  resistances  given  in  the 
table  should  be  multiplied  by  a  factor  of  3  or  4  for  what  may  be 
called  "  average  "  conditions  of  wind  and  weather  at  sea,  and  that 
this  factor  should  be  increased  to  5  or  6  where  conditions  are 
distinctly  unfavorable. 

Where  a  very  large  ship,  like  a  battleship,  is  to  be  towed,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  8  knots  is  about  the  maximum  speed  which  should 
be  undertaken  with  any  lines  which  are  likely  to  be  available.  It 
will  be  seen  from  the  table  of  resistances  for  smooth-water  towing 
that  the  resistance  added  by  an  increase  of  a  knot  rises  very 
rapidly  as  the  speed  increases. 

This  point  becomes  very  marked  as  we  go  above  8  knots,  and 
it  seems  probable  that  any  promise  of  gain  in  time  based  upon  a 
gain  of  one  or  two  knots  in  speed  of  towing  will  be  much  more 
than  off-set  by  the  delays  due  to  failure  of  the  lines. 

The  remarks  which  have  already  been  made  as  to  the  advantage 
of  a  very  high  factor  of  safety  in  the  towing  arrangements  are  of 
course  emphasized  in  the  case  where  the  ship  to  be  towed  is  a 
large  and  heavy  one,  and  practical  experience  in  long-distance 
towing  cannot  fail  to  demonstrate  the  wisdom  of  making  this 
factor  much  larger  than  is  likely  to  seem  necessary  in  the  begin- 
ning. 

§  III.    TAKING  A  DISABLED  VESSEL  IN  TOW  AT  SEA 

In  good  weather,  this  manoeuver  presents  no  especial  difficulty 
and  calls  for  no  extended  discussion.  The  lines  are  run  and 
secured  as  already  described.  The  towing  vessel  starts  ahead 
slowly  on  the  course  upon  which  the  disabled  vessel  happens  to 
be  heading,  using  every  precaution  to  prevent  a  jerk  on  the  line, 
and  waiting,  before  changing  the  course,  until  both  ships  have 
gathered  way  and  are  moving  steadily  with  a  good  tension  on  the 
line. 

In  very  bad  weather,  on  the  other  hand,  towing  should  not  be 
attempted  unless  exceptional  circumstances  make  it  necessary; 
as  the  running  of  lines  in  a  heavy  sea  is  attended  by  considerable 
difficulty,  especially  if  the  vessel  to  be  towed  is  unable  to  assist 
by  placing  herself  in  a  favorable  position.  Moreover,  in  really 
heavy  weather,  it  would  be  necessary  to  proceed  so  slowly  that 
little  or  no  time  would  be  lost  by  waiting  for  the  weather  to 
moderate. 


TOWING. 

It  will  be  considered  in  the  discussion  which  follows,  that  the 
weather  is  rough  enough  to  call  for  the  use  of  all  reasonable 
precautions,  but  not  rough  enough  to  make  towing  impracticable. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  the  disabled  vessel  will  be  lying  with  wind 
and  sea  a  little  abaft  the  beam  ;  —  this  being  the  position  which  a 
steamer  usually  takes  up  when  lying  in  a  seaway  with  engines 
stopped.  The  other  vessel  places  herself  on  a  parallel  heading, 
either  to  windward  or  to  leeward.  In  considering  which  of  these 
positions  is  to  be  preferred,  we  must  remember  that  a  considerable 
time  will  be  required  to  run  the  lines  ;  and  that,  during  this  time, 
both  vessels  will  be  drifting  to  leeward  at  a  rate  which  may  make 
their  drift  a  very  important  factor  in  the  problem  of  manoeuvring. 
A  vessel  which  is  light  will  drift  faster  than  one  which  is  loaded, 
the  drift  of  a  vessel  in  ballast-trim  amounting  often  to  several 
knots  an  hour.  If  the  lighter  vessel  is  toJeeward,  she  will  drift 
away  from  the  other,  making  it  very  difficult  to  run  the  lines.  It 
may  be  said,  therefore,  that  as  a  general  rule,  if  there  is  any  im- 
portant difference  in  the  rate  of  drift  of  the  two  vessels,  the 
lighter  one  should  be  to  windward  when  the  work  of  running  the 
lines  is  begun. 

If  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  which  vessel  is  drifting  the  faster, 
this  can  be  determined  in  a  few  moments  by  placing  the  one 
which  is  able  to  manoeuver,  in  line  with  the  other  and  on  the 
same  heading. 

The  towing  vessel,  then,  places  herself  to  windward  if  she  is 
drifting  faster  than  the  other  vessel,  and  to  leeward  if  she  is 
drifting  more  slowly,  and  on  the  same  heading  as  the  disabled 
vessel  ;  taking  care  of  course,  not  to  run  any  risk  of  drifting  into 
collision,  and  remembering,  as  the  ships  draw  together,  the  cau- 
tion already  given  not  to  get  so  close  that  the  helm  cannot  be  put 
over  for  hauling  off  without  danger  of  throwing  the  stern  into 
collision  with  the  tow. 

The  vessel  which  is  to  leeward  uses  oil  freely,  creating  a 
"  slick  "  in  which  the  boats  can  work.1 

Some  seamen  recommend  placing  the  towing  vessel  to  wind- 
ward and  heading  up  to  the  sea  or  nearly  so.  But  to  hold  her 
up  in  this  position  it  would  be  necessary  to  keep  the  engines 


oil  from  a  vessel  drifting  in  a  seaway  will  not  spread  to  leeward 
as  fast  as  the  vessel  will  drift.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  make  an  oil- 
slick  on  the  lee  side,  except,  perhaps,  very  close  aboard. 


Plate   No.    178. 


713 


FIG.  2 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  7 


FIG.  6 


TOWING  ALONGSIDE— TURNING  A  TOW. 


7H  TOWING. 

turning,   which   would   result  in   drawing  away   from  the  other 
vessel  and  add  greatly  to  the  difficulty  of  the  situation. 

Where  the  difference  in  the  rate  of  drifting  is  considerable, 
the  time  available  for  running  the  lines  after  the  work  is  once 
begun  will  be  short  at  best  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  delay ;  a  clear  understanding  being  established  between 
the  ships  and  all  preparations  made,  before  the  towing  ship  takes 
her  position  as  above.  In  communicating  between  two  ships, 
megaphones  are  of  the  greatest  value.  Under  any  except  the 
most  unfavorable  conditions,  they  should  make  it  possible  to 
perfect  a  thorough  understanding  of  what  is  to  be  done  and  how. 
They  also  to  a  great  extent  take  the  place  of  signals  between  the 
two  ships  after  the  towing  begins,  although  a  code  should  by  all 
means  be  adopted  and  wrill  be  useful  under  many  conditions.  It 
is  an  excellent  plan,  when  feasible,  to  send  an  officer  on  board  the 
tow  to  remain  there  permanently ;  acquainting  him  first  with  the 
plan  to  be  carried  out  and  providing  him  with  a  list  of  whistle- 
and  sight-signals  for  handling  the  lines  and  the  ships.  If  no 
boats  are  to  be  used,  a  paper  should  be  floated  across  to  the  tow, 
giving  full  instructions  and  a  list  of  the  signals.  This  may  be 
sealed  up  in  a  bottle  and  attached  to  the  rope  or  the  float.  Whistle 
signals  are  preferable  to  flags,  because  they  can  be  used  at  night 
or  in  a  fog. 

The  following  is  suggested : 

Cede  of  Sound  Signals  for  Towing. 

A  short  blast  must  not  exceed  2  seconds  in  length. 

A  long  blast  must  not  be  less  than  6  seconds  in  length. 

I  am  putting  my  rudder  to  right x i  short  blast. 

I  am  putting  my  rudder  to  left 2 2  skort  blasts. 

Go  ahead 2  long. 

Stop i  long,  2  short. 

All  fast 2  long,  i  short. 

Haul  away    2  short,  i  long. 

Let  go 2  long,  5  short. 

Pay  out  more  line i  short,  2  long. 

Avast  hauling 3  short. 

I  am  letting  go  (emergency)    5  short,  5  short,  5  short. 

i.  right  rudder  is  port  helm.     2.  left   rudder  is   starboard   helm. 


TOWING.  715 

The  first  line  to  be  run  will  be  a  light  one,  by  means  of  which 
the  heavier  ones  can  be  hauled  across.  A  3-inch  manila  is  a 
convenient  size  to  begin  with.  If  new,  so  much  the  better,  as  it 
will  float  freely.  If  a  boat  is  to  be  used  it  should  be  lowered  with 
the  crew  and  the  greater  part  of  the  line  in  it,  and  gotten  clear 
as  quickly  as  possible,  the  line  being  paid  out  as  the  boat  pulls 
away  for  the  other  ship. 

If  it  is  not  .thought  best  to  use  a  boat,  the  line  may  be  floated 
alongside  the  disabled  ship  without  much  difficulty.  The  best 
way  to  do  this  will  depend  upon  circumstances,  but  a  common 
way  is  to  float  a  good  length  of  the  line  by  life-belts,  casks,  or 
any  other  convenient  means,  and  to  steam  slowly  around  the 
disabled  vessel,  dragging  this  astern  and  causing  it  to  foul  her. 
If  proposing  to  take  up  a  position  on  her  weather  bow  it  is  a 
good  plan  .to  steam  along  to  leeward,  fairly  close  aboard,  cross 
the  stern,  and  come  around  parallel  to  her  heading.  This  will 
cause  the  line  to  foul  her  stern,  which  entails  a  little  trouble  in 
shifting  it  forward,  but  it  leaves  the  towing  ship  in  position 
without  further  manoeuvring.  Similarly,  if  proposing  to  take 
a  position  on  the  lee  bow,  pass  along  to  windward,  cross  the 
stern  and  come  around  to  leeward.  The  line  should  be  picked 
up  without  difficulty. 

Many  vessels  are  provided  with  guns  throwing  a  line-carrying 
projectile  similar  to  that  used  in  the  Coast  Guard  Service  (see 
Chapter  XXIX  and  Plate  185).  This  is  very  useful  and  may 
save  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  delay. 

An  ordinary  ship's  rocket  affords  another  and  an  excellent 
method  of  establishing  communication.  Such  a  rocket  will  carry 
a  small  fishing-line  over  200  feet  athwart  .the  wind.  If  proposing 
to  use  this  method,  it  will  be  better  to  go  to  windward  and  as 
close  as  is  prudent.  The  fishing-line  is  faked  down  on  deck,  clear 
for  running,  with  one  end  fast  on  board  and  the  other  bent  to  the 
rocket  stick  a  few  inches  from  the  end.  The  rocket  is  given  a 
good  elevation  (about  45°),  and  fired.  If  connection  is  success- 
fully made,  a  somewhat  heavier  line  is  bent  on  and  hauled  across 
and  so  on  until  a  sufficiently  heavy  one  has  been  run  to  haul  over 
the  tow-line.  If  the  wind  is  blowing  across,  it  will  carry  the 
bight  of  the  line  and  hence  the  tail  of  the  rocket,  to  leeward, 
causing  the  rocket  to  work  up  to  windward.  Allowance  must  be 
made  for  this. 


716  TOWING. 

There  may  be  special  circumstances  which  will  make  it  de- 
sirable for  the  disabled  vessel  to  run  the  lines,  but  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  it  is  more  convenient  for  the  towing  vessel 
to  run  them.  Having  gotten  the  first  light  line  across,  by  what- 
ever method,  the  heavier  lines  are  run  and  made  fast  to  the 
bower-cable  of  the  vessel  to  be  towed.  A  good  length  of  cable  is 
paid  out ; — 60  or  75  fathoms  is  none  too  much  for  heavy  work ; — • 
and  the  line  made  secure  on  both  ships  as  has  been  described  in 
§  I,  chafing-gear  being  used  liberally  wherever  it  can  be  needed. 
In  the  meantime,  full  instructions  about  starting  are  given  to  the 
Chief  Engineer,  and  when  all  is  ready  the  engines  are  started 
ahead  as  slow  as  possible,  and  stopped  the  moment  the  line  begins 
to  tauten  out ;  then  a  few  more  turns  are  made,  and  so  on  until  the 
inertia  of  the  .tow  is  overcome  and  both  ships  are  moving  slowly 
with  a  steady  tension  on  the  line.  The  revolutions  are  then  in- 
creased little  by  little  and  the  course  changed  gradually,  as  may 
be  necessary.  When,  finally,  the  tow  is  straightened  out  and 
moving  steadily,  the  speed  is  worked  up  to  that  at  which  it  is 
thought  wise  to  continue. 

In  all  changes  of  course,  the  tow  puts  her  helm  at  first  to  the 
side  opposite  that  of  the  leader,  and  so  steers  around  into  the 
leader's  wake. 

If  the  sea  is  such  as  makes  it  dangerous  to  tow  to  windward, 
it  is  worth  while  to  consider  whether  a  port  cannot  be  made  on 
a  course  which  will  present  fewer  difficulties,  even  if  the  distance 
is  much  greater. 

After  settling  down  to  a  steady  rate  of  towing,  the  lines  should 
be  examined,  springs  hauled  taut  afresh,  the  strain  divided  as 
evenly  as  possible,  chafing  gear  renewed  wherever  necessary,  etc. 
Hands  should  be  stationed  night  and  day  to  watch  the  lines  on 
both  ships,  with  axes  and  unshackling  tools  ready  for  slipping 
hurriedly  if  necessary.  It  is  Well  to  have  a  light  "  messenger  " 
line  between  the  ships,  for  hauling  messages  across  and  for  use 
in  running  a  new  line  in  case  of  necessity.  This  line  should  be 
left  slack  and  should  have  ample  length  to  allow  for  the  fact 
that  if  the  tow-line  parts  the  leading  ship  will  forge  ahead  con- 
siderably before  she  can  be  stopped.  If  such  a  line  is  not  used, 
messages  may  be  floated  across  by  paying  out  and  hauling  in  a 
light  line  like  an  old-fashioned  log-line. 

The  towing  vessel  should  use  oil  freely  as  in  Plate  160. 


TOWING.  717 

Standard  Towing  Equipment,  United  States  Navy. 

All  capital  ships  of  the  United  States  Navy  carry  the  Standard 
Towing  Equipment  shown  in  Plates  179  and  180. 

The  approved  method  of  taking  a  vessel  in  tow  is  as  follows: 

Directions  for  Towed  Vessel.  Unshackle  both  bower  cables 
at  the  five- fathom  shackle,  each  anchor  having  first  been  secured 
by  two  housing-stoppers  on  the  five- fathom  shot.  Reeve  the  free 
ends  of  the  bower  cables  out  through  the  bow  chocks,  bring 
them  in  on  the  forecastle  and  shackle  them  together,  forming  a 
bridle,  taking  care  to  have  all  clear  for  veering  the  bridle  outside 
when  ready. 

Shackle  the  end  of  the  steel  towing  hawser  to  the  bridle  and 
flake  the  hawser  on  the  forecastle,  clear  for  running.  Remember 
that  the  end  which  is  shackled  up  to  the  bridle  will  go  out  last. 
Put  check-stoppers  of  one-inch  manila  on  the  bights  of  the  hawser 
•to  check  it  when  it  is  payed  out. 

Bend  a  3-inch  manila  line  to  a  spar.  Put  the  spar  overboard 
and  pay  out  the  line.  The  spar  will  probably  drift  to  wind- 
ward ;  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  it  will  drift  to  leeward 
more  slowly  than  the  ship. 

Directions  for  Toimng  Ship.  Take  position  about  one-half 
mile  astern  of  the  ship  to  be  towed,  and  a  little  to  windward. 
Secure  the  bridle  around  the  turret.  Flake  down  the  towing 
hawser  (2*/2-inch  diameter  wire),  shackling  one  end  to  the  bridle 
and  the  other  to  an  8-inch  manila  hawser,  this  hawser  being  also 
flaked  down  clear  for  running.  To  the  free  end  of  the  8-inch 
manila  line  bend  one  end  of  a  3-inch  manila  line  which  has 
been  led  aft  from  the  forecastle,  outside  of  all,  and  in  through 
the  stern  towing  chock. 

All  being  ready  on  both  ships,  the  towing  ship  steams  slowly 
up  to  the  spar, — the  location  of  which  is  signalled  by  the  towed 
ship — picks  it  up  (on  the  forecastle)  and  bends  the  3-inch  manila 
line  which  the  spar  has  floated  across,  to  her  own  similar  line 
leading  from  aft.  The  bight  of  the  3-inch  lines  is  then  thrown 
overboard,  and  the  towed  ship  takes  in  the  slack.  When  the 
line  is  clear  of  the  screws  of  the  towing  ship  she  manoeuvres 
to  gain  a  favorable  position,  the  3-inch  line  being  payed  out  as 
is  found  necessary  by  the  towed  ship.  When  a  favorable  posi- 
tion has  been  attained,  the  towed  ship  hauls  in  the  3-inch  line, 
followed  by  the  8-inch,  and  finally  by  the  end  of  the  steel  towing 


Plate  No.    179. 


Plate  No.    180. 


719 


I 

II 


-1-X-- 


it 
I* 


tt 


1 

7< 


72O  TOWING. 

hawser.  The  two  towing  hawsers  are  shackled  together,  and 
payed  out.  When  the  chain  bridle  is  reached  (on  the  towed 
ship)  it  is  payed  out  carefully  and  the  two  cables  are  veered 
away  to  whatever  scope  is  considered  advisable.  Sixty  fathoms 
is  recommended. 

The  precautions  to  be  observed  in  starting  ahead  and  in  in- 
creasing speed  have  been  detailed  in  an  earlier  part  of  this 
Chapter. 

§IV.    TOWING  ENGINES.    TOWING  ALONGSIDE. 

Towing  Engines.  (Plates  181  and  182.)  In  the  United  States, 
vessels  designed  especially  for  towing  are  in  most  cases  fitted 
with  towing-engines,  which  carry  the  line  on  a  reel  and  pay  out 
and  haul  in  automatically  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  tension 
constant ;  the  resistance  of  the  tow  being  borne  entirely  by  the 
steam  pressure  in  the  cylinders.  If  the  tension  on  the  hawser 
rises  momentarily  above  this  steam  pressure,  the  drum  revolves 
and  pays  out  line.  This  action  opens  the  regulating  valve  and 
increases  the  steam  pressure  in  the  cylinders  until  this  pressure 
balances  the  tension  on  the  line.  If,  later,  the  tension  decreases, 
the  steam  pressure  will  be  in  excess  and  the  drum  will  revolve 
and  reel  in  the  line,  but  at  the  same  time  the  regulating  valve  will 
close  in  part,  and  the  pressure  will  fall  until  it  meets  and  bal- 
ances the  tension.  In  this  way,  the  line  is  paid  out  or  reeled  in 
only  just  enough  to  meet  the  condition  of  things  prevailing  at 
any  given  moment,  and  the  average  length  of  line  remains  prac- 
tically constant. 

There  can  be  no  question  of  the  enormous  advantage  in  towing 
resulting  from  the  use  of  these  engines.  A  point  of  great,  though 
perhaps  secondary,  importance,  is  that  if  the  towing  vessel  stops, 
or  if  for  any  other  reason  the  tow  ranges  up  and  slacks  the  line, 
the  engine  takes  in  the  slack  at  once  and  keeps  it  clear  of  the 
screw.  If  it  is  found  desirable  at  any  time  to  shorten  in  the  line, 
reducing  the  distance  between  the  vessels,  it  can  be  done  without 
difficulty.  This  may  be  important  in  passing  around  bends  in  a 
channel,  or  for  .Inking  in  the  line  preparatory  to  casting-  off. 

It  is  not  the  least  of  the  advantages  of  the  towing  engine  that 
it  makes  the  use  of  wire-rope  perfectly  safe  in  all  weathers. 

Towing  Alongside.  When  towing  in  port  or  in  confined  waters, 
the  tug  should  be  made  fast  alongside  if  possible,  as  this  gives 


Plate  No.    181, 


721 


722 


Plate   No.    182. 


TOWING.  723 

greater  ease  and  certainty  in  handling.  When  used  in  this  way, 
the  tug  is  usually  placed  on  the  quarter,  where  its  rudder  acts 
with  that  of  the  tow,  for  steering.  As  the  power  is  applied  at  a 
distance  from  the  midship  line,  there  is  here  a  considerable  turn- 
ing moment,  which  will  throw  the  ship's  head  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  according  as  the  tug  goes  ahead  or  backs ;  the  effect  being 
exactly  as  if  the  ship  had  twin  screws  and  was  using  only  one  of 
them.  In  going  straight  ahead,  the  turning  effect  is  neutralized 
by  a  small  amount  of  helm. 

The  tug  must  be  made  fast  with  a  line  from  aft  for  going 
ahead  and  one  from  forward  for  backing.  Both  of  these  lines  are 
usually  made  fast  at  the  bow  of  the  tug,  her  stern  being  held  from 
swinging  out  by  a  breast-fast  leading  to' the  tow  (Plate  178). 

If  the  tug  has  a  right-handed  screw,  she  will  handle  better  if 
made  fast  on  the  port  side ;  since,  in  backing,  the  tendency  of  her 
screw  is  to  throw  her  stern  out  to  port,  while  the  tendency  due 
to  her  position  on  the  port  side  of  the  tow  is  to  throw  the  stern 
of  the  tow  the  other  way.  Thus  she  will  make  a  straighter  stern- 
board  than  if  made  fast  .to  the  starboard  .side,  where  both  these 
elements  would  tend  to  throw  the  stern  off  to  port. 

If,  however,  there  is  a  sharp  and  difficult  turn  to  be  made,  the 
tug  should  be  on  the  inboard  quarter ;  that  is  to  say,  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  turn  is  to  be  made.  Here  she  will  be  properly 
placed  for  backing  to  assist  in  the  turn.  So  long  as  she  is  going 
ahead,  she  would  be  more  favorably  placed  for  turning,  on  the 
outboard  side ;  but  if  her  turning  effect  when  so  placed  should 
prove  insufficient  for  the  turn  she  would  be  helpless.  To  back, 
under  these  circumstances,  even  for  keeping  clear  of  the  beach, 
would  only  make  matters  worse.  It  is,  therefore,  the  practice  of 
tug  masters  to  place  themselves  on  that  side  of  the  tow  toward 
which  they  wish  to  turn,  if  the  turn  is  one  which  involves  some 
difficulty. 

It  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  turn  the  larger  vessel  on  a 
pivot ;  that  is  to  say,  without  going  materially  either  ahead  or 
astern.  Suppose  the  tug  is  on  the  starboard  quarter  and  wishes 
to  slew  the  stern  of  the  tow  to  port  (Plate  178).  She  lets  go 
her  stern  breast  and  goes  ahead  with  left  rudder,2  holding  on 
to  the  "  go-ahead "  line.  This  throws  her  stern  out  and  she 
puts  her  bow  (usually  protected  by  a  good  fender)  against  the 
stern  of  the  tow  and  pushes  it  around. 

2.  left  rudder  is  starboard  helm. 


724  TOWING. 

If  it  is  desired  to  pull  the  stern  to  starboard,  she  lets  go  both 
lines  from  her  bow,  slacks  the  after-line,  and  swings  off  clear, 
going  ahead  as  in  Fig.  8.  Observe  .that  for  this  manoeuver  it  is 
necessary  that  the  line  used  for  towing  should  lead  from  a  point 
on  the  tug  far  enough  forward  of  the  rudder  to  let  the  tug's  stern 
swing  freely.  She  will  then  be  able  to  head  in  any  direction 
desired,  even  though  there  may  be  a  current  setting  her  down. 

This  is  perfectly  simple  in  the  case  of  a  tug  whose  towing  bitts 
are  placed  well  forward  as  is  usual  with  tugs.  In  the  case  of  a 
vessel  not  fitted  in  this  way,  the  line  may  be  taken  through  a  side- 
chock  fairly  well  forward,  the  vessel  in  .this  case  being  held  up 
by  the  helm  as  in  Fig.  i,  Plate  183. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  vessel  towing  another  alongside 
wishes  to  "  wind  "  the  tow  to  put  her  alongside  a  dock,  the  side 
on  which  the  towing  vessel  is  secured  being  the  side  which  must 
be  put  to  the  dock.  This  is  a  manceuver  which  may  be  seen 
almost  any  day  in  a  harbor  like  New  York,  where  a  tug,  towing 
a  barge  and  having  the  barge,  say,  on  her  starboard  side,  wishes 
to  land  the  barge  alongside  a  dock  which  is  on  the  port  hand,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  get  herself  clear  of  her  position  between  the 
barge  and  the  dock.  Plate  178  makes  it  clear  how  this  manoeuver 
is  performed.  (But  see  description  in  Chapter  XVII.) 


(725) 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A  WRECK. 

The  situation  here  is  somewhat  like  that  where  one  ship  is  to 
take  another  in  tow,  but  with  several  important  points  of  differ- 
ence. No  matter  how  bad  the  weather  may  be,  the  work  of  res- 
cue, if  it  is  to  be  attempted  at  all,  must  usually  be  undertaken 
at  once;  and  in  practically  all  cases,  by  means  of  a  boat.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  rescuing  ship  is  much  freer  to  manoeuvre 
than  when  she  is  hampered  by  lines  as  in  making  preparations 
for  towing. 

The  natural  way  of  proceeding  under  ordinary  circumstances 
is  to  go  to  windward  of  the  wreck  and  lower  a  boat,  then  go  to 
leeward  and  stand  by  to  pick  it  up.  If  oil  is  used  along  the 
weather  side  of  the  wreck,  the  boat  will  have  an  oil-slick,  in 
addition  to  the  lee  afforded  by  her  own  vessel;  and  if  the  res- 
cuing vessel  uses  oil  after  getting  into  position  to  leeward,  the 
slick  may  be  continued  so  that  the  boat  shall  have  the  benefit  of 
it  as  she  returns,  loaded,  before  the  sea.  If  for  any  reason  the 
wreck  cannot  use  oil,  the  rescuing  vessel  can  steam  around  her, 
running  oil  freely  and  so  creating  a  slick  into  which  the  wreck 
will  presently  drift. 

If  the  weather  is  very  rough,  extreme  precautions  will  be 
called  for  in  lowering  the  boat  and  getting  her  clear.  The  ship 
should  be  held  up  with  the  sea  on  the  bow,  giving  a  lee  for  the 
boat  and  reducing  the  rolling  as  much  as  possible.  The  crew  is 
lowered  in  the  boat,  with  life-belts  on.  A  painter  is  used  from 
well  forward,  brought  in  on  the  inboard  bow  of  the  boat  and 
tended  with  a  turn  around  a  thwart,  and  the  steering  oar  is  ship- 
ped in  its  crutch,  ready  to  assist  in  sheering  off  clear  of  the  side 
as  soon  as  the  boat  is  in  the  water.  Trapping  lines  may  be  used 
around  the  falls  to  steady  the  boat,  and  sails  or  mattresses  hung 
over  the  side  as  fenders,  to  prevent  the  boat  from  being  stove 
if  she  swings  in  heavily.  Two  or  three  extra  life-belts  should 
be  taken  along,  with  two  heaving  lines  bent  to  each.  These  are 


RESCUING  THE   CREW   OF  A   WRECK. 

for  hauling  back  and  forth  between  the  boat  and  the  wreck.  Oil- 
bags  should  be  hung  from  the  bows  of  the  boat. 

As  the  boat  strikes  the  water,  or  just  before  it  becomes  water- 
borne  (depending  upon  the  type  of  detaching  apparatus  in  use), 
the  boat  is  detached  and  the  painter  passed  quickly  aft  and 
hauled  in,  shooting  the  boat  ahead  and  sheering  her  off  at  the 
same  time.  The  vessel  should  be  nearly  dead  in  the  water  when 
the  boat  is  lowered,  but  a  little  headway  may  be  needed  to  keep 
her  up  to  the  sea. 

Assuming  that  the  boat  gets  off  and  makes  the  trip  to  the 
wreck  in  safety,  the  officer  in  charge  must  decide  how  he  will 
establish  communication  and  take  off  the  passengers  and  crew. 
It  is  out  of  the  question  to  go  alongside  to  windward ;  and  if  he 
goes  alongside  to  leeward,  not  only  is  there  a  risk  of  being  stove 
by  the  wreckage  which  is  likely  to  be  found  floating  under  the 
quarter,  but  there  is  the  much  more  serious  danger  of  being 
unable  to  get  clear  of  the  side  again.  As  has  been  explained  in 
the  Chapter  on  Towing,  a  vessel  lying  in  a  seaway  with  engines 
stopped  drifts  to  leeward  at  a  rate  which  is  always  considerable 
and  may  amount  to  several  knots  an  hour.  A  boat  alongside 
such  a  ship,  to  leeward,  is  in  exactly  the  same  position  as  if  she 
were  alongside  a  dock  against  the  face  of  which  a  strong  cur- 
rent is  setting.  Every  one  knows  how  helpless  a  boat  is  under 
these  conditions  so  far  as  getting  clear  is  concerned.  As  a  rule, 
then,  the  boat  must  never  be  brought  actually  alongside  the 
wreck.  She  may  either  lie  off  to  windward,  keeping  well  clear 
and  being  held  up  head  to  sea  by  the  oars,  or  to  leeward,  holding 
on  with  a  line  from  her  bow  to  the  wreck,  with  a  few  oars  at 
work  backing,  to  keep  her  at  a  safe  distance,  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  keel  line  of  the  wreck.  If  obliged  to  go  alongside,  the 
stem  may  be  allowed  to  touch,  all  being  ready  to  back  off  if  the 
boat  shows  a  disposition  to  get  broadside-on.  It  may  be  well 
to  let  the  men  at  the  oars  face  forward  to  make  sure  of  being 
able  to  keep  off.  The  people  on  board  the  wreck  put  on  the  life- 
belts, jump  overboard  one  at  a  time,  and  are  hauled  into  the 
boat.  In  most  cases  the  .most  favorable  point  for  working  will 
be  under  the  lee  quarter  or  the  lee  bow,  depending  upon  the  way 
the  wreck  is  lying  with  reference  to  the  sea.  It  is  sometimes 
possible  for  people  to  lower  themselves  or  be  lowered  to  a  boat 
from  the  head-booms  or  from  an  overhanging  main-boom,  when 
they  could  not  be  rescued  in  any  other  way. 


RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A  WRECK.  727 

So  serious  is  the  question  of  avoiding  actual  contact  with  the 
wreck,  that  many  officers  consider  it  best  for  the  rescuing  ship 
to  go  to  windward  and  drop  the  boat  down  with  a  line,  putting 
only  two  or  three  men  in  the  boat.  This  is  the  plan  recom- 
mended by  Captains  Todd  and  Whall  in  their  Seamanship,  and 
it  is  endorsed  by  a  number  of  experienced  officers  who  have  fav- 
ored the  present  author  with  their  views ;  but  a  large  majority 
of  the  officers  who  have  written  on  this  subject  take  .the  ground 
that  a  boat  is  always  safer  and  more  manageable  with  a  full 
crew,  and  that  to  drop  her  down  with  a  line  from  the  ship  simply 
hampers  the  manoeuvring  of  both  the  ship  and  the  boat  without 
any  sufficient  compensating  advantages.  If  proposing  to  drop 
the  boat  down  with  a  line,  it  is  important  to  make  sure  of  having 
this  of  sufficient  length.  One  end  should  be  passed  through  .the 
bow  ring-bolt  and  hitched  around  a  midship  thwart.  It  is  well 
to  have  fifteen  or  twenty  fathoms  of  spare  line  in  the  boat  for  use 
when  close  to  the  wreck,  as  this  gives  the  people  in  the  boat  con- 
trol of  the  situation  at  the  time  when  too  much  or  too  little  may 
be  of  vital  consequence.  There  should  be  certain  men  of  the 
crew  specially  stationed  to  tend  the  line,  signal  the  ship,  throw 
the  heaving  line  to  the  wreck,  etc.,  for  there  will  be  no  moment 
during  the  rescue  when  either  the  steering  oar  or  the  line  should 
be  left  unattended.  A  life-belt  or  buoy  should  be  taken,  in  this 
case  as  in  the  one  previously  described,  with  two  lines  for  haul- 
ing it  back  and  forth  between  the  boat  and  the  wreck. 

Oil-bags  are  hung  from  the  quarters  of  the  boat  and  oil  used 
by  the  wreck,  as  in  all  cases  of  this  kind.  If  the  wreck  cannot 
assist  in  this  way,  the  rescuing  vessel  should  pass  along  to  lee- 
ward (at  a  good  distance)  running  oil  freely.  The  wreck  will 
soon  drift  into  the  slick  thus  created. 

The  boat  is  dropped  down  by  paying  out  line  on  board,  being 
kept  head  to  sea  by  the  steering  oar  assisted  by  the  drag  of  the 
line  over  the  bow.  The  line. must  be  kept  in  hand  on  board  the 
ship,  to  insure  a  prompt  response  to  signals  from  the  boat.  The 
officer  in  charge  of  the  work  keep  his  glasses  on  the  boat  inces- 
santly. 

If  the  line  is  led  through  a  midship  chock  on  the  ship  and  the 
ship  allowed  to  fall  off  on  a  heading  parallel  with  the  wreck,  she 
will  drift  with  the  latter,  though  perhaps  not  at  an  equal  speed, 
and  will  change  the  distance  very  slowly  if  at  all.  She  will,  more- 


728  RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A   WRECK. 

over,  be  perfectly  free  to  handle  the  engines  slowly — going  ahead 
or  backing  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  in  position  for  giving  the 
boat  a  lee.  If  the  attempt  is  made  to  hold  her  up  to  the  sea,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  turning  the  engine  ahead,  which  will 
result  in  drawing  away  from  the  wreck.  There  will,  moreover, 
be  constant  danger  of  fouling  the  screw  with  the  line,  and  no  lee 
will  be  created  for  the  boat. 

A  simple  code  of  signals  must  be  adopted  and  fully  understood, 
thus : 

In  the  Boat. 

« 

Right  arm  extended,  Slack  away  on  board, 

Left  arm  extended,  Haul  in  on  board, 

Arm  held  up  overhead,  Hold  on. 

The  arm  waved,  in  either  of  these  positions,  emphasizes  the  order. 
Thus,  the  right  arm  extended  and  waved  up  and  down  means  "  slack  away 
roundly." 

On  Board  Ship. 

A  long  blast  of  the  whistle,  "  We  are  about  to  haul  in." 

When  the  boat  is  near  the  wreck,  say  within  thirty  or  forty 
yards,  signal  is  made  to  hold  on  to  the  line  on  board,  and  the 
men  in  the  boat  begin  to  pay  out,  dropping  down  as  close  as  is 
thought  perfectly  safe,  then  floating  the  life-belt  across.  This 
is  picked  up  by  those  on  board  and  worked  as  has  already  been 
described.  When  .the  boat  is  loaded,  the  signal  is  given  and  it  is 
hauled  back  to  the  ship.  Here  the  greatest  care  must  be  exer- 
cised and  the  line  hauled  in  very  slowly,  else  the  boat  is  certain 
to  be  swamped. 

The  method  of  dropping  the  boat  down  by  a  line  from  the  res- 
cuing ship  has  been  described  at  some  length  because  there  are 
undoubtedly  occasions  on  which  it  can  be  used  with  better  pros- 
pects of  success  than  other  methods.  In  cases,  however,  where 
a  boat  can  be  used  independently  and  untrammeled  by  a  line 
from  the  ship, — as  in  the  cases  hereafter  described, — it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  freedom  of  action  thus  afforded  the  boat  gives 
this  method  a  very  marked  advantage. 


RESCUING  THE   CREW  OF  A   WRECK.  729 

If  the  weather  is  such  that  a  boat  cannot  be  lowered,  the  diffi- 
culties of  effecting  a  rescue  are  greatly  increased,  but  the  situa- 
tion is  not  necessarily  hopeless.  There  are  many  ways  of  getting 
a  line  between  the  ships ;  as,  for  example,  by  a  line-throwing  gun, 
a  rocket,  or  a  float.  If  a  balsa  is  available,  the  following  method 
might  give  some  hope :  The  rescuing  vessel  steams  slowly 
across  the  stern  of  the  wreck,  towing  the  balsa  by  a  very  long 
line,  and  manoeuvers  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  line  (not  the 
balsa)  to  foul  the  wreck.  If  the  people  on  board  can  haul  the 
balsa  up  to  leeward  and  get  on  it  there  should  be  no  great  diffi- 
culty about  saving  them. 

Another  method  which  suggests  itself  is  the  following :  Sup- 
pose it  is  apparent  that  the  wreck  is  drifting  faster  than  the 
rescuing  vessel  will  drift  if  she  stops  her  engines.  The  rescuing 
vessel  goes  to  leeward  and  places  herself,  with  engines  stopped, 
in  such  a  position  that  her  bow  is  just  clear  of  the  line  of  drift 
of  the  stern  of  the  wreck.  If  any  miscalculation  is  made,  a 
few  turns  of  the  screw  astern  will  carry  her  clear.  As  the  wreck 
drifts  down,  a  line  is  gotten  across  by  any  means  that  is  conve- 
nient and  the  people  are  hauled  across.  If  the  rescuing  vessel 
drifts  the  faster  she  will  of  course  go  to  windward  instead  of 
to  leeward,  and  wait  to  drift  into  position  herself.  In  this  way 
it  should  be  possible  without  imprudence  to  let  the  vessels  come 
much  closer  than  would  be  safe  in  any  other  manceuver  that 
could  be  attempted. 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter  received  by  the  author 
gives  a  detailed  description  of  several  rescues  by  the  writer  of 
the  letter,  who  is  one  of  the  most  experienced  officers  of  the 
International  Navigation  Company.1  It  will  be  noted  that  he 
believes  in  holding  his  ship  as  close  as  possible  on  the  weather 
quarter  of  the  wreck  instead  of  going  to  leeward  to  pick  up  the 
boat;  believing  that  more  is  gained  by  the  lee  afforded  in  this 
way  than  would  be  gained  by  the  other  plan. 

In  December,  1899,  I  was  in  charge  of  the  boat  from  the  S.  S.  Penn- 
land  that  rescued  the  crew  of  the  British  Brigantine  Don  Juan,  of 
Salcombe,  England,  in  the  North  Atlantic.  In  the  morning  we  discovered 
a  vessel  dismasted  and  rolling  in  the  trough  of  the  sea,  the  wind  N.W., 
force  about  7,  and  a  very  high  sea.  Getting  closer  to  her,  we  saw  that 
there  were  people  on  board  of  her.  I  got  a  volunteer  crew  and  made  the 
boat  ready  for  lowering,  taking  in  a  couple  of  heaving  lines,  two  buckets, 

1  Captain  H.  Doxrud,  Steamship  Noordland. 


730  RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A  WRECK. 

and  a  large  can  of  oil.  The  Pennland  was  brought  to  windward  of  the 
wreck  close  to  and  with  the  wind  and  sea  about  4  points  on  the  starboard 
bow,  heading  about  west.  The  boat  was  lowered  with  the  full  crew, 
8  men,  in  it  and  a  bridle  around  the  falls  from  the  main  deck  to  prevent 
the  boat  from  swinging  too  much  when  lowered ;  a  line  from  the  fore  part 
of  the  ship  in  the  boat.  The  boat  was  lowered  very  quickly,  and  on  touch- 
ing the  water  the  patent  hooks  disengaged  themselves,  the  bow-line  was 
passed  aft  and  a  strong  pull  on  it  brought  the  boat's  bow  around  and 
sheered  it  clear  of  the  ship's  side.  We  got  the  oars  out  immediately  and 
pulled  before  the  wind  and  sea  toward  the  wreck,  having  good  shelter  of 
our  own  vessel.  When  we  got  close  to  the  wreck  we  found  it  impossible 
to  get  alongside,  as  she  was  rolling  heavily,  the  sea  washing  over  her,  and 
part  of  her  rigging  floating  alongside.  We  got  close  under  her  stern  with 
the  boat  and  had  a  line  thrown  us  from  the  wreck ;  to  this  we  bent  on  our 
heaving  line  and  a  life-belt,  which  was  hauled  to  the  wreck,  one  end  being 
in  the  boat.  The  life-belt  was  put  on  the  first  man  to  go  and  the  bight  of 
the  line  secured  around  him  under  his  arms;  he  jumped  overboard  and 
was  pulled  in  the  boat.  The  life-belt  was  hauled  back  to  the  wreck,  and 
by  this  means  all  the  crew,  9  in  number,  were  rescued.  Our  vessel  was 
drifting  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  with  the  wreck,  close  to ;  so  a  short  pull 
brought  us  safely  alongside. 

During  the  rescue  the  boat's  crew  was  placed  as  follows :  two  men  in 
the  bow  to  work  the  line,  four  men  at  the  oars  to  keep  the  boat  in  position, 
one  man  bailing  and  myself  steering  (using  a  long  oar  instead  of  a  rudder) 
and  directing  the  work. 

My  second  experience  was  in  October,  1892,  off  the  Flemish  Cap — when 
Chief  Officer  of  the  S.  S.  Noordland,  when  I  was  in  charge  of  the  boat's 
crew  that  rescued  the  crew  of  the  Norwegian  Barque  Kong  Oscar  the 
2nd.  The  wind  was  N.  W.,  force  about  6,  with  heavy  hail  squalls.  This 
rescue  was  very  difficult  and  dangerous,  as  it  was  done  during  a  very 
dark  night,  and  took  from  9  in  the  evening  until  I  in  the  morning.  The 
Noordland  was  brought  to,  to  windward  of  the  wreck,  heading  about  west, 
when  the  boat  was  lowered  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  former  occasion, 
with  8  men  in  it.  We  got  safely  away  from  the  ship's  side.  Coming  up 
tp  the  wreck,  we  found  her  waterlogged,  the  sea  making  a  clean  sweep 
over  her,  making  it  impossible  to  get  alongside.  The  crew,  numbering 
16,  was  taken  off  by  means  of  a  life-belt  and  line,  as  on  the  former 
occasion. 

The  Noordland  was  drifting  in  the  trough  of  the  sea  to  windward,  and 
we  pulled  up  to  her  under  her  lee  and  got  safely  alongside  and'  on  board 
with  our  boat  load  of  men.  The  boat's  crew  during  the  rescue  was 
placed  as  on  the  former  occasion. 

My  third  experience  was  in  October,  1899,  when  in  command  of  S.  S 
Rhynland.  When  off  George's  Bank  we  fell  in  with  the  disabled  and 
waterlogged  British  Brigantine  Ida  Maud.  The  night  previous  it  had 
been  blowing  a  gale  from  the  S.E. ;  and  at  the  time  (about  3  P.M.),  it 
was  blowing  from  the  N.W.,  force  about  6,  making  a  very  nasty  cross 
sea. 


RESCUING  THE   CREW  OF  A  WRECK.  73! 

I  brought  the  Rhynhmd  to  windward  of  the  wreck,  close  to,  heading 
about  W.S.W.,  and  lowered  one  of  the  port  life-boats  with  a  volunteer 
crew  of  8  men,  Chief  Officer  Daddow  in  charge.  The  boat  got  away 
from  the  ship  all  right  and  proceeded  toward  the  wreck. 

As  on  the  former  occasions,  it  was  not  possible  to  get  alongside  the 
wreck,  the  sea  washing  over  her,  and  a  lot  of  loose  lumber  floating  about. 
A  rope  was  thrown  over  the  end  of  the  main  boom  that  extended  several 
feet  abaft  the  stern  of  the  brigantine,  the  shipwrecked  crew  climbed  out 
one  by  one  to  the  end  of  the  boom  and  dropped  into  the  boat.  In  the 
meantime  I  had  brought  the  "  Rhynland "  close  to  the  wreck,  her  bow 
nearly  in  line  with  the  stern  of  the  wreck,  thereby  giving  the  boat  shelter, 
and  a  short  pull  brought  them  alongside. 

In  these  instances  oil  has  been  frequently  used  both  from  the  rescuing 
vessel,  the  boats,  and  in  the  first  instance  from  the  zvreck  also,  and  I  cannot 
recommend  its  use  too  strongly  for  work  like  this.  Its  effect  is  simply 
•wonderful,  and  I  attribute  my  success  in  the  above  cases  without  mishap 
greatly  to  a  liberal  and  judicious  use  of  oil. 


An  unusual  case  of  the  rescue  of  the  entire  crew  of  a  foundering 
vessel  in  heavy  weather  without  the  lowering  of  a  boat  is  that 
of  the  saving  of  the  crew  of  the  U.  S.  S.  James,  a  mine  sweeper, 
by  the  gunboat  U.  S.  S.  Marietta,  Commander  H.  G.  Hamlet, 
USCG,  commanding,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  April  28,  1919. 
In  a  gale  of  wind,  with  very  heavy  sea,  the  James,  with  fires  out 
and  water  logged,  was  sinking.  Weather  and  sea  conditions 
made  it  impossible  to  attempt  a  rescue  by  boat;  action  of  some 
sort  was  imperative  if  the  imperiled  lives  were  to  be  saved. 
The  James  was  lying  with  wind  and  sea  on  her  port  quarter. 
The  Marietta  was  placed  for  a  while  in  the  James'  wake,  and 
heading  with  her,  in  order  to  determine  the  comparative  drift. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  it  was  found  that  the  Marietta  drifted 
the  faster.  The  Marietta  was  then  placed  with  her  bow  lapping 
the  lee  quarter  of  the  James,  heading  with  her,  and  only  a  few 
feet  distant,  and  a  heaving  line  was  passed  on  board.  The 
Marietta  was  held  in  position,  with  the  helm  and  engines,  at  a 
distance  that  at  no  time  during  the  operation  of  rescue  exceeded 
fifty  yards.  A  4-inch  line  was  hauled  on  board  the  James  and 
the  bight  was  secured  to  a  Carley  life  raft  in  such  fashion  that  the 
raft  could  be  hauled  back  and  forth  from  one  ship  to  the  other. 
In  this  manner  the  entire  crew  of  the  James,  47  in  all,  were 
transferred  to  the  Marietta,  nine  trips  being  made.  The  crew 
of  the  Marietta  were  stationed  along  the  rail  on  the  forecastle 
head  with  bowlines,  and,  as  the  raft  came  near  the  Marietta's 


732  RESCUING  THE  CREW  OF  A  WRECK. 

bow,  a  bowline  was  passed  to  each  man  on  the  raft  and  he  was 
hauled  on  board.  During  the  operation  oil  was  used  freely  by 
throwing  it  overboard  from  the  port  side  of  the  Marietta;  on  the 
James  the  heads  of  oil  barrels  on  the  after  deck  were  broken  in. 
Shortly  after  the  Marietta  had  rescued  the  crew  and  backed  clear 
the  James  sank. 

A  life  raft,  with  sunken  deck,  is  much  better  adapted  to  an 
operation  of  the  sort  described  than  is  a  decked  life  raft.  Had  a 
decked  raft  been  used  in  this  case  the  men  would  have  been  in 
danger  of  being  swept  off  by  the  seas. 

Another  rescue  of  exceptional  interest  is  that  of  the  crew  of 
the  Otranto  by  the  Mounsey,  described  on  page  619. 


(733) 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
MAN  OVERBOARD. 

The  most  immediate  danger  to  a  man  falling  overboard  from 
a  steamer  is  that  of  being  struck  by  the  propeller.  This  danger 
is  especially  great  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  with  twin-screws,  and 
is  of  course  increased  in  any  case  by  throwing  the  stern  to  the 
side  on  which  the  man  has  gone  over. 

If  the  experiment  is  tried  of  throwing  over  from  the  bow  a  light 
buoyant  object,  it  will  be  found  that  by  trie  time  this  reaches  the  stern 
it  will  be  clear  of  the  side  by  a  considerable  distance,  being  thrown  off 
by  the  surface  wash  from  the  side.  A  man  falling  overboard  may  feel 
this  wash  to  a  certain  extent,  but  he  sinks  in  the  beginning  far  below 
its  influence  and  into  the  suction  of  the  screw.  Moreover,  his  first 
instinct  is  to  swim  back  toward  the  ship. 

The  first  thought  of  a  man  falling  overboard  should  be  to 
swim  outward  from  the  ship,  and  the  first  thought  of  the  officer 
on  the  bridge  should  be  to  stop,  not  back,  the  engines.  If 
it  is  known  from  which  side  the  man  has  fallen,  the  helm  may 
be  put  hard  over  to  the  opposite  side,  throwing  the  stern  away 
from  him.  This  calls  for  quick  thinking  and  prompt  action; 
but  the  time  available  is  by  no  means  as  short  as  might  be  sup- 
posed. A  steamer  400  feet  long,  making  12  knots,  passes  over 
her  own  length  in  twenty  seconds.  Thus,  if  a  man  falls  over- 
board amidships,  he  will  be  ten  seconds  in  reaching  the  screw. 

One  or  more  life-buoys  should  be  thrown  over  at  once.  If 
a  little  presence  of  mind  is  exercised  here,  it  is  often  possible 
to  throw  one  of  these  very  close  to  the  man. 

At  the  first  alarm,  a  number  of  men  (previously  instructed), 
jump  aloft  to  try  to  keep  the  man  in  sight;  and  as  quickly  as 
possible  a  quartermaster  follows  them  with  a  good  pair  of 
binoculars. 

The  ordinary  life-buoy  is  so  small  that  often  the  man  in  the 
water  cannot  see  it,  and  it  is  of  little  or  no  assistance  to  the 


734 


MAN    OVERBOARD. 


look-outs  who  are  trying  to  keep  him  in  sight.  This  is  a 
serious  and  often  a  fatal  defect.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  number  of 
these  small  light  buoys  about  the  decks,  to  be  thrown  overboard 
on  the  instant  by  any  one  who  may  be  near  them ;  but  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  there  should  be  provided  a  more  elaborate  buoy 
or  float  fitted  with  a  mast  and  a  light,  to  be  let  go  promptly  and 
to  serve  not  only  as  a  buoy,  but  as  a  marker. 

If  to  this  is  added  a  can  stuffed  with  oakum  soaked  in  oil,  a 
slick  will  be  created  around  the  buoy  which  will  not  only  be  of 
great  help  to  the  man  but  may  assist  greatly  in  keeping  the  spot 
in  sight. 

The  light  should  be  of  a  nature  to  ignite  upon  contact  with 
the  water.  What  is  known  as  the  "  Holmes  Light "  is  of  this 
nature  and  is  much  used  in  the  English  merchant  service.  In 
the  absence  of  a  buoy  fitted  as  above  described  (or  in  addition 
thereto),  lights  of  this  kind  should  be  carried  on  the  bridge  (or 
forecastle),  to  be  thrown  over  by  the  lookout,  without  an 
order,  at  the  alarm  of  "  Man  overboard! " 

This  use  of  a  marker,  as  distinct  from  the  idea  of  a  buoy 
(though  preferably  connected  with  the  buoy)  is  of  great  importance. 

Objection  is  sometimes  made  to  the  use  of  lights  like  the  "  Holmes  " 
on  the  ground  that  the  fumes  given  off  by  them  are  always  offensive 
and  in  some  cases  unbearably  suffocating.  This  is  a  reason  for  not 
connecting  them  rigidly  with  the  buoy.  They  may,  however,  be  attached 
to  it  by  a  short  line  which  would  let  them  float  at  some  distance  from  it. 
Of  course  a  light  which  ignites  by  contact  with  water  must  be  sealed 
until  it  is  wanted,  when  it  may  be  punched  or  torn  open  either  by  a 
simple  tool  attached  to  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "Holmes,"  or 
by  some  automatic  arrangement  connected  with  its  release,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy  life-buoy. 

Men-of-war  usually  carry  life-buoys  of  special  types,  fulfilling 
more  or  less  satisfactorily  the  above  requirements.  One  of 
these  is  usually  suspended  on  each  quarter. 

There  seems  no  reason  why  a  steamer  should  not  carry  at  the 
end  of  the  bridge  (or  on  an  outrigger  if  the  bridge  does  not 
overhang  the  water),  a  small  life  raft  (Plate  67),  of  a  size  suffi- 
cient to  carry  a  man  comfortably,  fitted  with  a  mast  and  a  light 
and  with  two  or  three  water-tight  pockets  containing  a  small 
supply  of  provisions  and  water,  and,  perhaps,  a  few  lights  of 
the  Holmes  or  some  similar  type  which  could  be  used  to  attract 
the  attention  of  passing  vessels,  in  the  event  of  being  left  adrift. 


MAN    OVERBOARD.  735 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  engines  are  thrown  to  full 
speed  astern  as  soon  as  the  man  is  clear  of  the  screw,  and  a 
boat  is  lowered  as  soon  as  the  speed  has  been  reduced  suffi- 
ciently. The  boat  pulls  back  in  search  of  the  man,  guided  by 
signals  from  the  lookouts  aloft,  provided  they  have  succeeded 
in  keeping  the  man  or  the  buoy  in  sight.  Failing  this,  the  boat 
cannot  go  far  wrong  if  it  pulls  back  on  a  course  opposite  the 
original  heading  of  the  ship ;  for  although  the  steamer  in  backing 
will  probably  throw  her  head  to  one  side,  she  will  not  usually 
gain  a  great  amount  of  ground  in  that  direction  before  coming 
to  rest. 

In  most  conditions  of  the  sea,  a  boat  may  be  lowered  with 
reasonable  safety  at  a  speed  of  five  knots;  and  we  may  assume 
that  the  distance  required  to  reduce  the  speed  to  this  will  be 
from  two  to  four  ship's  lengths,  and  the  time,  from  two  to  four 
minutes. 

If  the  weather  is  smooth  or  the  sea  from  such  a  direction  that 
there  is  no  occasion  for  manoeuvring  to  lower  the  boat,  all 
this  is  simple  enough;  but  if  conditions  are  such  as  to  call  for 
turning  wholly  or  partially  before  lowering,  it  is  thought  by 
many  officers  a  good  plan  to  put  the  rudder  hard  over,  keeping 
the  engines  turning  ahead,  and  to  describe  a  circle,  thus 
coming  back,  with  the  ship,  to  a  point  near  that  "at  which 
the  man  went  over. 

Observations  upon  the  turning  circles  of  a  large  number  of  steamers 
show  that  a  steamer  turning  with  hard-over  rudder  will  pass  within  a 
short  distance — rarely  so  much  as  a  ship's  length — from  the  point  where 
the  helm  was  put  down.  No  doubt  the  symmetry  of  the  curve  may  be 
considerably  modified  by  wind  and  sea,  but  not  sufficiently  to  prevent  a 
return  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  starting  point.  The  time  required 
for  the  full  turn  will  vary  with  the  length,  the  speed,  the  weather  and 
the  manoeuvring  powers  of  the  vessel.  Every  officer  should  know  the 
manoeuvring  powers  of  his  own  vessel,  especially  the  size  of  the  turning 
circle,  the  time  required  to  describe  it,  and  how  close  the  ship  will  come 
to  a  marker  thrown  over  just  before  putting  over  the  rudder.  (See 
Plate  115.) 

Without  attempting  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  endless  variety 
of  situations  which  may  arise  in  a  matter  of  this  kind,  it  will 
perhaps  not  be  going  too  far  to  say  that,  generally  speaking,  the 
ship  should  be  stopped  and  backed  if  she  has  the  wind  and  sea 
ahead,  or  abeam,  and  that  she  would  probably  do  well  to  turn, 
if  they  are  much  abaft  the  beam;  since  in  the  last  case  a  boat 
pulling  back  would  be  working  against  wind  and  sea. 


736 


MAN    OVERBOARD. 


It  will  of  course  be  understood  that  in  turning,  speed  must  be 
regulated  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  weather.  It  would 
not  do,  for  example,  to  come  up  into  a  heavy  sea  at  full  speed. 
(See  Chapter  "Handling  a  Steamer  in  Heavy  Weather.") 

If  the  conditions  are  such — due  to  the  lack  of  a  proper  marker, 
or  to  fog,  or  to  any  other  cause — that  difficulty  is  to  be  anticipated 
in  finding  the  man,  it  is  probably  better  to  stop  and  send  the 
boat  back  along  the  course  opposite  the  original  heading.  This 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  having  a  compass  in  the  boat. 

In  case  of  fog,  the  vessel  should  avoid  changing  her  position- 
while  the  boat  is  azvay.  The  compass  is  thus  a  guide  for  finding 
the  ivay  back — assisted,  of  course,  by  sounding  the  whistle,  firing 
guns,  etc. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  in  weather  too  heavy  to  admit 
of  lowering  a  boat,  the  one  method  that  can  give  a  hope  of  saving 
the  man  is  to  turn  and  attempt  to  pick  him  up  with  the  ship. 

In  squadron.  Special  rules  are  laid  down  for  cases  of  man  over- 
board in  squadron.  It  may  be  assumed  that  all  officers  concerned 
are  familiar  with  these.  Generally  speaking,  they  provide  for  the 
necessary  manccuvers  to  keep  clear  of  other  ships  while  picking 
up  the  man  and  for  the  signals  notifying  .other  ships  of  the  situa- 
tion. 

They  also  direct  what  steps  shall  be  taken  by  neighboring  ships 
to  assist  in  the  rescue.  Except  when  the  ships  are  in  column,  the 
actual  manceuvers  on  the  part  of  the  vessel  losing  the  man  are 
not  greatly  different  from  what  they  would  be  if  she  were  acting 
singly,  although  in  certain  formations  there  might  be  difficulties 
connected  with  turning. 

See  "  Man  Overboard  "  in  Chapter  XXIV. 


(737) 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
STRANDING. 

The  first  impulse  of  an  officer  upon  finding  his  vessel  stranded 
is  usually  to  throw  the  engines  to  full  speed  astern.  This  may 
be  the  right  thing  to  do,  but  it  is  not  always  so.  If  the  ship  has 
struck  a  rock,  the  chances  are  that  she  will  have  a  hole  in  her 
bottom,  and  to  back  off  may  result  in  sinking  her  without  leav- 
ing time  even  for  saving  life.  If  aground  on  a  soft  bottom,  to 
work  the  engines  either  way  may  result  in  disabling  them  by  fill- 
ing the  condensers  with  sand  or  mud.  Again,  where  a  single- 
screw  steamer  is  aground  forward,  backing  the  screw  may  slew 
her  stern  around  and  put  her  on  the  beach  throughout  her  full 
length.  These  are  points  which  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  deciding  whether  or  not  to  back  the  engines  immediately. 

Assuming  that,  for  whatever  reason,  it  proves  that  the  vessel 
cannot  be  backed  off  at  once,  the  most  urgent  step  to  be  taken  is 
to  lay  out  an  anchor  and  get  a  good  strain  on  a  line  from  this, 
for  holding  the  ship  from  being  set  farther  up  on  the  beach. 
Such  a  line,  kept  well  taut,  will  sometimes  start  a  ship  off*  quite 
unexpectedly  by  the  steady  pull  which  it  exerts ; — a  slight  rise 
of  the  tide  or  a  little  working  of  the  ship  by  the  wind  or  sea,  con- 
tributing toward  the  same  end.  As  the  laying  out  of  a  large 
anchor  involves  delay  when  every  moment  may  be  precious,  it  is 
well  to  send  out  a  kedge  at  once,  following  this  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible with  a  stream  or  a  bower.  If  there  is  a  current  setting 
along  the  coast,  as  frequently  happens,  the  anchor  should  be  laid 
out  a  little  off  the  quarter,  to  keep  the  stern  from  being  swept 
around.  A  buoy  with  a  good  buoy-rope  should  be  used  on  the 
anchor.  (See  Chapter  XII,  Carrying  Out  Anchors.}  While  this 
work  is  in  progress,  careful  soundings  should  be  made  around 
the  ship  on  all  sides,  and  a  good  leadsman  stationed  to  note  the 
rise  or  fall  of  the  tide.  The  Tide-Tables,  Sailing  Directions, 
and  Charts  will  of  course  be  examined,  the  time  of  high  water 


738  STRANDING. 

determined,  and  the  direction  of  tidal  currents  noted.  If  there 
is  a  chance  that  help  will  be  needed,  no  time  should  be  lost  in 
communicating  with  shore  and  making  such  arrangements  as  the 
situation  calls  for.  The  immediate  assistance  of  a  vessel  large 
enough  to  carry  out  a  heavy  anchor  may  be  of  the  greatest  value. 
It  may  be  possible  to  secure  a  fishing  vessel  for  this.  If  a  tug 
can  be  secured,  this  may  be  the  best  use  that  can  be  made  of  her 
in  the  beginning. 

An  examination  of  the  ship  should  be  made  as  soon  as  possible 
after  she  strikes,  and  all  compartments  sounded.  As  already 
noted,  this  is  particularly  important  on  a  rocky  coast.  If  a  com- 
partment is  found  to  be  holed,  the  water-tight  doors  leading  to 
it  should  be  closed,  the  bulkheads  braced,  and  the  pumps  put 
on,  to  keep  the  water  down.  If  the  hole  is  a  large  one,  there 
will  probably  be  danger  in  hauling  off  before  stopping  it  at  least 
in  part.  Repairs  of  this  nature  (before  hauling  off)  can  only 
be  made  from  the  inside. 

When  measures  have  been  taken  to  prevent  the  ship  from 
being  set  farther  up  the  beach,  and  not  until  then,  the  work  of 
lightening  her  may  be  begun ; — ballast  tanks  pumped  out,  cargo 
shifted,  lightered,  or  thrown  overboard.  If  the  ship  is  aground 
forward,  something  may  often  be  gained  by  filling  the  after  bal- 
last tank  or  otherwise  adding  weight  aft;  as,  for  example,  by 
shifting  coal  from  an  extreme  forward  to  an  extreme  after 
.bunker. 

Getting  out  the  boats  is  a  quick  and  simple  way  of  lightening 
the  ship.  They  may  be  filled  at  once  with  provisions  and  other 
stores  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  handled  quickly,  these  being  taken 
first  of  all  from  the  forward  holds — assuming  the  ship  to  be 
aground  forward.  If  the  beach  is  near,  this  freight  may  be 
landed  and  the  boats  brought  alongside  to  be  loaded  again. 

A  man-of-war,  with  a  large  crew  and  plenty  of  boats,  should 
be  able  under  these  circumstances  to  get  rid  of  several  hundred 
tons  of  easily  handled  stores  within  an  hour  or  two.  At  the  same 
time,  the  work  of  shifting  weights  from  forward  to  aft  can  be 
going  on,  those  articles  being  chosen  first  which  lend  themselves 
to  "  man-handling,"  such  as  boxes  of  provisions,  bales  of  cloth- 
ing, ammunition  (except  very  heavy  projectiles),  cordage,  etc. 
.Much  is  gained  if  the  conditions  admit  of  letting  go  the  anchors 
immediately  and  paying  out  the  cables.  This  alone,  if  quickly 
done,  might  suffice  to  float  a  ship  which  was  only  lightly  aground 


STRANDING.  739 

well  forward.  But  this  will  be  dangerous  if  there  is  any  chance 
of  the  ship  being  driven  farther  up  so  that  she  may  strike  on  the 
anchors.  It  is  a  good  rule  in  any  case  of  letting  go  an  old- 
fashioned  anchor  when  aground,  to  unstock  it  and  foul  the  flukes 
with  several  turns  of  cable. 

All  water  in  tanks  forward  should  be  pumped  overboard.  Nor 
should  it  be  forgotten  that  one  thousand  men  assembled  aft  gives 
a  weight  of  approximately  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
pounds  to  help  lift  the  bow. 

VVhen  conditions  become  favorable  for  backing  and  hauling 
off — which  will  of  course  be  at  high  water — the  chances  of  suc- 
cess will  be  greatly  increased  if  the  ship  can  be  moved  in  her 
bed,  either  by  rocking  her  from  side  to  side  or  by  slewing  her 
stern  a  little.  This  may  perhaps  be  done  by  means  of  a  line  to 
an  anchor  laid  out  on  the  beam  or  quarter. 

Vessels  have  been  worked  loose  from  a  sandy  bottom  by  going 
ahead  with  their  engines ;  .the  suction  current  drawing  aft  along 
the  bilge  acting  apparently  to  scour  out  the  sand. 

If  another  vessel  comes  to  your  assistance,  she  should,  as  a 
rule,  anchor  to  seaward  of  you,  with  a  good  scope  of  chain,  get 
good  lines  from  your  stern,  and  heave  these  taut  until  she  tails 
in  toward  you  or  as  nearly  so  as  the  wind  and  tide  permit.  If 
she  then  starts  her  anchor  windlass  ahead  and  keeps  full  steam 
pressure  on  it,  she  will  not  only  keep  the  lines  taut,  but  will  take 
in  and  hold  every  inch  that  is  gained  on  the  line  between  the 
ships.  When  the  time  comes  for  a  combined  effort  to  haul  off, 
she  starts  her  engines  ahead,  still  keeping  the  anchor  windlass 
in  action. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  assisting  vessel  to  lay  out  her  own 
spare  anchors  well  off  shore  with  good  lines  bent  to  them,  and  to 
send  the  ends  of  these  lines  on  board  the  stranded  vessel.  These 
will  be  heavier  .than  the  anchors  that  the  stranded  vessel  could 
conveniently  lay  out  for  herself,  and  can  be  placed  to  far  better 
advantage.  This  does  not  interfere  with  any  of  the  other  meth- 
ods of  assisting  that  have  been  described. 

In  cases  where  a  strong  current  runs  along  the  beach  at  certain 
stages  of  the  tide,  if  the  lines  are  hove  taut  at  slack  water,  the 
current  when  it  makes  will  be  on  the  beam  of  the  anchored  vessel 
and  will  exert  a  tremendous  force,  with  all  the  advantage  due  to 
the  span  formed  by  the  anchor-cable  and  the  tow-line.  It  would 


74O  STRANDING. 

be  well  here  for  the  assisting  vessel  to  have  two  anchors  down. 
And  it  is  imperative  that  she  should  be  prepared  to  cast  off 
or  cut  the  line  between  the  ships  without  an  instant's  delay,  in 
ease  s/ie  finds  that  her  aneJiors  are  dragging  and  that  she  is  being 
set  down  toward  the  beach.  Here,  as  in  the  case  described  below 
where  the  assisting  vessel  cannot  anchor,  it  is  desirable  to  lead 
the  hauling  line  from  a  chock  far  enough  forward  of  the  stern 
to  admit  of  using  the  rudder  for  holding  the  head  up  more  or 
less  toward  the  tide.  She  will  thus  be  pointed  toward  safety  if 
she  begins  to  drag,  and  by  starting  the  engines  ahead  with  hard 
over  rudder,  the  situation  is  changed  into  one  resembling  that  of 
Fig.  i,  Plate  183. 

In  all  cases  like  the  above,  of  attempts  to  pull  a  stranded  vessel 
off,  there  is  danger  .that  if  she  comes  off  suddenly  she  will  col- 
lide with  the  vessel  that  is  assisting  her.  The  latter  should  there- 
fore be  ready  to  slip  everything  and  get  out  of  the  way. 

There  is  one  possible  advantage  which  results  from  having- 
the  towing  ship  under  way.  This  is  that  if  she  does  not  start 
the  other  vessel  by  pulling-  directly  astern,  she  can  place  herself 
on  the  quarter  and  may  thus  be  enabled  to  slew  the  stern  of  the 
stranded  vessel  and  so  loosen  her  up  in  her  bed. 

Generally  speaking,  however,  the  difficulties  are  increased  if 
the  assisting  vessel  cannot  anchor.  It  is  almost  impossible  for 
her  to  keep  a  steady  tension  on  the  line,  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances ;  and  if  the  wind  or  the  current  is  across,  there  is 
great  danger  that  she  will  swing  around  on  the  tow-line  and  end 
by  going  ashore  herself. 

See  Chapter  on  Piloting,  where  it  is  explained  that  in  many  places  the 
full  strength  of  tidal  current  corresponds  with  high  and  low  water. 

The  only  thing  to  be  done  where  the  assisting  vessel  cannot 
anchor  is  for  her  to  lie  off,  head  to  the  current,  untill  all  is  ready ; 
then  to  run  the  line,  taking  it  from  one  of  her  oivn  chocks  fairly 
well  forward — not  under  any  circumstances  from  the  stern.  She 
then  heads  more  or  less  across  the  current  and  goes  ahead,  put- 
ting the  strain  on  the  line  gradually  and  holding  herself  up 
against  the  tide  by  the  helm,  which  will  have  good  turning  power 
because  of  the  way  the  ship  can  pivot  on  the  line  (Plate  183,  Fig. 
i).  With  the  line  led  through  a  stern  chock,  the  rudder  would 
have  no  power,  and  the  ship  would  be  swept  down  helplessly 


Plate  No.    183, 


A  can  manoeuver  freely. 


FIG.  1 


Wind  or 

•  Current 


A  is  unable  fo  manoeuver 
because  line  leads 
from  stern.  May  be 
swept  down  onto 
beach. 


FIG.  2 


Wind 


A  stands  in  close  and 
takes  line,  then  backs 
fu/l  speed. 


FIG.  3 


Wind  or  I 
Current* 


A  fakes  position  to  windward 
and  drifts  down,  takes 
line  and  backs  full  speed. 


XN  ff  set  down  toward  beach,  A  casts 

*Nv  off  and  backs  clear. 


FIG.  4 


ASSISTING  A  STRANDED  VESSEL. 


742  STRANDING. 

toward  the  beach  unless  she  cut  the  line.  (Plate  183,  Fig.  2.) 
Even  when  manoeuvring  as  above  described,  an  axe  should  be  at 
hand  to  cut  if  necessary. 

It  may  happen  that  the  assisting  vessel  can  approach  bows- 
on  to  the  stranded  vessel  and  receive  a  line  forward,  taking  it 
in  through  her  own  bow  chock,  and  backing  her  engines  to  pull 
off.  This  may  save  much  time  which  would  be  lost  in  man- 
oeuvring for  position  to  take  the  line  in  aft  and  may  make  all 
the  difference  between  being  "  just  in  time  "  and  "  just  too  late." 
Here  again  the  importance  must  be  emphasized  of  retaining  the 
power  to  pivot  on  the  line,  by  bringing  it  in  through  a  chock 
some  distance  abaft  the  stem.  (Plate  183,  Fig.  3.)  This  method 
is  especially  applicable  if  the  wind  is  off  shore.  If  the  wind  or 
current  is  setting  down  along  the  beach,  the  line  must,  in  this 
case,  as  in  that  of  figure  I,  be  run  from  the  windward  (or  tide- 
ward)  side. 

In  Fig.  4,  Plate  183,  the  assisting  vessel  stands  in  as  close  as 
is  considered  prudent,  and  a  little  to  windward,  and  drifts  down 
past  the  stern  of  the  stranded  vessel,  to  receive  the  line.  If 
she  is  obliged  to  cut  and  get  clear  to  save  herself,  she  is  helped 
by  the  tendency  to  throw  her  stern  up  into  the  wind  which  is  a 
characteristic  of  all  backing  vessels. 

If  the  draft  of  the  assisting  vessel  permits  her  to  go  alongside 
she  should  be  placed  with  her  stern  to  the  beach.  If  her  bower 
anchors  are  laid  out  and  her  anchor  engine  kept  running,  this 
may  be  a  powerful  help.  It  may  happen,  too,  that  the  current 
from  her  screw,  going  ahead  with  full  power,  will  scour  out  the 
bottom  under  the  stranded  vessel. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  cases  in  which  the  effort  to  back  off 
should  be  made  immediately ;  as,  for  example,  when  it  is  known 
that  the  beach  on  which  the  ship  has  struck  is  hard  and  steep 
and  not  rocky.  Here  she  will  certainly  be  aground  forward 
only,  but  there  is  great  danger  that  she  will  swing  around  and 
ground  throughout  her  whole  length.  And  if  this  does  not 
happen,  the  chances  are  .that  if  there  is  any  sea  on  she  will  be 
dangerously  strained  and  perhaps  broken  in  two.  So  here  the 
one  chance  may  be  to  back  at  full  speed  immediately ; — not, 
however,  neglecting  other  measures  which  do  not  interfere  with 
it.  If  it  is  found  that  the  backing  is  slewing  her  around  broad- 
side-on,  .the  engines  must  be  stopped.  This  is  very  likely  to  hap- 
pen with  a  single  screw.  On  a  beach  of  this  kind,  it  is  particu- 


Plate  No.    184. 


743 


Fig.l. 


Bower 
Cable  on 
Bis  Port- Anchor 


Fig.Z. 


fig.  3. 


HAULING  OFF  A  STRANDED  VESSEL. 


744  STRANDING. 

larlv  important  to  get  an  anchor  la'.d  out  immediately.  A  light 
kedge  carried  out  at  once  on  the  quarter  opposite  that  toward 
which  she  is  inclined  to  swing  around,  may  be  of  vital  importance. 

If  all  other  methods  fail,  resort  must  be  had  to  regular  salvage 
operations,  the  description  of  which  is  beyond  .the  scope  of  this 
book. 

The  following  plan  is  recommended  by  an  officer  of  long  expe- 
rience, as  especially  valuable  in  cases  where  a  vessel  is  stranded 
on  a  muddy  or  sandy  bottom  (not  rocky)  and  where  another  vessel 
goes  to  her  assistance : 

Referring  to  Plate  184.  A  is  aground,  and  B  goes  to  her  assist- 
ance. A  being  on  the  left  side,  facing  the  current,  B  drops  her 
starboard  bower  anchor  at  a  distance  from  A  not  ecxeeding  her 
available  scope  of  cable,  and  goes  ahead  with  left  rudder,1  keep- 
ing the  current  on  the  starboard  bow  and  allowing  herself  to 
be  set  over  toward  A  until  she  is  as  close  as  is  practicable,  which 
will  of  course  depend  primarily  upon  her  draft.  A's  starboard 
bower  anchor  is  now  transferred  to  B's  port  bow,  if  this  can  con- 
veniently be  done,  by  boats  or  otherwise ;  or,  more  simply,  A's 
starboard  bower  cable  is  unbent  and  the  end  is  hauled  across  and 
shackled  up  to  B's  port  bower  chain,  disconnected  at  a  convenient 
shackle. 

At  the  same  time  a  good  hawser  is  run  between  the  ships. 
If  this  hawser  is  run  immediately,  it  will  help  to  hold  B  in  position 
while  getting  the  chain  across  and  may  save  some  troublesome 
manoeuvering  in  quarters  perhaps  uncomfortably  close.  Fig.  2. 

Everything  being  ready,  B  starts  her  steam-windlass  and  heaves 
in  her  starboard  cable,  using  her  screw  as  before,  but  this  time  with 
the  current  on  the  port  bow  and  more  nearly  ahead  than  before. 

A,  in  the  meantime,  veers  away  her  starboard  cable,  which  is 
thus  laid  out  by  B.  Fig.  3. 

When  A's  cable  is  all  out,  or  when  no  more  of  it  can  be  laid  out, 
B  lets  go  the  anchor  and  A  heaves  in  on  her  cable,  and  makes  fast 
the  hawser  connecting  with  B.  At  the  same  time,  B  heaves  in  on 
her  steam  windlass,  and  goes  ahead  with  her  screw.  Thus  we  have 
the  windlasses  of  both  ships  pulling  on  A,  with  the  power  of  B's 
screw  added,  and,  still  further,  the  "  sucking  "  effect  of  the  current 
acting  on  B's  port  bow,  and,  provided  A's  bow  yields  enough  to 
cant  her,  acting  on  A  as  well. 

i.  Helm  a-starboard. 


(745) 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC   VESSELS  TO   VESSELS 
IN   DISTRESS. 

The  following  chapter  has  been  kindly  prepared  by  two 
officers  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Guard1  and  gives  the  "Doctrine"  of 
that  Service  as  developed  through  many  years  of  practical 
experience  with  the  problems  involved  in  rendering  assistance 
to  vessels  in  distress. 

One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  United  States  Coast  Guard,  in 
time  of  peace,  is  to  render  assistance  to  vessels  in  distress.  The 
United  States  is  the  only  nation  that  maintains  a  fleet  of  vessels 
whose  primary  function,  during  peace,  is  to  afford  aid  to  distressed 
vessels.  A  number  of  other  nations  maintain,  or  aid  in  the 
maintenance  of,  life-saving  or  lifeboat  stations  on  shore  to  rescue 
the  crews  of  stranded  ships,  but  in  none  of  these  is  the  number  of 
such  stations  so  large  as  in  the  United  States,  nor  are  the  stations 
part  of  a  complete  military  organization  as  in  this  country.  All 
seamen  should  be  familiar  with  the  character  of  assistance 
rendered  by  the  United  States  Coast  Guard,  a  work  in  which 
it  has  been  engaged  for  many  years  with  pronounced  success. 

The  commanding  officer  of  a  vessel  of  the  Navy  will  occa- 
sionally find  himself  in  a  position  to  render  assistance  similar  to 
that  extended  by  Coast  Guard  vessels.  The  purpose  of  this 
chapter  is  to  set  forth  briefly  what  may  be  termed  the  "doctrine" 
of  the  Coast  Guard  with  respect  to  certain  cases  that  may  arise, 
and  the  methods  that  have  been  found  successful  by  Coast 
Guard  officers. 

Calls  for  Assistance.  Assistance  to  a  vessel  in  trouble  at  sea 
is  rendered  by  one  or  more  cruising  Cutters2;  if  the  vessel  is 

1  Commander  H.  G.  Hamlett  and  Lieutenant  Commander  F.  C.  Billard. 

2  The  cruising  vessels  of  the  Coast  Guard,  although  of  a  size  which  places 
them  in  the  Gunboat  or  Small  Cruiser  class  when  they  act  as  a  part  of  the 
Navy  (in  time  of  war),  are  technically  designated  as  "Cutters." 


746      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN   DISTRESS. 

stranded,  help  will  be  given  by  one  or  more  Cutters  and  by  the 
crew  of  the  nearest  Coast  Guard  station  on  shore;  reenforced, 
when  necessary,  by  the  crews  of  adjacent  stations. 

A  vessel  in  need  of  assistance  should,  if  possible,  send  word  of 
her  predicament  by  radio  to  the  nearest  shore  radio  station, 
taking  care  to  give  the  exact  location  of  the  vessel,  her  condition, 
and  sufficient  data  concerning  the  weather  so  that  the  probable 
drift  of  the  disabled  craft  may  be  estimated.  The  conventional 
5.0.5.  signal  should  be  used  only  in  emergent  cases,  because  all 
the  available  resources  of  the  Coast  Guard  are  immediately 
directed  in  response  to  an  S.O.S.  call,  and  misuse  of  this  urgent 
distress  signal  mayseive  to  divert  the  assisting  Cutters  from  other 
assistance  work  which  may  be,  in  fact,  more  urgent.  All  radio 
calls  for  assistance  reach  the  operating  officers  of  the  Coast 
Guard  through  the  Coast  Guard  communication  system  and 
prompt  action  to  afford  assistance  is  taken,  when  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case  warrant,  to  the  utmost  resources  of  the 
Service.  Any  change  in  conditions  should  be  reported  and,  if  it 
later  develops  that  assistance  is  not  needed,  information  to  this 
effect  should  be  immediately  sent  out.  Cases  have  occurred 
where  failure  to  cancel  calls  for  assistance  has  resulted  in  a  need- 
less expenditure  of  fuel  and  time  on  the  part  of  a  Coast  Guard 
Cutter.  As  it  is  the  aim  of  the  Coast  Guard  to  answer  all  calls 
for  assistance,  it  should  be  the  part  of  mariners  to  cooperate  by 
asking  for  assistance  only  when  really  necessary,  by  furnishing 
all  possible  information,  by  advising  of  changes  in  conditions  as 
they  occur,  and  by  annulling  the  distress  call  when  assistance  is 
no  longer  needed.  , 

Doctrine.  The  doctrine  herein  set  forth  is  that  which  governs 
officers  in  command  of  Coast  Guard  Cutters,  and  is  recommended 
for  the  guidance  of  the  Commanding  Officers  of  naval  vessels 
in  similar  circumstances.  In  what  follows,  the  term  "Com- 
manding Officer"  refers  to  the  officer  in  command  of  a  United 
States  naval  vessel  or  Coast  Guard  Cutter;  the  word  "master" 
means  the  captain  in  charge  of  a  merchant  vessel. 

The  case  of  a  vessel  in  distress  will  usually  involve  either : 

(a)  Rescuing  the  crew  from  a  ship  in  danger  of  foundering, 

(b)  Taking  a  disabled  vessel  in  tow, 

(c)  Floating  a  stranded  vessel. 

In  connection  with  the  prevention  of  disasters   to   vessels, 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      747 

there  is  the  work  of  (d)  removing  or  destroying  floating  menaces 
to  navigation. 

The  Master  of  a  vessel  in  distress  at  sea  is  responsible  for  the 
safety  of  the  lives  and  property  in  his  charge.  Whether  all  or 
any  of  the  people  are  to  be  taken  off  the  vessel  is  a  matter  for 
him  to  decide.  It  is  highly  desirable,  when  a  vessel  is  taken  in 
tow  in  such  condition  that  she  is  apt  to  founder,  that  all  the 
personnel  be  taken  off  except  only  those  absolutely  necessary 
to  handle  the  vessel;  so  that,  should  the  vessel  suddenly  sink, 
the  number  of  lives  jeopardized  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Whether  or  not  the  people  are  to  be  taken  off  is  to  be  decided  by 
the  Master  of  the  disabled  vessel;  the  manner  of  taking  them 
off  is  decided  by  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  public  vessel 
assisting.  The  matter  of  rescuing  property  and  personal  effects 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  assisting 
vessel.  In  general,  it  is  the  function  of  the  Commanding 
Officer  to  advise  the  Master  of  the  distressed  ship  in  the  premises. 
If  the  master  accept  the  advice  tendered,  the  conduct  of  the 
operation  lies  solely  with  the  Commanding  Officer. 

When  a  vessel  is  taken  in  tow,  the  question  of  destination  often 
arises  in  connection  with  facilities  for  repairs,  character  of  cargo, 
and  other  matters.  The  governing  factor  should  be  to  get  the 
vessel  to  the  most  practicable  place  of  safety,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  resources  of  the  assisting  vessel,  the  conditions 
of  wind  and  sea,  and  any  other  circumstances;  acceding,  how- 
ever, to  the  wishes  of  the  Master  in  so  far  as  is  practicable,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  Commanding  Officer.  It  is  the  right  of  the 
Master  to  let  go  the  tow  line  whenever  he  sees  fit.  Often,  when 
a  tow  is  nearing  a  place  of  safety,  a  commercial  tow  boat  may 
come  alongside  and  apply  for  the  job  of  taking  the  disabled 
craft  into  port.  In  such  cases  it  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Coast 
Guard  that  it  is  not  its  function  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
private  enterprise.  The  Commanding  Officer  should  see  that  the 
bargain  proposed  is  fair  and  reasonable.  If  such  be  the  case, 
in  his  opinion,  he  should  let  go  the  tow.  Naturally,  the  Com- 
manding Officer  who  possibly  has  picked  up  the  tow  under 
trying  circumstances  and  has  towed  her  successfully  under  great 
difficulties,  feels  a  strong  desire  to  complete  the  job  by  delivering 
his  charge  into  a  safe  harbor.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  the  rights  of  private  enterprise  which  maintains 
facilities  for  doing  work  of  this  character  at  large  expense  must 


748      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

be  respected,  and  that  the  duty  of  the  public  vessel  terminates 
when  the  element  of  danger  to  the  ship  and  her  people  is  removed. 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  the  duties  of  the  Com- 
manding Officer  of  a  public  vessel  and  the  right  of  private  marine 
enterprise  becomes  more  difficult  to  ascertain  in  the  case  of  a 
stranded  vessel.  When  danger  to  life  is  involved,  it  is,  of  course, 
the  paramount  duty  of  the  public  vessel  to  do  everything  possible 
to  save  life,  regardless  of  any  other  question. 

Suppose  a  vessel  ashore  is  fallen  in  with,  no  other  help  in 
sight  and  no  danger  to  life  imminent.  When  communication 
has  been  established,  the  Commanding  Officer  proffers  his 
advice  based  upon  his  experience  in  similar  circumstances,  hav- 
ing in  mind  that  the  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of  the  stranded 
vessel  and  for  whatever  operations  are  to  be  undertaken,  if  any 
at  all,  rests  with  the  Master.  It  may  be  that  the  vessel  is  ashore 
among  rocks  and  to  pull  her  off  might  result  in  serious  injury  to 
her  bottom,  with  possible  danger  of  sinking  in  deep  water.  The 
Master  of  the  ship  must  decide  whether  or  not  an  effort  shall  be 
made  to  pull  the  vessel  off  at  the  time.  It  will  generally  be  found 
that  the  Master  of  the  stranded  craft  will  follow  the  advice  of 
the  Commanding  Officer  of  the  public  vessel  there  to  assist  him; 
so  that  it  is  very  important  that  the  advice  given  be  based  upon  a 
careful  study  of  the  situation  in  all  its  aspects,  having  in  mind 
that  the  actual  decision  must  be  made  by  the  Master  himself, 
as  the  responsibility  is  his,  and  his  alone. 

It  may  be  that  before  passing  a  line  to  the  stranded  vessel  a 
commercial  wrecking  vessel  or  tug  arrives  upon  the  scene.  The 
duty  of  the  Commanding  Officer  is  first  to  permit  negotiations 
between  the  tug  and  the  Master  of  the  stranded  ship  for  floating 
the  ship.  The  general  principle  is  that  the  public  vessel  must 
make  every  effort  to  save  the  stranded  craft,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  interfere  with  private  enterprise.  If  the  facilities  offered 
by  the  tug  are  manifestly  inadequate,  the  Commanding  Officer 
would  be  justified  in  counselling  the  master  of  the  stranded  vessel 
to  make  no  bargain  except  for  the  tug  to  assist  the  efforts  of  the 
public  vessel.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  facilities  of  the  tug  are 
reasonably  adequate  for  the  task,  and  reasonable  terms  are  pro- 
posed, then  the  duty  of  the  Commanding  Officer  is  to  notify  the 
Master  of  the  stranded  ship  that  the  public  vessel  will  not  engage 
in  the  operations  to  the  exclusion  of  the  tug,  but  will  assist  as 
may  be  required. 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      749 

The  Coast  Guard  does  not  ordinarily  undertake  assistance 
work  involving  extensive  wrecking  operations  or  lightering.  Its 
services  in  behalf  of  vessels  in  distress  are  rendered  regardless  of 
the  nationality  of  the  vessel  assisted.  Under  the  law,  United 
States  vessels  may  render  aid  and  assistance  to  any  vessel 
wrecked,  disabled  or  in  distress  in  the  waters  of  Canada  con- 
tiguous to  the  United  States;  and  Canadian  vessels  may  render 
aid  and  assistance  to  any  vessel  wrecked,  disabled,  or  in  distress 
in  the  waters  of  the  United  States  contiguous  to  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

Derelicts.  In  general,  the  removal  of  sunken  obstructions  or 
dangers  to  navigation  within  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United 
States  devolves  by  law  upon  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  destruc- 
tion or  removal  of  wrecks,  derelicts  and  other  floating  dangers 
to  navigation  beyond  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States 
devolves  primarily  upon  the  Coast  Guard  by  law.  This  is 
construed  to  include  also  the  removal  or  destruction  of  sunken 
obstructions  outside  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States. 
Under  the  terms  of  an  international  convention,  dated  January 
20,  1914,  the  United  States  and  the  leading  maritime  nations  of 
Europe  undertook  to  take  all  steps  to  insure  the  destruction  of 
derelicts  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  east  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Cape  Sable  to  a  point  situated  in  latitude  34  degrees 
North  and  longitude  70  degrees  West.  They  also  agreed  to 
establish  in  the  North  Atlantic  a  service  for  the  study  and 
observation  of  ice  conditions  and  a  service  of  ice  patrol.  The 
Government  of  the  United  States  was  invited  to  undertake  the 
management  of  the  three  services  of  derelict  destruction,  study 
and  observation  of  ice  conditions,  and  ice  patrol,  and  the  Presi- 
dent designated  the  Coast  Guard  to  carry  out  this  work. 

While  the  Coast  Guard  is  especially  charged  with  the  destruc- 
tion or  removal  of  obstructions  to  navigation  outside  the  three- 
mile  limit,  it  is  obviously  the  duty  of  the  Commanding  Officer 
of  a  naval  vessel,  if  no  Coast  Guard  vessel  be  available,  upon 
falling  in  with  an  obstruction  constituting  a  menace  to  naviga- 
tion, to  take  appropriate  action  in  the  case. 

Derelicts  and  other  floating  dangers  to  navigation,  wherever 
found,  should  be  taken  to  the  most  convenient  port  whenever 
practicable.  When  it  is  not  practicable  to  'take  a  derelict  or 
other  floating  danger  into  port,  it  should  be  destroyed  or  beached, 
care  being  exercised  in  each  case  that  such  destruction  does  not 


75O      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

leave  sunken  or  floating  wreckage  of  such  size  or  character  as  to 
constitute  a  menace  to  passing  ships.  If  the  derelict  or  other 
floating  danger  is  to  be  destroyed  within  the  navigable  waters  of 
the  United  States  and  the  emergencies  of  the  case  permit,  the 
Army  Engineer  Officer  in  charge  of  the  district  should  be  com- 
municated with  and  consulted  before  final  action  is  taken. 
Whenever  circumstances  make  it  necessary  to  destroy  a  derelict 
or  other  floating  danger  to  navigation  before  consulting  the 
Engineer  Officer  of  the  district,  within  the  navigable  waters  of 
the  United  States,  the  Commanding  Officer  should  promptly 
notify  that  officer. 

When  knowledge  is  obtained  of  any  sunken  obstruction  to 
navigation  within  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States, 
Commanding  Officers  should  promptly  notify  the  District 
Engineer  Officer  and  take  no  further  action  unless  requested  by 
that  officer.  The  Commanding  Officer  should  see  that  a  wreck 
is  properly  buoyed  or  lighted  before  he  leaves  it.  He  should  in 
all  cases  where  wrecks  are  buoyed  and  lighted  by  him  notify  the 
nearest  Lighthouse  Superintendent  of  the  fact,  giving  full  in- 
formation as  to  the  character  of  the  buoy  or  light  established,  and 
forwarding,  if  practicable,  a  section  of  the  chart  showing  its 
position  in  order  that  such  information  may  be  published  in  the 
weekly  Notice  to  Mariners. 

A  derelict  may  be  fallen  in  with  which  is  evidently  of  very 
considerable  value.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  decide  whether 
an  effort  shall  be  made  to  tow  the  derelict  into  port  or  whether 
it  shall  be  destroyed.  If  the  duty  upon  which  the  public  vessel 
is  employed  permits  and  the  towing  facilities  are  adequate,  and 
the  weather  conditions  promising,  an  effort  should  be  made  to 
tow  the  abandoned  vessel  into  port.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  be  that  the  derelict  is  directly  in  the  path  of  commerce; 
it  may  be,  for  example,  in  the  trans-Atlantic  steamship  lanes; 
weather  conditions  may  be  such  that  a  considerable  period  will 
probably  elapse  before  it  can  be  taken  in  tow,  with  further 
danger  that  contact  will  be  lost.  In  such  a  case,  the  Command- 
ing Officer  would  be  justified  in  promptly  destroying  the  derelict 
regardless  of  any  consideration  other  than  the  safety  of  lives 
that  might  be  jeopardized  by  collision  between  passing  vessels 
and  the  derelict.  The  Commanding  Officer  should  weigh  care- 
fully the  matter  before  deciding  to  destroy  what  would  be,  if 
salvaged,  very  valuable  property.  But  if,  in  his  judgment,  the 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      75! 

possibility  of  jeopardizing  lives  by  collision  with  the  derelict 
outweighs  the  consideration  of  property  value  alone,  he  should 
not  hesitate  to  sink  the  derelict.  A  floating  derelict  in  the 
frequented  paths  of  commerce  is  one  of  the  greatest  menaces  to 
safety  at  sea,  and  the  decision  of  a  Commanding  Officer  on  the 
spot  to  destroy  such  a  menace  is  not  open  to  question.  The 
salvage  of  floating  wreckage  is  not  usually  attempted,  and  such 
obstructions  are  ordinarily  mined  and  destroyed. 

When  a  derelict  vessel  is  towed  into  port,  it  should  be  turned 
over  to  the  custody  of  the  owner  if  practicable;  otherwise,  to 
that  of  the  United  States  Marshal.  ' 

Rescuing  the  Crew  from  a  Ship  in  Danger  of  Foundering. 
This  subject  is  covered  in  Chapter  XXVI  and  the  practice  of  the 
Coast  Guard  is  in  accord  with  the  general  principles  therein  set 
forth.  Usually,  on  a  Coast  Guard  Cutter,  two  of  the  boats  are 
surf  boats,  carried  on  davits  in  the  waist,  one  on  each  side, 
equipped  for  lowering  and  hoisting  and  for  work  in  rough  water. 
In  the  waist  is  the  logical  place  to  carry  such  boats  on  a  small  ship 
because  there  is  less  pitch,  the  ship's  rail  is  apt  to  be  lower  there, 
the  boat  is  clear  of  the  propeller,  it  gets  the  advantage  of  the 
lee  formed  by  the  forward  or  the  after  part  of  the  ship,  and 
generally  a  boat  can  be  handled  better  along  the  straight  part 
of  the  side  of  the  ship  and  will  be  less  liable  to  be  stove  as  the 
ship  rolls  than  if  under  the  counter  or  the  bluff  of  the  bow. 
Also,  on  a  small  ship,  the  operation  of  lowering,  hooking  on  and 
hoisting  is  directly  under  observation  from  the  bridge,  as  it 
should  be;  particularly  when  getting  the  boat  away  or  picking 
it  up  in  a  seaway. 

The  boat  should  never  be  lowered  until  the  order  to  lower  is 
given  from  the  bridge,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  give 
the  order  at  the  most  favorable  time. 

Obviously,  the  nearer  the  ship  can  be  brought,  with  safety,  to 
the  wreck,  the  easier  the  task  for  the  boat's  crew  and  the  less 
the  danger  to  them.  By  careful  manoeuvring  and  watching  the 
drift,  it  will  be  found  that  a  vessel  can  be  held  much  nearer  to  a 
drifting  craft  than  would  be  thought  feasible,  particularly  if  held 
with  her  stern  clear  in  a  position  to  increase  distance  when 
imperative. 

In  the  equipment  of  a  life-boat  carried  at  davits,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  coarse  mesh  nets,  readily  made  on  board  from  small  stuff, 
stopped  along  the  rail  between  the  davits,  and  deep  enough  when 


752      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

dropped  to  reach  down  to  the  boat  on  the  high  roll  of  the  ship. 
The  boat's  crew  and  passengers  can  come  up  or  go  down  such  a 
net  more  quickly  and  with  greater  safety  than  they  can  make 
their  way  up  or  down  sea  ladders.  Such  a  net  is  particularly 
useful  when  hooking  on  a  boat  in  a  bad  sea,  when,  of  course,  it 
is  most  desirable  to  lighten  the  boat  of  her  crew  as  soon  as 
possible. 

Taking  a  Disabled  Vessel  in  Tow  at  Sea.  The  Coast  Guard 
practice  in  picking  up  a  tow  at  sea  is  usually  to  get  a  line  to  the 
tow  by  heaving  line  or  by  the  use  of  a  shoulder  gun,  placing  the 
cutter  in  the  most  advantageous  position  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  laid  down  in  Chapter  XXV.  In  good  weather  it 
is  generally  unnecessary  to  use  a  boat  and  in  bad  weather  it  is 
seldom  practicable. 

When  other  conditions  permit,  it  will  generally  be  found 
handier  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  having  a  single  right  hand  pro- 
peller to  work  under  the  starboard  bow  of  a  vessel  for  the  reason 
that  backing  shapes  up  your  own  ship  for  going  clear;  whereas, 
while  under  the  port  bow,  backing  shapes  up  your  ship  for  fouling. 
It  is  always  well  to  keep  fifteen  or  twenty  fathoms  of  your  end 
of  the  hawser  so  that  the  nip  may  be  easily  fleeted  by  slacking 
away.  Moreover,  it  will  often  be  possible  to  ease  the  strain  on  a 
hawser,  and  still  maintain  good  speed,  by  slacking  away  several 
fathoms  and  bringing  the  vessels  in  step.  Whenever  it  is  neces- 
sary to  slack  or  veer  a  hawser,  always  stop  your  ship;  if  you  do 
not  take  this  precaution  the  hawser  is  liable  to  take  charge  of 
things.  Never  make  a  hawser  fast  so  that  it  cannot  be  let  go  or 
cut  away  instantly.  This  precaution  is  often  overlooked,  par- 
ticularly when  towing  with  wire. 

A  hawser  should  be  protected  from  chafe  as  much  as  possible. 
This  applies  to  wire  as  well  as  to  manila.  With  a  vessel  in  tow, 
always  slow  down  when  about  to  make  a  pronounced  change  in 
course  to  avoid  parting  the  line  when  the  catenary  snaps  out  of 
water  and  brings  a  sudden  strain  on  the  towing  gear. 

In  picking  up  a  sailing  vessel  underway,  remember  that  she  is 
making  good  a  course  several  points  to  leeward  of  her  heading. 

When  heaving  in  a  hawser  that  has  parted  or  been  let  go, 
keep  way  on  your  ship,  heading  up  to  windward  if  practicable, 
to  avoid  fouling  the  propeller.  Whenever  you  have  a  line  of  any 
kind  over  your  stern,  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  possible  danger 
of  fouling  the  propeller. 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      753 

A  ship  with  disabled  steering  gear  can  sometimes  be  best 
handled  by  making  fast  astern  of  her.  The  disabled  vessel  can 
then  do  the  towing  and  the  assisting  ship  can  do  the  steering 
by  sheering  across  the  former's  stern  as  necessary. 

A  ship  which  yaws  badly  under  tow  on  account  of  being  down 
by  the  head  may  often  be  towed  comfortably  stern  first.  A 
drag  over  the  stern  of  a  ship  being  towed  and  yawing  badly  will 
generally  relieve  the  yawing. 

A  change  in  speed  or  in  course  or  both  will  often  relieve 
dangerous  strain  on  a  towing  hawser. 

Floating  a  Stranded  Vessel.  This  subject  is  discussed  in 
Chapter  XXVIII.  The  assisting  vessel  should  feel  her  way  in 
carefully,  taking  into  consideration  the  stage  of  the  tide  and 
state  of  the  sea.  Remember  that  on  a  sandy  beach  a  bar  will 
often  form  outside  of  a  large  stranded  ship.  Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  anchor  in  just  the  right  position  to  pull  most  effec- 
tively, having  in  mind  the  way  the  current  will  probably  set 
while  lines  are  being  run  and  while  hauling  on  the  stranded  vessel. 

The  best  time  to  pull  is,  of  course,  at  high  water.  If  you 
begin  to  pull  a  few  minutes  before  high  water  and  continue  to 
pull  with  full  power  until  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  after  high 
water — in  a  locality  where  there  is  considerable  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tide — without  results,  it  is  almost  useless  to  continue  to  pull 
on  the  vessel ;  it  is  better  to  wait  until  the  next  high  water. 

With  a  line  leading  from  a  forward  chock,  use  a  "dipping 
rope"  or  bridle  to  keep  the  line  away  from  your  propeller. 

It  will  be  of  very  great  assistance  if,  while  pulling  on  the 
stranded  vessel,  another  vessel  is  at  hand  to  hold  up  the  head 
of  your  ship  against  the  set  of  the  current.  You  will  thus  be 
enabled  to  pull  along  the  direction  best  calculated  to  obtain  the 
desired  result. 

When  conditions  permit,  "jumping"  on  the  line  by  getting  a 
little  slack  on  the  hawser  and  then  going  ahead  full  speed  will 
sometimes  start  a  stranded  ship.  This,  however,  always  involves 
danger  of  parting  the  hawser  or  of  doing  other  damage. 

At  night,  it  is  a  good  idea  for  the  stranded  vessel  to  use  a 
search  light  kept  trained  along  her  own  keel  line  so  that  the 
assisting  vessel  will  know  at  all  times  just  how  she  is  lying. 

When  a  small  vessel  is  ashore  on  a  sandy  beach  and  the  sand 
has  formed  around  her,  a  length  of  2-inch  pipe  screwed  on  to  a 
deck  hose  may  be  useful.  Pumping  water  through  the  pipe  may 


754      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

force  away  the  sand  sufficiently  to  enable  the  vessel  to  be  floated. 
This  has  been  successfully  accomplished. 

The  Removal  of  Derelicts.  To  locate  a  derelict  that  has  been 
reported  by  a  passing  steamer  is  often  no  easy  matter.  The 
success  of  the  search  depends  upon  a  number  of  elements, — the 
accuracy  of  the  original  report,  the  time  elapsed  since  the  dere- 
lict was  seen,  the  weather  and  currents.  With  such  information 
as  he  has  received,  the  Commanding  Officer  of  a  vessel  ordered 
to  find  the  derelict  must  use  his  best  judgment  in  estimating  the 
probable  drift  of  the  derelict  since  it  was  last  reported.  A 
systematic  search  should  be  planned  and  carried  out  in  accord- 
ance with  accepted  methods  (search  curves)  designed  to  cover  to 
the  best  advantage,  during  daylight,  the  area  in  which  the  dere- 
lict may  be  expected  to  be  found,  giving  due  weight  to  con- 
ditions of  weather  and  sea.  In  actual  practice,  it  is  rarely  that 
a  derelict  is  found  without  a  protracted  search. 

The  derelict  when  found  should  either  be  destroyed  or  taken 
in  tow.  The  wrecking  mines  used  for  destroying  derelicts  are  of 
the  standard  Navy  type.  The  number  of  mines  used  and  the 
manner  of  connecting  them  up  will  depend  upon  circumstances. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  results,  the  mines  should  be  in  actual 
contact  with  the  objects  to  be  destroyed;  this  is  often  a  difficult 
task  and  is  sometimes  impossible.  To  blow  up  a  hull,  particu- 
larly if  it  is  waterlogged,  the  best  method  is  to  place  the  mines 
inside  so  that  the  explosive  effect  will  rend  the  parts  asunder. 
Or  they  may  be  placed  under  the  hull,  being  held  in  place  by 
hogging  lines.  The  efficient  use  of  wrecking  mines  to  destroy 
derelicts  and  wreckage  at  sea  calls  for  good  judgment,  consider- 
able ingenuity  and  some  former  experience  in  the  work,  and  is 
not  devoid  of  danger. 

To  take  a  derelict  in  tow  is  apt  to  prove  a  slow  and  arduous 
task.  It  will  often  be  difficult  to  find  a  suitable  means  of  making 
fast  a  towing  hawser  on  the  derelict;  as,  for  example,  on  a  hull 
floating  bottom  up.  No  two  cases  will  be  found  exactly  alike, 
and  an  officer  must  depend  largely  upon  his  resourcefulness  and 
ingenuity  to  solve  the  problem  presented. 

COAST  GUARD  STATIONS. 

The  sea  and  lake  coasts  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  the 
coast  of  Alaska,  have  an  extent  of  more  than  10,000  miles. 
There  are  to-day  upon  these  coasts  273  active  Coast  Guard 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      755 

stations,  180  of  which  are  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  9  on  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  21  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific, 
and  62  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes.  These  stations  are 
located  at  selected  points  of  danger  to  shipping  and  vary  some- 
what in  character,  according  to  their  environment  and  the 
nature  of  the  service  demanded  of  them.  On  some  portions  of 
the  coast  they  are  placed  only  at  long  intervals,  while  upon 
others  they  form  chains  of  contiguous  posts  within  communicat- 
ing distance  of  each  other. 

The  equipment  of  Coast  Guard  stations  consists  of  the  beach 
apparatus — line-projecting  guns,  hawsers,  breeches  buoys,  etc. — 
flag  and  pyrotechnic  signals,  heaving  sticks  and  lines,  life  pre- 
servers, life  cars,  and  lifeboats,  surfboats,  and  other  types  of 
boats. 

The  outfits  are  practically  the  same  at  all  the  stations,  but  the 
boats  are  of  various  types,  depending  upon  their  suitability  for 
rescue  work  on  the  different  coasts.  The  lifeboats  are  too  heavy 
to  be  launched  from  the  beach  into  the  surf,  and  launching  ways 
are  provided  and  located  for  them  where  comparatively  smooth 
water  prevails — on  rivers,  bays,  and  inlets.  The  surfboats  are 
launched  into  the  surf  without  the  aid  of  launching  ways. 

Types  of  Boats. — Boats  used  in  the  Coast  Guard  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes — those  driven  by  gasoline  motors 
and  those  without  motive  power  other  than  sails  or  oars.  They 
are  further  subdivided  as  to  their  hull  construction  into  three 
classes:  open  boats,  self-bailing  boats,  and  self-righting  and  self- 
bailing  boats.  (See  Chapter  IX  and  Plates  61  and  62.) 

Line-carrying  Guns,  etc. — For  effecting  line  communication 
with  stranded  vessels  and  between  cutters  and  disabled  vessels 
in  heavy  weather  the  Coast  Guard  chiefly  employs  the  Lyle  gun, 
but  other  types  may  of  course  be  used  (Plate  185). 

For  a  vehicle  in  which  to  transport  people  from  a  wreck  to 
shore  after  line  communication  has  been  established,  the  breeches 
buoy  is  generally  used.  The  life  car  is  sometimes  taken,  how- 
ever, especially  where  many  persons  are  to  be  landed  and  where 
the  distance  is  too  great  to  use  the  breeches  buoy.  The  car  is  a 
covered  boat,  made  of  corrugated  galvanized  iron,  furnished  with 
rings  at  each  end,  into  which  hauling  lines  are  bent,  whereby  the 
car  is  hauled  back  and  forth  on  the  water  between  the  wreck 
and  the  shore  without  the  use  of  any  apparatus.  It  is  supplied, 
however,  with  bails,  one  near  each  end,  by  which  it  can  be 


756      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

suspended  from  a  hawser  and  passed  along  upon  it  like  the 
breeches  buoy  if  found  necessary,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  where 
the  shore  is  abrupt.  The  cover  of  the  boat  is  convex,  and  is 
provided  with  a  hatch,  which  fastens  either  inside  or  outside, 
through  which  entrance  and  exit  are  effected.  Near  each  end  it 
is  perforated  with  a  group  of  small  holes,  like  the  holes  in  a 
grater,  punched  outward,  to  supply  air  for  breathing,  without 
admitting  much,  if  any,  water.  It  is  capable  of  containing  six 
or  seven  persons,  and  is  very  useful  in  landing  sick  people  and 
valuables,  as  they  are  protected  from  getting  wet.  On  the  first 
occasion  of  its  use  it  saved  201  persons.  (Plate  186.) 

At  Coast  Guard  stations  a  fixed  beat  or  patrol  is  laid  out  in 
each  direction  along  the  shore,  varying,  according  to  the  con- 
formation of  the  coast  with  respect  to  inlets,  headlands,  etc., 
from  one-half  to  2,  3,  or  4  miles  in  length.  The  station  crew  is 
divided  into  regular  watches  of  two  men  each,  who  during  the 
hours  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  patrol  these  beats,  keeping  a  sharp 
lookout  seaward  at  all  times. 

At  sunset  the  first  man  starts  out  on  patrol  in  the  same  direc- 
tion from  all  stations  in  a  district,  so  far  as  practicable.  While 
the  patrolman  is  out,  his  watchmate  takes  the  station  watch, 
which  is  kept  in  the  tower  or  on  the  beach  abreast  the  station, 
as  conditions  may  require.  If  the  station  is  connected  with  the 
service  telephone  line,  the  station  watch  makes  it  his  business  to 
be  within  hearing  distance  of  the  bell  at  regular  intervals.  In 
addition  to  keeping  watch  seaward,  he  is  on  the  lookout  for 
vsignals  and  telephone  calls  from  the  patrolman.  Upon  the 
return  of  the  first  patrol,  he  takes  the  station  watch  and  the 
other  man  patrols  in  the  opposite  direction.  At  the  proper  time 
the  man  on  station  watch  calls  out  the  next  two  men,  who  must 
be  dressed  and  ready  for  duty  before  the  first  twb  turn  in. 

This  routine  is  varied  to  meet  local  conditions.  In  harbors  and 
seaports  fixed  lookouts  are  usually  maintained  instead  of  a  beach 
patrol. 

In  some  cases  telephones  are  located  in  halfway  houses  or  at 
the  ends  of  the  patrols;  in  such  cases  the  patrolmen  report  to 
their  stations  by  telephone.  In  other  cases  the  patrolman  is 
provided  with  a  small  hand  telephone  set  with  which  he  can 
communicate  with  the  station. 

Each  patrolman  carries  a  number  of  red  Coston  signals  with 
which  to  warn  a  vessel  standing  too  close  inshore  or  to  notify  a 
vessel  in  distress  that  he  has  gone  to  summon  assistance. 


Plate  No.    185. 


757 


FJG.   i.    THE  STEWARD  LINE-THROWING  GUN. 


FIG.   2.    THE  SHOULDER  GUN. 


FIG.  3.    THE  SHOULDER  GUN  IN  USE. 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

The  same  system  of  patrols  is  kept  up  in  thick  and  foggy 
weather. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  beach  patrol  is  an  institution  of 
distinctly  American  origin.  It  was  devised  by  the  former  Life- 
Saving  Service  and  inaugurated  in  that  service  about  1870-75. 

To  insure  that  the  crews  of  wrecked  vessels  shall  understand 
what  to  do  when  station  crews  are  making  rescues  by  means  of 
the  beach  apparatus  gear,  two  tally  boards  or  tablets  are  used. 
One  of  these  is  spliced  permanently  into  the  tail  of  the  whip 
block  just  above  the  splice,  and  the  other  is  spliced  or  bent  on 
the  top  end  of  the  hawser.  Each  tally  board  contains  inscrip- 
tions, in  English  on  one  side  and  in  French  on  the  other,  telling 
explicitly  what  is  to  be  done  after  they  are  received. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   MARINERS   IN   CASE  OF   SHIPWRECK. 

All  sea-faring  people  should  be  familiar  with  the  following 
instructions,  which  are  practically  identical  with  those  issued  by 
all  nations  having  Life  Saving  Services.  It  is  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  the  personnel  of  such  services  that  the  principal 
difficulties  with  which  they  have  to  deal  arise  from  the  failure 
of  shipwrecked  crews  to  cooperate  intelligently  in  the  work  of 
rescue. 

INSTRUCTIONS. 

Rescue  with  the  Life- Boat  or  Surf -Boat. 

The  patrolman,  after  discovering  your  vessel  ashore  and  burn- 
ing a  Coston  signal,  hastens  to  his  station  for  assistance.  If  the 
use  of  a  boat  is  practicable,  either  the  large  life-boat  is  launched 
from  its  ways  in  the  station  and  proceeds  to  the  wreck  by  water, 
or  the  lighter  surf-boat  is  hauled  overland  to  a  point  opposite 
the  wreck  and  launched,  as  circumstances  may  require. 

Upon  the  boat  reaching  your  vessel,  the  directions  and  orders 
of  the  Warrant  Officer  in  charge  (who  always  commands  and 
steers  the  boat)  should  be  implicitly  obeyed.  Any  headlong 
rushing  and  crowding  should  be  prevented,  and  the  captain  of 
the  vessel  should  remain  on  board,  to  preserve  order,  until  every 
other  person  has  left. 

Women,  children,  helpless  persons,  and  passengers  should  be 
passed  into  the  boat  first. 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS   IN   DISTRESS.      759 

Goods  or  baggage  will  positively  not  be  taken  into  the  boat 
until  all  are  landed.  If  any  be  passed  in  against  the  warrant  of- 
ficer's remonstrance  he  is  fully  authorized  to  throw  the  same 
overboard. 


Rescue  with  the  Breeches-Buoy  or  Life-Car.     (Plate  186.) 

Should  it  be  inexpedient  to  use  either  the  life-boat  or  surf-boat, 
recourse  will  be  had  to  the  wreck-gun  and  beach  apparatus  for 
the  rescue  by  the  breeches-buoy  or  the  life-car. 

A  shot  with  a  small  line  attached  will  be  fired  across  your  vessel. 

Get  hold  of  the  line  as  soon  as  possible  and  haul  on  board 
until  you  get  a  tail-block  with  a  whip  or  endless  line  rove  through 
it.  This  tail-block  should  be  hauled  on  board  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible to  prevent  the  whip  drifting  off  with  the  set  or  fouling  with 
wreckage,  etc.  Therefore,  if  you  have  been  driven  into  the  rig- 
ging, where  but  one  or  two  men  can  work  .to  advantage,  cut  the 
shot-line  and  run  it  through  some  available  block,  such  as  the 
throat  or  peak-halliards  block,  or  any  block  which  will  afford  a 
clear  lead,  or  even  between  the  ratlines,  that  as  many  as  possible 
may  assist  in  hauling. 

Attached  to  .the  tail-block  will  be  a  tally-board  with  the  follow- 
ing directions  in  English  on  one  side  and  French  on  the  other : 

"  Make  the  tail  of  the  block  fast  to  the  lower  mast,  well  up. 
If  the  masts  are  gone,  then  to  .the  best  place  you  can  find.  Cast 
off  shot-line,  see  that  the  rope  in  the  block  runs  free,  and  show 
signal  to  the  shore." 

The  above  instructions  being  complied  with,  the  result  will  be 
as  shown  in  Fig.  I,  Plate  186. 

As  soon  as  your  signal  is  seen  a  .three-inch  hawser  will  be  bent 
on  to  the  whip  and  hauled  off  to  your  ship  by  the  life-saving 
crew.  . 

If  circumstances  will  admit,  you  can  assist  the  life-saving  crew 
by  manning  that  part  of  the  whip  to  which  the  hawser  is  bent 
and  hauling  with  them. 

When  .the  end  of  the  hawser  is  got  on  board  a  tally-board  will 
be  found  attached,  bearing  the  following  directions  in  English 
on  one  side  and  French  on  the  other : 


760     ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS. 

"  Make  this  hawser  fast  about  two  feet  above  the  tail-block, 
see  all  clear  and  that  the  rope  in  the  block  runs  free,  and  show 
signal  to  the  shore." 

These  instructions  being  obeyed,  the  result  will  be  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  Plate  186. 

Take  particular  care  that  there  are  no  turns  of  the  whip-line 
round  the  hawser.  To  prevent  this  take  the  end  of  the  hawser 
UP  BETWEEN  the  parts  of  the  whip  before  making  it  fast. 

When  the  hawser  is  made  fast,  the  whip  cast  off  from  the 
hawser,  and  your  signal  seen  by  the  life-saving  crew,  they  will 
haul  the  hawser  taut  and  by  means  of  the  whip  will  haul  off  to 
your  ship  a  breeches-buoy  suspended  from  a  traveler-block,  or 
a  life-car  from  rings,  running  on  the  hawser. 

Fig.  3,  Plate  186,  represents  the  apparatus  rigged,  with  the 
breeches-buoy  hauled  off  to  the  ship. 

If  the  breeches-buoy  be  sent,  let  one  man  immediately  get  into 
it,  thrusting  his  legs  through  the  breeches.  If  the  life-car,  re- 
move the  hatch,  place  as  many  persons  into  it  as  it  will  hold 
(four  to  six),  and  secure  the  hatch  on  the  outside  by  the  hatch- 
bar  and  hook,  signal  as  before,  and  the  buoy  or  car  will  be 
hauled  ashore.  This  will  be  repeated  until  all  are  landed.  On 
the  last  trip  of  the  life-car  the  hatch  must  be  secured  by  the 
inside  hatch-bar. 

In  many  instances  two  men  can  be  landed  in  the  breeches- 
buoy  at  the  same  time  by  each  putting  a  leg  through  a  leg  of  the 
breeches  and  holding  on  to  the  lifts  of  the  buoy. 

Children,  when  brought  ashore  by  the  buoy,  should  be  in  the 
arms  of  older  persons  or  securely  lashed  to  the  buoy.  Women 
and  children  should  be  landed  first. 

In  signaling  as  directed  in  the  foregoing  instructions,  if  in  the 
daytime,  let  one  man  separate  himself  from  the  rest  and  swing 
his  hat,  a  handkerchief,  or  his  hand ;  if  at  night,  the  showing  of 
a  light,  and  concealing  it  once  or  twice,  will  be  understood ;  and 
like  signals  will  be  made  from  the  shore. 

Circumstances  may  arise,  owing  to  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent or  set,  or  the  danger  of  the  wreck  breaking  up  immediately, 
when  it  would  be  impossible  to  send  off  the  hawser.  In  such  a 
case  a  breeches-buoy  or  life-car  will  be  hauled  off  instead  by 
the  whip,  or  sent  off  to  you  by  the  shot-line,  and  you  will  be 
hauled  ashore  through  .the  surf. 


Plate  No.    186. 


761 


FIG.  1 
TAIL-BLOCK  HAULED 
OFF  BY  FIRST  LINE 
FROM  SHORE 


FIG.  2 

HAWSER  HAULED  OFF 
BY  WHIP 


FIG.  3 
BREECHES  BUOY 


FIG.  4.    BREECHES  BUOY  IN  USE. 


FIG.  5.    LIFE  CAR  AS  USED  IN  DRILL. 


RESCUING   PASSENGERS  FROM   STRANDED  VESSEL. 


762      ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS   IN  DISTRESS. 

If  your  vessel  is  stranded  during  the  night  and  discovered  by 
the  patrolman,  which  you  will  know  by  his  burning  a  brilliant 
red  light,  keep  a  bright  lookout  for  signs  of  the  arrival  of  the 
life-saving  crew  abreast  of  your  vessel. 

From  one  to  four  hours  may  intervene  between  the  burning 
of  .the  light  and  their  arrival,  as  the  patrolman  will  have  to  re- 
turn to  his  station,  perhaps  three  or  four  miles  distant,  and  the 
life-saving  crew  draw  the  apparatus  or  surf-boat  through  the 
sand  or  over  bad  roads  to  where  your  vessel  is  stranded. 

Lights  on  the  beach  will  indicate  their  arrival,  and  the  sound 
of  cannon-firing  from  the  shore  may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  a 
line  has  been  fired  across  your  vessel.  Therefore,  upon  hearing 
the  cannon,  make  strict  search  aloft,  fore  and  aft,  for  the  shot- 
line,  for  it  is  almost  certain  .to  be  there.  Though  the  movements 
of  the  life-saving  crew  may  not  be  perceptible  to  you,  owing  to 
the  darkness,  your  ship  will  be  a  good  mark  for  the  men  ex- 
perienced in  the  use  of  the  wreck-gun,  and  the  first  shot  seldom 
fails. 

RECAPITULATION  . 

Remain  by  the  wreck  until  assistance  arrives  from  the  shore, 
unless  your  vessel  shows  signs  of  immediately  breaking  up. 

If  not  discovered  immediately  by  the  patrol,  burn  rockets, 
flare-up,  or  other  lights,  or,  if  the  weather  be  foggy,  fire  guii3. 

Take  particular  care  that  there  are  no  turns  of  the  whip-line 
round  .the  hawser  before  making  the  hawser  fast. 

Send  the  women,  children,  helpless  persons,  and  passengers 
ashore  first. 

Make  yourself  thoroughly  familiar  with  these  instructions,  and 
remember  that  on  your  coolness  and  strict  attention  to  them 
will  greatly  depend  .the  chances  of  success  in  bringing  you  and 
your  people  safely  to  land. 

The  following  signals,  approved  by  the  International  Marine 
Conference  convened  at  Washington  in  October,  1889,  have 
been  adopted  by  the  United  States  Coast  Guard,  and  will  be  used 
and  recognized  by  the  officers  and  men  as  occasion  may  require : 

"  Upon  the  discovery  of  a  wreck  by  night,  the  life-saving  force 
will  burn  a  red  pyrotechnic  light  or  a  red  rocket  to  signify— 
'  You  are  seen ;  assistance  will  be  given  as  soon  as  possible/ 


ASSISTANCE  BY  PUBLIC  VESSELS  TO  VESSELS  IN  DISTRESS.      763 

"  A  red  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a  red  light,  red  rocket, 
or  red  Roman  candle  displayed  by  night,  will  signify — '  Haul 
away.' 

"  A  white  flag  waved  on  shore  by  day,  or  a  white  light  slowly 
swung  back  and  forth,  or  a  white  rocket,  or  white  Roman  candle 
fired  by  night  will  signify — '  Slack  away/ 

"  Two  flags,  a  white  and  a  red,  waved  at  the  same  time  on 
shore  by  day,  or  two  lights,  a  white  and  a  red,  slowly  swung  at 
the  same  time,  or  a  blue  pyrotechnic  light  burned  by  night,  will 
signify — '  Do  not  attempt  to  land  in  your  own  boats.  It  is  im- 
possible.' 

"  A  man  on  shore  beckoning  by  day,  or  two  torches  burning 
near  together  by  night,  will  signify — '  This  is  the  best  place  to 
land/ 

"  Any  of  these  signals  may  be  answered  from  the  vessel  as 
follows :  In  the  daytime,  by  waving  a  flag,  a  handkerchief,  a  hat, 
or  even  the  hand ;  at  night,  by  firing  a  rocket,  a  blue-light,  or  a 
gun,  or  by  showing  a  light  over  the  ship's  gunwale  for  a  short 
time,  and  then  concealing  it." 


(765) 


APPENDIX. 

§  I.     SAILING  SHIPS. 

Although  sails  and  spars  have  practically  disappeared  from  tlus 
navy  and  from  the  experience  of  the  average  seafaring  man  even 
in  the  merchant  service,  .they  are  far  from  having  disappeared 
from  the  ocean ;  and  some  familiarity  with  them  may  still  be  ex- 
pected on  the  part  of  every  seaman  who  aspires  to  be  even  toler- 
ably well  informed  in  his  profession. 

Plates  187,  188,  and  193  show  the  various  rigs  which  are 
commonly  seen  in  deep-sea  vessels. 

A  ship,  often  referred  to  as  "a  full-rigged  ship,"  has  three 
masts ;  the  fore,  main,  and  mizzen,  all  of  them  square-rigged. 

A  ship  may  have  more  than  three  masts.  Four-masted  ships 
are  common,  and  five-masters  are  occasionally  seen.  In  a  four- 
master  the  after-mast  is  called  the  jigger-mast.  In  a  five-master, 
the  masts  are  usually  called  "fore,"  "main,"  "middle,"  "miz- 
zen," and  "  jigger." 

A  Barque  has  three  masts,  the  fore  and  main  square-rigged,  the 
mizzen,  fore-and-aft  rigged. 

A  barque,  like  a  ship,  may  have  more  than  three  masts,  the 
names  being  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a  ship.  She  is  still  a 
barque  if  all  the  masts  except  the  after  one  are  square-rigged. 

A  Barkentine  has  three  or  more  masts,  of  which  the  two  after 
ones,  main,  and  mizzen,  or  mizzen  and  jigger,  are  fore-and-aft 
rigged.  A  five-master,  with  the  three  after-masts  fore-and-aft 
rigged  is  still  a  barkentine. 

A  Brig  has  two  masts,  both  full  square-rigged.  A  brigantine 
is  a  brig  without  a  square  mainsail ;  that  is  to  say,  she  carries  all 
the  square  sails  of  a  brig  on  both  fore  and  main  masts,  except  the 
mainsail. 

A  Hermaphrodite  Brig1  has  two  masts,  the  foremast  full  square- 
rigged,  the  mainmast  full  fore-and-aft  rigged.  A  hermaphrodite 
brig  is  often  incorrectly  called  a  brigantine. 

A  Topsail  Schooner  has  a  fore-and-aft  foresail,  with  a  squ-~e 


766 


Plate  No.    187. 


HERMAPHRODITE   BRIG. 


SCHOONER 

may  have  as  many  as  five 
masts    • 


• 


CUTTER 


TOPSAIL  SCHOONER. 


4 


KETCH. 

YAWL,  same  as  KETCH  but 

with  a  smaller  mizzen 

abaft  the  tiller. 


LUGGER 


SAILING  CRAFT. 


Plate  No.    187. 


767 


FULL  RIGGED  SHIP. 


4      BAROUENTINE. 


BRIG. 

BRIGANTINE    same    as 

BRIG.,  but  without  a 

square  mainsail. 


BARQUE. 

SAILING  CRAFT. 


768  APPENDIX. 

fore-topsail,  and  in  some  cases  a  fore-topgallant  sail.  The  main- 
mast is  full  fore-and-aft  rigged.  A  topsail  schooner  is  often  in- 
correctly called  a  hermaphrodite  brig. 

A  Schooner  has  two,  three,  or  more  masts,  all  fore-and-aft 
rigged.  The  designations  of  the  masts  where  there  are  more  than 
f.wo  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  a  ship  or  a  barque. 

There  are  many  variations  in  the  single-masted  rig  shown  in 
the  Cutter  of  Plate  187.  The  "  sloop  "  differs  from  the  cutter  so 
far  as  rig  is  concerned  in  having  a  short  fixed  bowsprit  instead 
of  a  long  moveable  one,  and  in  carrying  only  one  head  sail.  The 
most  important  distinction,  however,  between  the  sloop  and  the 
cutter,  as  at  present  recognized  by  yachtsmen,  has  to  do  with  the 
model  of  the  hull  rather  than  with  the  rig. 

The  Ketch  and  the  Yawl  are  modifications  of  the  single-master 
rather  than  of  the  schooner,  since  they  have  grown  out  of  the 
desire  to  make  the  total  sail  area  more  manageable  by  dividing  it. 
For  racing,  the  "  single-sticker "  holds  its  own  because,  as  is 
well  known,  a  given  amount  of  canvas  has  far  greater  driving 
power  in  one  sail  than  in  two.  An  incidental  advantage  of  the 
yawl  or  ketch  rig  is  that  the  craft  can  be  handled  under  very 
small  sail — jib  and  jigger — which  is  a  great  convenience  in  work- 
ing around  a  harbor,  and  may  be  of  vital  consequence  in  bad 
weather  when  the  mainsail  must  be  lowered,  perhaps  only  for 
reefing;  a  situation  in  which  the  boat  under  a  jib  alone  would  be 
altogether  unmanageable,  and  reefing  a  difficult  and  dangerous 
operation. 

The  same  considerations  of  manageability  with  a  small  crew 
which  have  led  to  the  development  of  the  yawl  and  ketch  from  the 
single-master,  have  led  to  the  division  of  the  mainsail  of  large 
schooners,  resulting  in  the  production  of  schooners  of  three,  four, 
and  more  masts. 


APPENDIX.  769 

Details  of  Rigging — Square-Riggers. 

Masts.  Lower  masts  in  modern  ships  are  usually  built  up  of 
steel  plates  stiffened  in  various  ways  by  steel  shapes. 

Built-up  masts  of  wood  are  no  longer  used,  although  lower 
masts  made  of  single  pine  sticks  are  not  uncommon  in  sailing 
ships  of  moderate  size. 

Topmasts  and  topgallant-masts  are  still  made  of  wood,  usually 
of  pine. 

The  mast  rests  on  a  step,  placed  as  low  as  possible ;  usually 
on  the  keelson.  At  the  lower  end  is  a  tenon  fitting  into  a  mortise 
at  the  step.  Where  the  mast  passes  through  the  successive  decks, 
timbers  are  built  in  from  beam  to  beam,  forming  partners;  the 
space  between  these  and  the  mast  being  filled  by  tightly  fitting 
wedges. 

The  masthead  is  smaller  than  the  body  of  the  mast,  and  at  the 
shoulder,  called  the  hounds,  where  the  reduction  in  size  is  made, 
heavy  knees  or  bibbs,  are  bolted  on,  widening  the  shoulder  and 
forming  a  secure  support  for  the  trestle-trees;  stout  fore-and-aft 
pieces  which,  in  their  turn,  support  the  cross-trees,  the  top,  the 
topmast,  and  the  eyes  of  the  lower  rigging.  The  cross-trees  are 
athwartship  pieces  crossing  the  trestle-trees  forward  and  abaft 
the  masthead,  and  forming  the  principal  part  of  the  framing  of 
the  top.  They  are  jogged  down  into  the  trestle-trees,  and  with 
the  latter  form  a  skeleton  to  which  the  comparatively  light  plank- 
ing of  the  top  is  secured. 

The  lower  masthead  terminates  in  a  square  tenon,  to  which 
the  cap  is  fitted.  This  may  be  of  wood,  iron-bound,  or  built  up 
of  steel. 

The  topmast  passes  through  a  round  hole  in  the  forward  part 
of  the  cap,  which  thus  binds  the  two  masts  together.  In  the 
heel  of  the  mast  is  a  thwartship  hole,  square  in  section,  through 
which  is  placed  an  iron  fid,  with  its  ends  projecting  and  resting 
on  the  trestle-trees  on  either  side.  Two  sheaves  placed  diagonally 
in  the  heel  of  the  topmast  furnish  a  lead  for  the  top  pendants,  by 
which  the  mast  is  sent  up  and  down.  The  over-lapping  parts  of 
the  lower  masts  and  topmasts  are  the  doublings. 

The  topmast  head  is  fitted  in  practically  the  same  way  as  the 
lower  masthead,  and  the  heel  of  the  topgallant-mast  "  doubles  " 
upon  it  similarly.  Cross-trees  are  used  here  as  spreaders  for  the. 
topgallant  rigging,  but  without  a  top. 


770 


Plate  No.    188. 


(771) 


1 

M 

(A 
«5                                          •»-» 

1 

G 
CX 

co 

Buntlines 

S            J 

.s    -a 

2        5         S 

O               ***                 o 

u             li            -S 

<u            <u            S 
H-]         P^         PQ 

Foresheet 

1      2       i 

B  i   i 

&     £.    6 

1 

bJD 

c 

cs 

0 
co 

M                    CS                    CO 

co          co          co 

r}- 

CO 

CO              CO              CO 

00 
CO 

i—  t               c«            773 
S             to 

V) 

1 

C/3 

(X 

% 

S      *      ^ 

4_i                     ti 

M 

^ 

o 

G 

c        s         g         fr 

CO 

IH 

OJ 

jS 

bfl         ~            p< 
rt             ^           sn 

C72 

CO 

.1 

So 

OL, 

O 

W)           0            g           o 

^           G            2 

^       !§,       r2 

0, 

o 

u 
GU 

*""          i>                    o 

G             N                            _ 
••r                N               b£i                ^ 

CO            bD            ii 

CS               G               OJ 

•  —  i                      4-> 

4-1 

a 

ex, 

1 

5!         §        .5P        oo" 

i^               *£*              H—  j                i-( 

cs"        ^          3         ^ 

CS            fit             O             ^> 

0 

cs 

CO 

Tt-         LO        vo           rC 

i-T         LO         vo          r^ 

00 

M                  M                  H-  1                   M 

cs          cs          cs          cs 

cs 

'i     i 

^      2 

:    -i 
,M 

U                           U-,             C 
u,             i_ 

H    ^ 

c^-        ^        —  .        "S 

O             ^            'G             co 

c       2        cL       o* 
5                o       *- 

S            fc            ^             G 
bfi           «           -^ 

6        :»       ,0          1 

•  mizzen  topsail 

S 

ro 

05 

c 
'3 

s 

s     &     ^     ^ 

£             bJO           O             O 

U        ^       J        J 

£                    cx        ex 

00^^ 

S 

ex 
S 

P 

M 

cs 

co         rh         LO        vo 

H 

^ 

(772) 


||l|l 

"^     8     B\«r  "§• 

.S   .S   .S    §    u 
3    3    3    iS     o 
^   s  ^   s   ^ 

00        ON      O        M        <N 
tN        CN        CO      CO      CO 

d          d 

C/5         •        •«*                  .-< 

"H  S     d         d 

rt    s      G             C 

^.a    - 
4,  e   B      a 

.|        "S 
f         6, 

0 

So          ^  ' 

i^.^        rj                               Q                              U     ^ 

«i!     *-•     o                  ^D           5  - 
US      i    "^             fi  •  »•"    "3                • 

111  1  1  'ft!  s" 

00       So^Q^^^       2 

HhcoPQ^I^S          PQ 

^o    T^"    ^o   ^0      r^"^  oo      o^           O 
cococococococo           "t- 

.s 

i 
^ 

re                                                                         rt 

bB 

0 

Q 

2 

d 
u 

S 

0 

rs  41  Bobstays 
42  Martingale  guys 

g  -o    t£        t2 

g 

-%          >^              ™ 

rt 

"ffL   ^         ">    d         c^T    d" 

W)    g          C/5      <U       ^      CU 

D..3     ~o    SI       i_     N 
O    rt       J-j     s       c^S     si 

J  e^  SL'I   ^-g 

Etj 

,O       c/> 
**-•      ~0 

&T      0 

to         C3          >-,        d 

1-1                to      !   JS 

'S      c«     ^    ,         ">     ~rt 
^_,        >^     c«       rt     ^D        fcJD 
C/}         C^         ^^      ^-»    *  7^  ,       OM 

C 

c« 
0, 

V) 

i—  i      ij                   .      7Zi 
cu    K     13  ^       rt  ^ 

J—  ( 

CU 

d 

C3             Q^ 
^> 

g  «  -a  2  s  2 

|  11    S.  B  -1  S 

^ 

O 

C/5 

8 

D             P4             CO 

OH 

co 

h  >3 

0        oJ        0       0     ^      0 

^ 

1 

o 

CO              rj-              to 

vO 

t^    00 

Q\     o      •—  i     cs     co     ^t* 

to 

vO 

t^ 

M                    M                    M 

M 

M         M 

M        (S       CN       cN       <S        CN 

CS 

cs 

N 

1 

cf 

V) 

s"      sT 

wT 

3 

t/5       ^ 

tn 

d 

.S 

C      S 

6    s 

.«s                     .« 

rt 

si 
s 

1 

i  1 

73    '§ 

*^   S   *g 

CU 

d 

1 

w 

M    _N 

>-.   G 

>-,  N    >-* 

S 

^ 

"d 

^ 

£  'E 

C/5 

u    ^    d    rd 

's 

13 

ca 

c/j         w 

•T-t 

d 

c3       c^               rt 

p; 

C 

!  1  1  1  S 

1  1  11 

i  §  S  H 

Topgallant 
main  an< 

*^3     ctf 

S  ^ 

cU 

S,  o 

O    **" 

1  ll'ls  f 

cu      S      <*>      >    c      ^ 
o     ^     2     o    e     & 
^    S    U    ^         D 

c 

r3 

d 

0 

O 

1 

D 

"->       CN       CO      Tj- 

r-v.    oo     o^    o           ** 

(S 

Plate  No.    189. 


773 


774  APPENDIX. 

Topgallant  and  royal  masts  are  in  one,  but  the  diameter  is 
reduced  at  the  topgallant  masthead  forming  hounds,  upon  which 
rests  the  topgallant  funnel; — a  composition  cylinder,  with  two 
thwartship  arms  forming  the  "Jack."  At  the  royal  masthead  is 
a  similar  shoulder,  with  an  iron  band  for  the  rigging,  and  above 
this  is  the  pole  terminating  in  a  tenon  to  which  the  truck  is  fitted. 
The  truck  usually  carries  the  point  of  a  lightning  conductor,  the 
lower  end  of  which  makes  contact  with  the  hull,  or,  in  the  case 
of  a  wooden  ship,  with  the  copper  well  below  the  water-line. 

Trysail  masts  are  fitted  up  and  down  abaft  the  lower  masts, 
being  stepped  on  deck  and  secured  at  the  head  by  bands  con- 
necting by  a  key  to  corresponding  bands  on  the  lower  mast. 

Modern  men-of-war  rarely  carry  sail,  and  such  masts  as  they 
have  are  usually  for  military  purposes  only ; — in  some  cases  for 
carrying  light  guns  in  elevated  positions,  in  other  cases  merely 
for  signalling. 

Yards.  A  full-rigged  ship  carries  a  lower,  topsail,  topgallant, 
royal,  and  sometimes  a  sky-sail,  yard,  on  each  mast.  The  topsail 
is  usually  double  (Plates  188,  189). 

Standing  Rigging.  The  masts  of  a  ship  are  supported  from 
the  sides  by  shrouds,  from  forward  by  stays  and  from  aft  by  back- 
stays. The  backstays  contribute  also  to  the  sidewise  support 
since  they  are  necessarily  led  to  the  sides  of  the  ship.  The  stays, 
in  addition  to  supporting  the  masts,  serve  to  carry  certain  fore- 
and-aft  sails  known  as  staysails.  For  convenience  in  hooking 
tackles  at  the  mastheads  for  various  purposes,  heavy  pendants  are 
provided,  fitted  with  thimbles  and  links  and  hanging  well  clear 
of  the  other  rigging.  Small  lines,  called  "  ratlines,"  stretched 
from  shroud  to  shroud,  furnish  the  means  of  going  aloft. 

The  head-booms  are  supported  from  beneath,  against  the  pull 
of  the  stays  and  the  lifting  tendency  of  the  head  sails,  by  bob- 
stays,' martingales,  etc.,  leading  to  the  cut-water;  and  from  the 
sides  by  bowsprit  shrouds,  jib-  and  flying  jib-guys,  leading  to  the 
bow. 

The  above  constitute  the  "  Standing  Rigging  "  of  a  ship. 

Standing  Rigging  is  usually  fitted  of  galvanized  steel-wire  rope, 
plain-laid,  of  six  strands,  and  is  protected  from  the  weather, 


Plate  No.    190. 


775 


Lower  Topsail  Lifts  are 
not  usually  fitted   on 
Merchant 

Vessels. 


FORE  MAST  AND  HEAD-BOOMS  OF  A 
MODERN  SAILING  SHIP. 


776  APPENDIX. 

chafe  and  wear,  by  a  thorough  covering  of  worming,  parcelling 
and  serving  (Plate  25). 

Sails.  Sails  are  made  of  canvas,  which  may  be  of  flax,  hemp  or 
cotton.  The  sails  of  ships  are  always  of  flax,  those  of  boats  and 
small  yachts  usually  of  cotton.  Cotton  canvas  is  used  also  on 
ship-board  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  such  as  awnings,  windsails, 
hammocks,  tarpaulins,  etc. 

Canvas  is  manufactured  in  long  strips  or  cloths,  varying  in 
width  from  16  to  24  inches  for  flax,  and  from  20  to  42  inches  for 
cotton,  and  in  lengths  of  from  40  to  80  yards.  The  cloths  are 
made  up  in  rolls  called  bolts. 

Variations  in  weight,  strength  and  fineness  are  indicated  by 
numbers  running  from  I  to  10;  number  i  being  the  heaviest, 
strongest  and  coarsest,  and  number  10  the  lightest  and  finest. 

In  the  United  States  Navy,  canvas  is  used  as  follows : 

For  the  sails  of  ships,  flax  canvas,  24  inches  wide,  issued  in  bolts  of 
80  yards.  For  awnings,  screens,  etc.,  cotton  canvas,  22  inches  wide,  in 
bolts  of  90  yards.  For  hammocks  and  bags,  cotton  canvas,  42  inches 
wide,  in  bolts  of  90  yards.  For  boats'  sails,  cotton  canvas  of  the  variety 
known  as  "  raven's  duck,"  28^  inches  wide,  in  bolts  of  65  yards. 

Good  canvas  is  made  of  long,  strong,  clean  threads,  evenly 
spun  and  well  twisted  and  without  any  mixture  of  tow.  In  the 
heavier  grades  (Nos.  I  to  3),  the  threads  are  double,  and  in  all 
grades  the  cloths  should  be  closely  and  uniformly  woven,  and 
with  a  firm,  even  selvage.  To  test  a  sample  of  canvas,  after 
examining  carefully  the  character  of  the  texture  as  to  the  smooth- 
ness and  closeness  of  the  weaving,  it  is  well  to  bore  through 
with  a  fid,  when  .the  threads  will  break  easily  if  of  inferior 
quality,  and  resist,  with  a  disposition  to  stretch  before  yielding 
altogether,  if  of  good  strong  staple.  A  few  threads  may  be 
drawn  and  examined  as  to  length,  smoothness  and  freedom  from 
tow ;  and  finally,  if  two  samples  are  to  be  compared,  similar  strips 
from  the  two  may  be  knotted  together  and  tested  by  hanging 
weights  from  them  to  determine  which  is  the  stronger. 

An  So-yard  bolt  of  No.  I  flax  canvas,  20  inches  wide,  should 
weigh  about  75  Ibs.  and  the  successive  numbers  from  this  to  No.  10 
should  diminish  by  about  5  Ibs.  each,  a  bolt  of  No.  2  weighing 
70  Ibs.,  one  of  No.  3,  65  Ibs.,  and  so  on. 

The  following  numbers  are  commonly  used  for  the  sails  of  a 
full-powered  sailing  ship,  the  lighter  grades  specified  in  each 


APPENDIX.  777 

case  forming  a  fair-weather  suit  of  sails,  while  the  heavier  ones 
are  bent  in  anticipation  of  a  stormy  passage : 

Courses,  Nos.  i  to  3. 

Topsails,  "  2  to  3. 

Topgallant  sails,  "  4  to  5. 

Royals,  "  5  to  6. 

Topmast   staysails,  "  3  to  4. 

Jibs,  "  4  to  5. 

Other  staysails,  "  4  to  5. 

Spankers,  trysails,  etc.,       "  4  to  5. 

All  storm  sails,  No.  I. 

The  square  sails  of  a  ship  (Plates  187  and  188)  are  the  courses 
(foresail  and  mainsail),  the  topsails,  topgallant  sails  and  royals. 
A  sky  sail  is  sometimes  set  above  the  royals.  Topsails  and  top- 
gallant sails  may  be  single  or  double. 

The  fore-and-aft  sails  are  the  fore-and-main  trysails,  the 
spanker  (which  is  in  reality  a  mizzen  trysail),  the  staysails,  taking 
their  names  from  the  stays  on  which  they  are  set,  and  the  jibs, 
which  are  also  staysails,  although  not  so-called.  The  trysails  are 
called  also  spencers,  and  the  spanker  is  often  called  the  driver. 

The  upper  edge  of  a  square  sail  is  called  the  head,  the  lower 
edge,  the  foot,  the  sides,  leeches,  the  upper  corners  the  head 
cringles,  the  lower  corners,  the  clews. 

In  the  case  of  a  four-sided  fore-and-aft  sail  like  a  trysail  or 
spanker  (Plate  192)  the  after  edge  is  the  after  leech,  the  forward 
edge  the  luff,  the  upper  edge  the  head,  the  lower  edge  the  foot, 
the  upper  after  corner  the  peak,  the  upper  forward  corner  the 
nock,  the  lower  forward  corner  the  tack,  the  lower  after  corner 
the  clew. 

In  a  triangular  sail  (Plate  192),  the  edge  next  the  stay  is  the 
luff,  the  after  edge  the  leech,  the  lower  edge  the  foot,  the  lower 
forward  corner  the  tack,  the  lower  after  corner  the  clew,  and 
the  upper  corner  the  head. 

The  details  of  sails  of  various  kinds  are  fully  shown  in  Plates 
187,  191,  and  192. 

The  cutting  and  making  of  sails  constitute  an  art  in  themselves, 
which  it  would  be  beyond  the  province  of  this  book  to  attempt  to 
teach.  The  canvas  must  be  cut  with  care,  not  only  to  economize 
material  in  adapting  the  narrow  cloths  to  the  irregular  shapes 
required,  but  to  reduce  stretching  to  a  minimum  and  to  distribute 


778 


Plate  No.    191. 


FORE  MAST  AND  HEAD-BOOMS  OFA  MODERN 
SAILING  SHIP,  SAILS  SET. 


APPENDIX.  779 

such  stretch  as  cannot  be  prevented,  in  a  way  to  avoid  distorting 
the  sail  and  allowing  it  to  bag.  Canvas  stretches  very  little  along 
the  line  of  the  threads  of  either  warp  or  filling,  but  may  give  con- 
siderably under  a  diagonal  pull.  Owing  to  the  way  in  which 
sails  are  set  (being  hauled  out  by  their  corners),  the  greater  part 
of  the  strain  to  which  they  are  subjected  is  diagonal,  and  one  of 
the  most  difficult  points  in  sail  making  is  to  arrange  the  material 
in  such  a  way  that  the  cloths  may  take  this  strain  directly  along 
the  threads.  When  this  has  been  done  as  far  as  possible,  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  stretch  which  still  remains,  and  also 
for  the  difference  in  stretching  between  the  canvas  and  the  rop- 
ing. 

The  cloths  are  sewed  together  with  overlapping  (double) 
seams  having  from  no  to  130  stitches  to  the  yard.  The  twine 
used  should  be  of  good  flax  or  cotton,  spun  with  from  three  to 
eight  threads  and  waxed  with  pure  beeswax. 

Sails  are  reinforced  at  points  which  are  subject  to  especial 
strain  or  chafe. 

The  edges  of  the  sail  all  around  are  turned  over,  forming  a 
hem  or  tabling  several  inches  wide.  The  linings  and  other 
strengthening  pieces  are  then  sewed  on,  and  lastly  the  bolt-rope. 
This  is  of  hemp  and  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  rather  loosely 
laid  up  to  make  it  soft  and  pliable,  and  tarred  with  the  best 
Stockholm  tar.  As  there  is  more  stretch  to  the  rope  than  to  the 
canvas,  care  must  be  taken  to  leave  a  little  slack  canvas  along  the 
edges,  as  otherwise  the  canvas,  instead  of  the  roping,  would  take 
the  strain  when  the  sail  is  set.  A  common  rule  is  to  allow  one 
inch  of  slack  canvas  for  every  foot  along  the  leeches  of  topsails 
and  canvas,  and  one  inch  for  every  yard  along  the  foot. 

The  roping  of  square  sails  is  always  on  the  after  side  of  the 
sails,  that  of  fore-and-aft  sails  usually  on  the  port  side. 

Double  Topsails  and  Topgallant  Sails.  Modern  sailing  ships 
almost  without  exception  have  double  topsail  yards  and  in  many 
cases  double  topgallant  yards  as  well.  This  rig  was  first  pro- 
posed by  an  American  shipmaster  named  Howe,  and  its  many 
advantages  were  promptly  recognized  (Plates  187  and  191). 

In  this  rig,  the  lower  topsail  yard  is  fixed,  while  the  upper 
yard  hoists  and  lowers,  the  sail  having  half  the  depth  of  a  single 
topsail.  The  lower  (topsail)  yard  is  trussed  to  the  main  cap, 
and  the  upper  yard,  when  lowered,  lies  close  above  it.  Thus  by 
lowering  the  upper  topsail,  sail  is  reduced  in  a  moment  to  the  area 


y8o 


APPENDIX. 


of  an  old-fashioned  topsail  when  close-reefed,  the  upper  topsail, 
when  lowered,  hanging  forward  of  the  lower  topsail,  where  it  is 
to  a  great  extent  becalmed. 

Downhaul  tackles  are  fitted  from  the  yard-arms  of  the  upper 
to  those  of  the  lower  (topsail)  yards  to  haul  the  yards  down. 
This  takes  the  place  of  "  clewing-down  "  with  a  single  topsail. 
The  downhauls  also  support  the  lower  topsail  yard-arms,  for 
which,  usually,  no  lifts  are  fitted. 

The  lower  topsail  is  fitted  with  sheets  and  clew-lines  like  an 
old-fashioned  topsail,  but  as  the  leech  is  short,  the  clew-line 
blocks  are  placed  well  out  on  the  yard.  As  a  rule,  the  clews  of 
the  upper  topsail  shackle  permanently  to  the  lower  topsail  yard- 
arms. 

Running  Gear.  The  ropes,  purchases,  etc.,  by  which  the  yards 
and  sails  are  controlled  constitute  the  Running  Gear  of  the  ship. 
Most  of  this  gear  is  shown  so  clearly  on  the  plates  herewith,  that 
a  detailed  description  of  their  lead  is  unnecessary. 

Halliards.  Yards  are  hoisted  by  purchases  consisting  usually 
of  a  pendant,  called  a  tye,  and  a  purchase  called  the  halliards. 

The  halliards  of  a  staysail  are  bent  to  the  head  of  the  sail, 
lead  up  along  the  stay  to  a  block  at  the  masthead  and  thence 
on  deck.  For  heavy  sails,  the  halliards  are  double,  and  reeve 
through  the  blocks  at  the  head  of  the  sail,  the  standing  part  being 
made  fast  aloft  and  the  hauling  part  leading  as  before. 

The  gaffs  of  trysails  are  supported  by  spans  from  the  lower 
mast  to  the  throat  and  peak,  and  when  necessary  may  be  hoisted 
and  lowered  by  throat  and  peak  halliards  (Plate  192). 

Lifts.  Yards  are  supported  at  the  yard-arms  by  lifts,  leading 
through  blocks  or  fair-leaders  at  the  masthead  and  thence  to  the 
top  or  the  deck. 

Braces.  Yards  are  controlled  as  to  their  horizontal  movement 
by  braces  leading  from  the  yard-arms  aft  or  forward.  They  are 
always  led  aft  if  circumstances  permit  this  without  requiring  too 
much  of  a  downward  lead.  In  three-masted  ships,  the  braces  of 
yards  on  the  fore-and-main  are  led  aft,  those  of  yards  on  the  miz- 
zen,  forward. 

Sheets.  The  clews  of  square  sails  are  hauled  out  to  the  yards 
below  them  by  sheets,  reeving  through  sheaves  in  the  yard-arms, 
thence  through  quarter-blocks  under  the  yard  and  so  to  the  deck. 

Staysail  and  trysail  sheets  consist  of  pendants  and  whips,  and 
are  usually  double,  each  sail  having  its  port  and  starboard  sheet 


Plate  No.    192. 


781 


]?***«*"          Head  Earing 

Cringle* 


Clew-, 


ntline  Toggles- 
Single  Topsail 


Dasher 
Block 


FootRope 


Spanker. 


DETAILS  OF  SAILS. 


782  APPENDIX. 

In  the  case  of  a  sail  hauling  out  to  a  boom,  the  purchase  for  con- 
trolling the  boom  is  the  "  sheet "  and  the  sail  is  hauled  out  by  an 
"  outhaul." 

Tacks.  To  control  the  cldws  of  the  courses,  not  only  sheets, 
but  tacks,  are  needed,  the  tack  hauling  the  weather  clew  down 
and  forward,  the  sheet  hauling  the  lee  clew  down  and  aft."  The 
forward  lower  corner  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  called  the  "  tack," 
as  is  also  the  rope  by  which  this  corner  is  held  down  and  secured. 

Clew-lines.  In  taking  in  the  sails,  the  clews  are  hauled  up  to 
the  quarters  of  the  yard  by  clew-lines  leading  from  the  clews  to 
the  quarter-blocks  and  down  on  deck.  For  topsails  and  courses 
the  clew-lines  are  double,  and  reeve  through  a  block  at  the  clew, 
the  standing  part  being  clinched  around  the  quarters  of  the  yard. 

Clew-lines  or  clew-ropes  are  fitted  to  trysails  for  hauling  the 
clew  up  to  the  jaws  of  the  gaff,  and  on  gaff  topsails  for  hauling 
the  clew  up  to  the  head. 

Leech-lines  are  used  to  haul  the  leeches  of  courses  and  some- 
times of  topsails  along  the  yard. 

Buntlines.  Buntlines  haul  the  foot  of  the  sail  above  and  for- 
ward of  the  yard  for  convenience  in  furling.  They  are  rove 
through  blocks  at  the  masthead  or  the  top  rim,  lead  down  for- 
ward and  toggle  to  the  foot  of  the  sail  some  distance  outside  the 
midship  line  on  each  side. 

Reef-tackles.  Reef-tackles  are  whips  leading  from  the  yard- 
arms  of  topsails  and  courses  to  cringle  on  the  leeches  of  the  sails, 
for  hauling  the  leech  up  and  out  in  reefing,  affording  slack  for 
passing  the  earing  and  rousing  the  cringle  up  to  its  place. 

Bowlines.  Bowlines  lead  forward  from  the  bowline  bridles 
on  the  leeches  of  courses  and  topsails,  and  are  used,  when  sailing 
on  the  wind,  for  hauling  the  leech  well  forward  so  that  it  shall 
hold  the  wind. 

Outhauls.  The  head  of  a  trysail  is  hauled  out  by  a  head  out- 
haul,  reeving  through  a  sheave  in  the  end  of  the  gaff  and  a 
block  at  the  mast,  and  then  to  the  deck.  The  foot  of  a  boom- 
sail  is  hauled  out  by  a  foot-outhaul  reeving  through  a  sheave  in 
the  boom. 

Downhauls.  Staysails  are  hauled  down  by  downhauls  leading 
from  the  head  of  the  sail  along  the  stay  to  a  block  at  the  tack  of 
the  sail. 

The  head  of  a  trysail  is  hauled  down  by  a  head  downhaul  from 
the  head  of  the  sail  to  the  jaws  of  the  gaff. 


Plate  No.   193. 


783 


784  APPENDIX. 

Brails.  Gaff  sails — trysails,  spankers,  etc. — are  gathered  in 
to  the  mast  for  furling,  by  brails  middled  and  stopped  to  the 
after  leech,  with  a  hauling  part  on  each  side  reeving  through  a 
block  on  the  mast  at  a  point  corresponding  to  the  point  at  which 
they  are  stopped  to  the  leech. 

Vangs.  Vangs  are  fitted  to  gaffs  at  the  after  end — one  on 
each  side — and  led  to  the  ship's  side.  Their  office  is  to  steady 
the  gaff  when  the  sail  is  not  set. 

Details  of  Rigging — Fore-and-Aft  Bigs. 

Plate  193  shows  .the  sails  and  rigging  of  a  two-masted  schooner. 
There  are  many  variations  from  this  rig,  especially  in  yachting, 
where  special  sails  are  used  in  racing  and  to  some  extent  in  cruis- 
ing, under  favorable  conditions  of  weather.  The  gaff  topsail  is 
often  replaced  by  a  "club-topsail,"  having  the  head  and  foot 
stretched  out  by  long  light  spars  which  admit  of  spreading  a 
greatly  increased  area  of  canvas.  In  this  case  the  halliards  are 
bent  to  the  "  yard  "  on  the  head  of  the  sail  near  the  middle  point, 
and  the  yard,  when  hoisted  to  the  masthead,  carries  the  peak  of 
the  sail  well  up,  playing  the  part  of  a  topmast  "  pole." 

A  balloon-jib  is  a  very  large  triangular  sail  extending  from 
the  fore-topmast  head  to  the  jib-boom  end.  As  it  has  no  stay,  it 
is  set  "  flying." 

A  jib-topsail  sets  on  the  fore-topmast  stay  and  corresponds  to 
the  fly  ing- jib  of  an  ordinary  schooner. 

A  spinnaker  is  a  very  large,  very  light  triangular  balloon-like 
sail,  often  made  of  raw  silk,  used  in  running  free.  The  head 
goes  to  the  mast-head — either  fore  or  main — and  the  foot  hauls 
out  to  a  "  spinnaker-boom,"  temporarily  rigged  out  on  the  side 
opposite  the  main-boom. 

Where  the  spinnaker,  instead  of  being  triangular  in  shape,  is 
quadrilateral,  its  head,  always  very  short,  hauls  out  on  a  tem- 
porary gaff  rigged  out  for  the  masthead,  the  foot  hauling  out  as 
in  other  cases  to  the  spinnaker-boom.  In  this  case  the  sail  is 
called  a  "  shadow." 

Various  other  sails — of  questionable  utility — are  set  at  times 
by  racing  yachts.  Such  are  "  water  sails  "  under  the  spinnaker 
boom ;  "  ring-tails  "  increasing  the  area  of  the  mainsail,  etc. 

The  ordinary  main  topmast  staysail  is  often  replaced  by  a  very 
large  sail  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  spinnaker  and  the  bal- 
loon jib. 


APPENDIX.  785 

§  II.    TONNAGE  OF  SHIPS. 

As  there  is  sometimes  confusion  as  to  the  difference  between 
displacement  and  the  several  kinds  of  tonnage,  the  following 
definitions  are  given. 

Displacement.  The  quantity  or  volume  of  water  displaced  by 
a  ship  is  called  her  "  displacement " ;  it  can  be  expressed  in  either 
cubic  feet  or  tons ;  a  cubic  foot  of  sea-water  weighs  64  Ibs.  and 
of  fresh  water  62.5  Ibs.,  therefore  a  ton  is  equal  to  35  cubic  feet 
of  sea-water  or  35.9  cubic  feet  of  fresh  water. 

Tonnage,  Gross  Register.  The  total  enclosed  space  or  internal 
capacity  of  a  ship,  expressed  in  tons  of  100  cu.  ft.  each,  is  the 
gross  register  tonnage.  The  unit  of  volume  is  that  figure  which 
was  used  originally  in  "  Moorsom's  System  "  of  measuring  ships, 
which  system  has,  with  slight  variations  in  application,  been 
adopted  by  most  of  the  nations  of  the  civilized  world. 

Gross  register  tonnage  is  used  as  a  basis  for  calculating  net 
register  tonnage  and  in  .the  United  States  as  a  basis  for  dry  dock 
charges  for  steamers. 

Tonnage,  Net  Register.  The  actual  earning  power  of  a  ship  is 
expressed  by  the  net  register  tonnage  and  this  figure  is  secured 
by  deducting  from  the  gross  tonnage  such  spaces  as  may  have  no 
earning  capacity ;  for  instance,  the  engine,  boiler  and  shaft  alley 
spaces,  coal  bunkers,  spaces  used  in  steering  and  working  the 
ship,  and  such  spaces  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  crew.  The  laws  of  .the  several  nations  vary  with'  reference 
to  the  various  deductible  spaces.  The  Suez  Canal  Tonnage, 
although  based  upon  the  "  Moorsom  System,"  and  generally 
similar  to  net  register  tonnage,  varies  therefrom  in  some  respects. 

The  rules  and  laws  which  have  been,  from  time  to  time,  enacted 
in  the  several  countries,  are  extensive  and  complicated,  but  are 
usually  published  in  some  form.  For  reference  the  following 
are  cited: 

English. — Instructions  Relating  to  the  Measurement  of  Ships. 
Issued  by  Board  of  Trade. 

United  States. — Navigation  Laws  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Navigation,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Suez  Canal. — Reglement  de  Navigation  dans  le  Canal  Mari- 
time de  Suez.  Suez  Company. 

Net  register  tonnage  is  generally  used  in  charging  harbor  and 
port  dues,  canal  tolls,  and  other  similar  charges  to  which  merchant 
ships  are  liable. 


786  APPENDIX. 

§  III.     SHIP'S  PUMPS  AND  THEIR  USES. 

1.  Main  Air  Pump.     Used  for  pumping  the  air  and  condensed 
steam  from  the  condenser  into  the  feed-tank  and  thus  maintaining 
a  vacuum  in  the  condenser.     In  merchant  practice  and  some  of 
the  older  naval  vessels,  this  pump  is  direct-connected  to  the  main 
engine. 

2.  Main  Circulating  Pump.     Used  lor  circulating  sea  water 
through  the  condenser,  and  is  usually  of  the  centrifugal  type. 
It  has  an  independent  sea-suction  valve  called  the  main  injection 
and  also  a  suction  connection  with  the  bilge  called  the  bilge  in- 
jection.    It  has  a  discharge  through  the   main   condenser   and 
thence  overboard  through  a  valve  called  the  outboard  delivery. 
It  has  also  a  discharge  leading  directly  from  the  pump  overboard 
so  that  the  bilge  water  can  be  pumped  overboard  without  sending 
it  through  the  condenser.     Since  a  centrifugal  pump  will  throw 
ashes,  waste,  etc.,  without  clogging  and  also  since  the  capacity 
of  the  circulating  pump  of  a  ship  is  generally  far  greater  than 
the  aggregate  capacity  of  all  the  other  bilge  pumps,  the  circulating 
pumps  are  of  great  use  in  case  a  large  volume  of  water  gets  into 
the   ship   from   any   cause.     The  number   of   circulating  pumps 
varies  according  to  the  number  of  condensers. 

3.  Main  Feed  Pump.    This  is  used  for  feeding  the  boilers  and 
has  suctions  from  the  main  feed  tanks  and  reserve  feed  tanks, 
and  but  one  delivery  to  the  main  feed  line.     There  are  one  or 
more  of  these  pumps  according  to  the  power  and  arrangement  of 
the  machinery  and  boilers,  and  located  either  in  the  engine-room 
or  fire-room  according  to  circumstances  and  the  views  of  the 
designers.      These   pumps   in   merchant  practice   are   sometimes 
direct  connected  to  the  main  engines. 

4.  Auxiliary  Feed  Pump.     This  is  designed  primarily  to  be 
used  when  the  main  feed  pump  is  out  of  repair.     It  can  draw 
from  the  main  feed  tank  and  reserve  tank,  and  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  main  condenser  (in  which  case  it  takes  the  place  of 
the  air  pump).     It  can  deliver  either  into  the  boilers  through 
the  auxiliary  feed  line  or  into  the  reserve  feed  tanks.    The  num- 
ber of  auxiliary  feed  pumps  varies  as  in  the  case  of  main  feed 
pumps : — there  is  generally  one  in  each  fire-room. 

5.  Main  Fire  and  Bilge  Pump.  The  principal  use  of  this  pump, 
as  its  name  indicates,  is  for  the  fire  and  bilge  service.     It  has  an 
independent  sea  suction  and  delivery.     At  sea  it  is  kept  going 


APPENDIX.  787 

slowly  and  continuously  to  keep  the  bilges  free,  and  in  this  case 
other  pumps  are  used  for  fire  service  if  they  are  capable  of  sup- 
plying a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  When  it  becomes  necessary 
to  use  the  bilge  pump  for  fire  service,  or  for  washing  decks,  the 
pump  should  always  first  be  washed  out  by  pumping  sea  water 
overboard,  otherwise  greasy  waste  and  coal  dust  may  be  spread 
over  the  deck.  This  pump  is  also  connected  with  the  main  and 
secondary  drains  so  as  to  pump  out  the  bilges  or  double  bottom 
compartments  of  the  ship.  The  number  of  these  pumps  varies 
with  the  size  of  the  ship  and  the  arrangement  of  the  engine  com- 
partments. Such  pumps  are  sometimes  placed  outside  of  the 
engine  compartments  and  are  sometimes  called  "  wrecking " 
pumps. 

6.  The  Auxiliary  Air  and  Circulating  Pump.    This  is  generally 
a  combined  pump  formed  of  two  water  cylinders  and  one  steam 
cylinder.    One  of  the  water  ends  takes  sea  water  direct  from  the 
sea  and  circulates  it  through  the  auxiliary  condenser  overboard. 
The  other  end  draws  fresh  water  from  the  bottom  of  the  auxiliary 
condenser  and  delivers  it  into  the  feed  tank.    There  are  generally 
two  auxiliary  condensers,  each  with  one  combined  air  and  circu- 
lating pump.     Combined  air  and  circulating  pumps  will  not  be 
used  in  future  designs,  on  account  of  their  extravagant  use  of 
steam. 

7.  The  Water-Service  Pump.    This  is  a  small  pump  used  to  pro- 
duce a  forced  circulation  of  water  through  the  crosshead  slides 
and  the  main  journals  of  the  main  engines,  when  the  natural  cir- 
culation due  to  .the  distance  of  the  engines  below  the  water-line 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  purpose.     It  is  convenient  to  have  a  con- 
nection by  which  this  pump  can  deliver  into  the  fire  main,  and 
also,  into  the  distiller  in  case  the  distiller  circulating  pump  should 
be  out  of  repair.     There  is  generally  one  such  pump  in  each 
engine  compartment. 

8.  The   Distiller   Circulating  Pump.     Is   used   for  circulating 
cooling  water   from  the   sea  through   the   distillers  and   thence 
directly  overboard.     It  usually  has,  however,  suitable  connections 
by  which  the  water  can  be  delivered  into  the  flushing  system  in- 
stead of  overboard  and  also  the  water  can  be  delivered  into  that 
system  without  passing  through  the  distiller  if  the  latter  should 
be  disconnected  for  repair. 

9.  The  Fresh- Water  Pump.    Is  for  drawing  off  the  fresh  water 


788  APPENDIX. 

from  the  distiller  and  delivering  it  into  the  ship's  tanks  when  the 
distiller  is  situated  at  a  lower  level  than  the  tanks. 

10.  The  Flushing  Pump.     Is   used   for  circulating-  sea   water 
through  the  flushing  system.     It  often  has  a  connection  so  that 
it  can  be  used  to  circulate  water  through  the  distiller  when  the 
distiller  pump  is  under  repair.    The  pipes  composing  the  flushing 
system  are  usually  distinct  from  the  fire  main,  but  sometimes  the 
fire  main  is  used  as  part  of  the  flushing  system  on  a  small  ship. 

11.  The  Evaporator  Feed  Pump.    Is  a  small  light-service  pump 
for  supplying  salt  water  to  the  evaporators.    It  has  a  suction  from 
the  sea,  and,  in  new  designs,  from  the  evaporator  feed  heaters. 
Its  discharge  is  to  the  evaporators. 

12.  Special    pumps,     such    as    brine-circulating    pumps     and 
water-circulating    pumps    are    provided    for    the    refrigerating 
plant,  and  recent  large  battleships  are  also  provided  with  spe- 
cial motor-driven  pumps  for  draining  the  fire-rooms. 

§  IV.    PERMITTED  DRAFT  OF  SHIPS.    PLIMSOLL  MARK. 
The  Plimsoll  Mark  is  the  mark  painted  on  the  sides  of  a  ship 
at  the  middle  of  her  length  on  the  water-line,  to  indicate  the  drafts 
at  which,  for  various  conditions  and  types  or  classes  of  cargo- 
carrying  vessels  there  will  still  be  left  a  sufficient  percentage  of 
reserve  buoyancy  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  vessel.    The  position 
of  this  mark  depends  upon  the  type  and  size  of  the  vessel.    On  it 
are  indicated  the  maximum  safe  drafts  for  fresh  and  salt  water, 
for  winter  and  summer,  and  for  certain  oceans. 
Explanation  of  Symbols  on  the  Plimsoll  Mark. 
FW  =  Fresh  Water. 

IS  — Indian  Ocean  in  Summer. 

WNA  =  North    Atlantic    in   Winter    (October    to    March   in- 
clusive). 

S  =  Summer  in  waters  other  than  the  Indian  Ocean. 
W  =  Winter  in  waters  other  than  the  North  Atlantic. 
All  except  the  first  of  the  above  symbols  indicate  the  maximum 
depth  in  salt  water  for  the  corresponding  oceans  and  seasons. 


APPENDIX. 


789 


790 


APPENDIX. 


CC  CO  TjJ  O  O  JO  03  N  CD  *fctO>a$<Dtt  CO  CO<N" 


O  •^•^•*-*fCCOlN(M-*Tj<Tt«NCN<M(NCN(N(M(N' 


cocoMcoww    ; 


SSSSSSS^SSSSSS  :  :  :  : 


•COiC^iOTjt^CCcNlO^CCCCfONlNCNCNlN 


§O5O    1  <N  l^  O  CO  O5  JH  o  O>-#  t~  <-"    I  >OjHCO 
^j  C35  00  00  O  00  OJ  CO  "5  CN  O  C3  O5  00  1^  00  1^  CO  CO 


|    1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     1     j 


.32    ^ 


—  i  CO 
00  1^  CO  iO  "5  •*  •*  -<JHC  rj<  CO 


=  !=!= 

Q    ^ 


The 
A  spe 
For  il 


APPENDIX. 

§  VI.  ROPE,  U.  S.  NAVY. 

MANILA  ROPE,  PLAIN  LAID. 


791 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
per 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of   coil. 

Break- 
ing 
strain. 

Remarks. 

6  thread,  f  inch.  ..... 
9  thread,  1  inch  
12  thread,  1     inch  .... 
15  thread,  1     inch  .... 
18  thread,  1    inch  .... 
21  thread,  1    inch.  .  .  . 
1  f  -inch                  

Pounds. 
0.12 
.20 
.25 
.30 
.35 
.50 
.60 

Fms. 
250 
150 
120 
100 
150 
200 
200 

Pounds. 
30 
30 
30 
30 
52 
100 
120 

Pounds. 
700 
1,100 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 
2,500 
3,000 

Note  that  sizes  from 
3  inch  down  are  only 
made  in  3  strands. 
Note  that  sizes  from 
3i   inch   up   are  only 
made  in  4  strands,  un- 
less'  specially  ordered 

2-inch  

.83 

200 

167 

4,000 

of  3  strands.     Special 

2i  inch  
2i-inch 

1.00 
1   26 

200 
150 

204 
190 

5,000 
5,550 

sizes  may  be  made  up 
on  order  of  the  bureau 

2f  inch  

1.55 

150 

225 

6,600 

Any  size  needed"  can 

3-inch 

1.83 

150 

277 

7,800 

be  manufactured    but 

3i-inch  
3^-inch                    

2.16 
2.54 

150 
150 

325 
380 

9,200 
10,500 

not  in  longer  lengths 
than  150  fathoms 

3  J-inch 

2  80 

150 

420 

12  200 

Note  that  rope  up  to 

4-inch       

3.25 

150 

487 

13,700 

4  inch  is  made  on  ma- 

4 1  -inch 

3   66 

150 

550 

14,900 

chines   which   do   not 

4-!-inch  

4.00 

150 

600 

17,400 

require  the  walk,  and 

4f  inch 

4  40 

150 

660 

19,000 

such     rope     may     be 

r-  oo 

150 

750 

21  800 

made  in   any  length 

5i-inch 

5.50 

-150 

825 

23,700 

the  finished  coil  not  to 

5  5-inch  
6-inch 

6.00 

7  24 

150 
150 

900 

1,087 

27,700 
31,000 

exceed  1,100  pounds  in 
weight     for     rope     3 

6^-inch  
7-inch                       

8.43 
9.80 

150 
150 

1,275 
1,470 

33,500 
36,200 

inches     circumference 
and  above,  nor  to  ex- 

1\ inch 

11   20 

150 

1,680 

42,300 

ceed    300    pounds    in 

8-inch 

13.00 

150 

1,950 

47,300 

weight  for  rope  1^  to 

8  i-inch 

14   40 

150 

2,160 

54,200 

2|    inches    circumfer- 

9-inch   

16.20 

150 

2,430 

60,000 

ence,  inclusive. 

9^-inch                  

18.00 

150 

2,700 

67,000 

10-inch 

20  00 

150 

3,000 

74,200 

MANILA  HEMP,  PLAIN  LAID,  HAWSERS. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
per 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
ing 
strain. 

Remarks. 

Pounds. 

Tm. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

5-inch  

5.33 

120 

640 

21,800 

These  may  be  made 

6-inch.           

7.90 

120 

950 

31,000 

in  any  size,  but  not  in 

7-inch                       .... 

10.40 

120 

1,250 

36,200 

longer    lengths     than 

8-inch 

13  30 

120 

1,600 

47,300 

150  fathoms,  the  length 

9-inch  
10-inch               

17.20 
22.16 

120 
120 

2,060 
2,660 

60,000 
74,200 

of  the  ropewalk.     The 
strands  are  hauled  a 

little   longer   and   the 

rope   closed    up    with 

more  afterturn,  mak- 

ing  it    a   little   fuller 

than  plain  laid  rope  of 
the  same  size.     These 

hawsers     are     hauled 

out    longer    than    120 

fathoms  to   allow  for 

fag  ends,  which  are  not 

cut  off,  and  for  a  splice 
which  is  not  made,  but 

the  weight  is  charged 

to  120  fathoms,  mak- 

ing   it    heavier    than 

plain  laid  rope  of  same 

size. 

792  APPENDIX. 

AMERICAN  HEMP  ROPE,  TARRED,  PLAIN  LAID,  THREE  STRAND. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
strain. 

Remarks. 

-inch. 

Pounds.  . 
0.31 

Fms. 
200 

Pounds. 
62 

Pounds. 
750 

Note  that  this  rrav 

-inch                   

.36 

200 

72 

1,060 

be  made  to  any  sbe  if 

i_inch 

40 

200 

80 

1,670 

required      It  is    how- 

$-inch        

.50 

200 

100 

2,340 

ever,  seldom  or  nev  ;r 

63 

200 

126 

3,325 

called    for    in    largor 

2-inch. 

.96 

200 

192 

3,955 

sizes. 

21 

1.28 

200 

256 

4,718 

2l-inch  

1.56 

150 

235 

5,770 

2  |-inch  

1.90 

150 

285 

7,000 

3-inch 

2  24 

150 

336 

8,380 

3i-inch  

2.66 

150 

400 

9,770 

3|-inch.          

3.06 

150 

460 

11,200 

3  f  -inch 

3   53 

150 

530 

13,000 

4-inch  

4.00 

150 

600 

14,550 

RATLINE  STUFF  AND  SIMILAR  MATERIAL  MADE  UP  ON  SPECIAL  ORDERS  OF 
TARRED  AMERICAN  HEMP. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
ing 
strain. 

Remarks. 

6-thread,  J-inch  

Pounds. 
0  18 

Fms. 
100 

Pounds. 
18 

Pounds. 
650 

9-thread,  1-inch  
12-thread,  H-inch.  .    . 
15-thread,  H-inch.  .    . 
18-thread,  If  inch.  .    . 
21-thread,  H-inch.  .    . 
24-thread,  If-inch.  .    . 

.25 
.35 
.45 
.53 
.60 
.70 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

25 
35 
45 
53 
60 
70 

1,120 
1,500 
1,800 
2,100 
2,400 
2,650 

AMERICAN  HEMP,  TARRED,  BOLT  ROPE. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
per 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
ing 
strain. 

1-inch. 

Pounds. 
0  27 

Fms. 
100 

Pounds. 
27 

Pounds. 
1,120 

H-inch 

37 

100 

37 

1,780 

14-inch.. 

.53 

100 

53 

2,470 

1  Hnch.  . 

.70 

100 

70 

3,500 

2-inch.  . 

94 

100 

94 

4,300 

2i-inch. 

1    18 

100 

118 

5  550 

5|-inch 

1   50 

100 

150 

6  790 

2  Hnch  

1   75 

100 

175 

8,220 

3-inch. 

2   11 

100 

211 

9,800 

3  J-inch 

2  44 

100 

244 

11  493 

3  Hnch.  . 

2   84 

100 

284 

13,220 

3  Hnch  

3  33 

100 

333 

15,300 

4-inch.  . 

3  72 

100 

372 

17  000 

4  J-inch. 

4  25 

100 

425 

19  600 

4  Hnch 

4  74 

100 

474 

22  050 

4  Hnch.  . 

5  38 

100 

538 

24^400 

5-inch  

6  00 

100 

600 

26  900 

APPENDIX. 


793 


AMERICAN  HEMP  ROPE,  TARRED,  PLAIN  LAID,  FOUR- STRAND. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
strain. 

Remarks. 

1  i-inch 

Pounds. 
0.60 

Fms. 
200 

Pounds. 
120 

Pounds. 
1,800 

Note  that  this  rope 

1  f-inch 

.77 

200 

155 

2,490 

is    made    up    in    four 

2-inch  

.96 
1.20 

200 
200 

192 
240 

3,085 
4,340 

strands   only  on  spe- 
cial orders. 

2  !-inch 

1   60 

150 

240 

5,250 

2  f-inch 

1.90 

150 

285 

6,352 

3  -inch 

2.20 

150 

330 

7,560 

3J-inch  

2.70 

150 

405 

8,870 

34-inch.                  .... 

3.00 

150 

450 

10,290 

3f-inch  

3.50 

150 

525 

11,812 

4-inch.            

4.00 

150 

600 

12,440 

4  J-inch 

4  50 

150 

675 

15,170 

4  5-inch.  .  . 
4  f-inch 

5.00 
5.70 

150 
150 

750 
855 

17,010 
18,952 

5-inch  

6.40 

150 

960 

21,000 

5  J-inch.               

7.00 

150 

,050 

23,152 

53-inch 

7  75 

150 

,162 

25,410 

5  f-inch.  .  . 

8.52 

150 

,278 

28,773 

6-inch 

9.30 

150 

,395 

30,240 

ei-inch  
7-inch.                      .  . 

10.75 
12.30 

150 
150 

,612 
,845 

35,532 
40,202 

7  s-inch 

14  30 

150 

2,145 

46,350 

8-inch  

16.50 

150 

2,475 

53,172 

Si-inch. 

19  00 

150 

2,850 

60,480 

9-inch  

21.00 

150 

3,150 

67,040 

SEIZING  STUFF — TARRED  AMERICAN  HEMP. 


Name  and 
circumference. 

Weight 
per 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Break- 
ing 
strain. 

Remarks. 

4-thread,  3-inch  

Pounds. 
0.095 

Fms. 
100 

Pounds. 
50 

Pounds. 
365 

5  lengths  to  package. 

6-thread,  f-inch  
9  thread,  |-inch 

.12 

165 

100 
100 

50 
50 

560 
700 

4  lengths  to  package. 
3  lengths  to  package 

12-thread,  1-inch  

.21 

100 

60 

955 

3  lengths  to  package. 

LEAD  LINES. 


Name  and  circumference. 

Material. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Boat  lead  line,  f-inch  
Ship's  lead  line,  f-inch  .... 
Coasting  lead  line  1-inch 

Cotton  twine,  braided  .... 
Flax  twine,  braided  
do 

Pounds. 
0.07 
.14 
18 

Fms. 
25 
33i 
100 

Pounds. 
1.75 
4.67 
18   00 

Deep-sea  lead  line,  15  inch. 

Am.  hemp,  plain  laid  

.47 

150 

70.50 

LOG  LINES. 


Name  and  circumference. 

Material. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight, 
of  coiL 

Chip  log  line,  f-inch  .  . 
Taffrail  log  line,  f-inch  
Do  

American  hemp  
Cotton  twine,  braided  .... 
.  do.  . 

Pounds. 
0.15 
.14 
.14 

Fms. 
100 
33* 
66| 

Pounds. 
15.00 
4.67 
9.34 

Do 

do 

14 

100 

14.00 

704 


APPENDIX. 


COTTON  LINES. 


Name  and  circumference. 

Weight 
of  coil. 

Length 
of  coil. 

Weight 
fathom. 

Remarks. 

Pounds. 

Fms. 

Pounds. 

72  thread,  8  ply,  1^-inch.  . 

30 

115 

0.26 

54-thread,  8  ply,  1-inch  .  .  . 

30 

160 

.19 

45-thread,  8  ply,  f-inch  .  .  . 

30 

200 

.154 

30-thread,  8  ply,  £Hncn  .  . 

30 

260 

.11 

24-thread,  8  ply,  &-inch  .  . 
18-thread,  6  ply,  Hnch.  •  • 
15-thread,  6  ply,  f-inch.  .  . 

10 
10 
10 

110 
250 

280 

.09 
.04 
.  035 

{Wound  in  10-pound  pack- 
ages ;  6  packages  packed 
for  shipment  in  bale 

15-thread,  4  ply,  &-inch.  . 

10 

330 

.031 

weighing  60  pounds. 

1  For  clothes  stops. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SMALL  STUFF. 

Cod  line  of  untarred  American  hemp  weighing  0.09  pound  per  fathom 
and  made  up  in  lo-pound  coils,  one  of  which  suffices  for  10  sets  of  hammock 
clews,  this  being  the  purpose  for  which  this  material  is  issued:  6  packages 
packed  for  shipment  in  bale  weighing  60  pounds. 

Untarred  marline  for  sennit  is  made  up  in  10- pound  coils,  weight  per  fathom, 
0.028  pound;  six  packages  packed  for  shipment  in  bale  weighing  60  pounds. 

Yacht  marline  is  tarred;  is  used  for  small  work  in  rigging  lofts;  weight 
per  fathom,  0.0195  pound;  length  of  60  fathoms;  weight,  1.17  pounds; 
coil,  20  pounds,  or  as  required. 

Marline  tarred. — Weight  per  fathom,  0.0327  pound;  lengths  of  65  fathoms; 
weight,  2.125  pounds;  coil,  20  pounds,  or  as  required. 

House  line.  Weight  per  fathom,  0.0519  pound;  lengths  of  65  fathoms; 
weight,  3.375  pounds;  coil,  20  pounds,  or  as  required. 

Round  line.  Weight  per  fathom,  0.066  pound;  lengths  of  60  fathoms; 
weight,  4  pounds;  coil,  50  pounds,  or  as  required. 

Spun  Yarn,  2-yarn.  Weight  per  fathom,  0.528  pound;  length  of  65 
fathoms;  weight,  3.437  pounds;  coil,  50  pounds,  or  as  required. 

Spun  Yarn,  j-yarn.  Weight  per  fathom,  0.073  pound;  lengths  of  65 
fathoms;  weight  4.75  pounds;  coil,  50  pounds,  or  as  required. 

MANILA  ROPE. 

Manila  rope  to  be  of  the  grade  known  to  the  trade  as  "  Rope  made  of 
selected  yarns,",  viz.  yarn  to  be  spun  of  long-fiber  manila  hemp  of  a  grade 
not  inferior  to  the  mark  SB/CS  or  of  selected  fiber  equal  to  that  mark. 

Rope  from  ^-inch  circumference,  6-thread  to  3  inches  circumference, 
inclusive,  to  be  made  3-strand;  3^  inches  circumference  and  above  to  be  made 
4-strand  unless  otherwise  specified.  For  the  rapid  handling  of  loads  of  about 
900  pounds,  such  as  coaling  whips,  a  4^-inch  circumference  manila  rope  is 
recommended. 

WIRE  ROPE. 

For  details  of  the  construction,  manufacture,  and  applications  of  Wire 
Rope,  see  Chapter  III,  IV  and  Plate  17. 


APPENDIX. 

WIRE  ROPE — 6  X  19 — 144  WIRES. 


795 


Ungalvanized. 

Galvanized. 

Min. 

Diam- 

Approx. 

Average 

Maxi- 

Average 

Maxi- 

eter 

Diam. 

Approx. 

Wt.  per 

Break- 

mum Safe 

Break- 

mum Safe 

of 

Circuni. 

Fathom. 

ing 

Working 

ing 

Working 

Sheave 

Strength. 

Load. 

Strength. 

Load. 

or 

Drum. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

i 

a 

4 

0.6               6,300 

1,134 

5,770 

1,035 

1 

'rS 

1 

0.9 

9,000 

1,620 

8,100 

1,458 

1.25 

| 

1| 

1.32 

13,500 

2,430 

11,150 

2,007 

1.50 

A 

if 

1.8 

18,800 

3,384 

16,920 

3,042 

1.75 

i 

If 

2.34 

24,200 

4,356 

21,780 

3,915 

2 

A 

If 

3.00 

29,000 

5,220 

26,100 

4,725 

2.25 

f 

2 

3.72 

38,000 

6,840 

34,200 

6,156 

2.5 

f 

91 

5.34 

52,600 

9,408 

47,340 

8,514 

3 

1~6 

2j 

6.00 

60,000 

10,800 

54,000 

9,720 

3.25 

I 

if 

7.2 

70,000 

12,600 

63,000 

11,340 

3.5 

1 

3 

9.48 

90,000 

16,200 

81,000 

14,580 

4 

IT§ 

31- 

11.00 

100,000 

18,000 

90,000 

16,200 

4.25 

1-| 

3^ 

12.00 

112,000 

20,160 

100,800 

18,090 

4.5 

iA 

33 
4 

13.1 

124,000 

22,140 

111,600 

20,520 

4.75 

if 

4 

14.3 

138,000 

25,200 

124,200 

22,320 

5 

if 

4j 

18.0 

168,000 

30,600 

151,200 

27,180 

5.5 

iA 

4| 

19.6 

180,000 

32,400 

162,000 

29,160 

5.75 

1"2' 

4f 

21.3 

196,000 

36,000 

176,400 

31,680 

6.0 

If 

5 

24.9 

220,000 

39,600 

198,000 

35,640 

G.5 

If 

5i 

29.1 

266,000 

48,600 

239,400 

43,020 

7 

l| 

si 

33.3 

300,000 

54,000 

270,000 

48,600 

8 

2 

6-J- 

37.8 

332,000 

59,400 

298,800 

53,730 

8 

2j 

7« 

48.0 

420,000 

75,600 

378,000 

68,040 

9 

2} 

71 

59.1 

526,000 

95,400 

473,400 

85,140 

10 

21 

71.7 

630,000 

113,400 

567,000 

102,060 

11 

The  wire  rope  used  by  the  United  States  Navy  corresponds  with  that 
manufactured  commercially,  and  the  Tables  which  follow  are  those  from 
the  manufacturers'  catalogues. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  a  tolerance  of  10  per  cent,  up  or  down 
is  allowed  by  Naval  specifications,  so  that  the  breaking  strength  given  in 
the  tables  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  average  not  as  a  minimum.     Accord- 
ingly, the  safe  working  load  as  given  in  the  Tables  is  10  per  cent,  below 
that  of  the  manufacturers'  catalogues,  to  provide  for  a  possible  breaking 
strength  of  10  per  cent,  below  the  average. 
The  grades  of  steel  used  are: 
For  6  X  12  Type : 

Crucible  Cast  Steel  up  to  l/2  inch  diameter. 
Plow  Steel  above  J/2  inch  diameter. 
All  galvanized. 
For  6  X   24  Type: 
Plow  Steel. 
All  galvanized. 


796 


APPENDIX. 


For  6  X  19  Type : 

Plow  and  Crucible  Steel. 

Galvanized   and   ungalvanized. 
For  6  X  37  Type: 

Plow  and  Crucible  Steel. 

Galvanized  and   ungalvanized. 


WIRE  ROPE — 6  X  37 — 222  WIRES. 


Ungalvanized. 

Galvanized. 

Min. 

Diam- 

Approx. 

Average 

Maxi- 

Average 

Maxi- 

eter 

Diam. 

Approx. 

Wt.  per 

Break- 

mum Safe 

Break- 

rmim Safe 

of 

Circum. 

Fathom. 

ing 

Working 

ing 

Working 

Sheave 

Strength. 

Load. 

Strength. 

Load. 

or 

Drum. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

i 

li 

1.32 

10,600 

1,908 

9,540 

1,710 

1.0 

ft 

li 

1  -t 

1.8 

15,000 

2,700 

13,500 

2,430 

1.15 

1 

lj 

2.34 

19,500 

3,510 

17.550 

3,150 

1.33 

ft 

U 

3.0 

25,000 

4,500 

22,500 

4,050 

1.5 

5 

2 

3.72 

32,000 

5,760 

28,800 

5,184 

1.75 

| 

2~ 

5.34 

46,000 

8,280 

41,400 

7,452 

1.85 

1 

2| 

7.2 

5.8,000 

10,440 

52,200 

9,360 

2.16 

1 

3 

9.48 

74,000 

13,320 

66,600 

11,970 

2.5 

li 

3o 

12.0 

92,000 

16,560 

82,800 

14,850 

2.83 

1; 

4" 

14.7 

116,000 

20,880 

104,400 

18,720 

3.2 

lj  • 

4j 

18.0 

142,000 

25,560 

127,800 

22,950 

3.5 

1 

4j 

21.3 

168,000 

30,240 

151,200 

27,180 

3.75 

1| 

5 

24.9 

190,000 

34,200 

171,000 

30,780 

4.0 

1: 

5; 

29.1 

226,000 

40,680 

203,400 

36,540 

4.25 

li' 

5i 

33.0 

250,000 

45,000 

225,000 

40,500 

4.5 

2 

6; 

37.8 

274,000 

49,320 

246,600 

44,370 

4.75 

ol 

7j 

48.0 

368,000 

66,240 

331,200 

59*580 

5.0 

2- 

7]  . 

59.1 

450,000 

81,000 

405,000 

72,900 

5.5 

2f 

8j 

71.7  • 

556,000 

100,080 

500,400 

90,000 

6.0 

WIRE  ROPE— 6  X  12—72  WIRES. 


797 


Diarn. 

Approx. 
Circum. 

Approx. 
Wt.  per 

Fathom. 

Galvanized. 

Average 
Breaking 
Strength. 

Maximum    Safe 
Working 
Load. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1 

I 

.42 

3,200 

576 

A 

1 

.60 

5,200 

936 

I 

If 

.84 

7,200 

1,296 

F 

1 

1.20 
1.56 

10,000 
13,200 

1,800 
2,276 

A 

if 

1.98 

16,600 

2,988 

| 

2 

2.52 

19,800 

3,564 

I 

2j 

3.54 

30,200 

5,400 

« 

2- 

4.08 

34,600 

6,210 

7 
8 

2l 

4.80 

39,200 

7,020 

1 

3 

6.3 

52,000 

9,360 

If 

31 
3-2- 

7.08 
7.98 

58,400 
65,000 

10,440 
11,700 

iA 

3| 

8.82 

71,200 

12,780 

if 

4 

9.78 

80,000 

14,400 

i| 

if 

12.0 

92,000 

16,560 

iA 

41 

13.0 

103,600 

18,630 

i| 

<! 

14.16 

104,600 

18,810 

if 

5 

16.56 

128,000 

23,040 

Hi 

5| 

17.64 

136,000 

24,480 

£ 

9 

19.38 
20.52 

145,400 
157,000 

26,100 
28,260 

if 

6* 

23.0 

168,000 

30,240 

2 

gi 

25.2 

199,000 

35,910 

2rs 

6£ 

26.58 

210,000 

37,800 

WIRE  ROPE — 6  X  24 — 144  WIRES. 


Galvanized. 

Approx. 

Approx. 

Wt.  per 

Average 

Maximum    Safe 

Diam. 

Circum. 

Fathom. 

Breaking 

Working 

Strength. 

Load. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

| 

2} 

4.68 

37,600 

6,768 

ft 

2} 

5.4 

45,000 

8,100 

I 

2| 

6.3 

51,400 

9,252 

1 

3 

8.28 

66,600 

11,988 

iA 

3i 

9.24 

74,000 

13,320 

rj 

3a 

10.5 

82,200 

14,796 

iA 

3| 

11.58 

93,000 

16,740 

ii 

4 

12.9 

103,400 

18,612 

if 

4j 

15.72 

122,400 

22,032 

iA 

4J 

17.52 

136,000 

24,480 

if 

4 

18.6 

150,600 

27,090 

if 

5 

21.78 

173,200 

31,140 

*P 

6f 

23.16 

188,000 

33,840 

if 

5^ 

25.44 

206,200 

37,080 

iff 

5| 

26.88 

218,000 

39,240 

if 

6 

30.54 

232,800 

41,850 

2 

6| 

33.06 

261,000 

46,980 

2^ 

a 

34.86 

276,000 

49,680 

798  APPENDIX. 

§VII.    NOMENCLATURE  OF  DECKS. 

1.  The  following  nomenclature  of  decks  shall  be  followed  for 
United  States  naval  vessels. 

2.  The  highest  deck  extending   from  stem  to  stern  shall  be 
called  the  "  main  deck." 

3.  A  partial  deck  above  the  main  deck  at  the  bow  shall  be 
called  the  "  forecastle  deck  " ;  at  the  stern,  "  poop  deck ;"  amid- 
ships,  "  upper   deck." 

4.  The  name  "  upper  deck,"  instead  of  "  forecastle  deck  "  or 
"  poop  deck,"  shall  be  applied  to  a  partial  deck  extending  from 
the  waist  to  either  bow  or  stern. 

5.  A  partial  deck  above  the  main,  upper,  forecastle,  or  poop 
deck  and  not  extending  to  the  side  of  the  ship,  shall  be  called 
the  "  superstructure  deck."  1 

6.  A  complete  deck  below  the  main  deck  shall  be  called  the 
"  second  deck."     Where  there  are  two  or  more  complete  decks 
below  the  main  deck  they  shall  be  called  the  "  second  deck  " ; 
"  third  deck  " ;  "  fourth  deck,"  etc. 

7.  A  partial  deck  above  the  lowest  complete  deck  and  below 
the  main  deck  shall  be  called  the  "  half  deck." 

8.  A  partial  deck  below  the  lowest  complete   deck   shall  be 
called  the  "  platform  deck."    Where  there  are  two  or  more  par- 
tial decks  below  the  lowest  complete  deck,  the  one  immediately 
below  the  lowest  complete  deck  shall  be  called  the  "  first  plat- 
form ;"   the  next   shall  be   called   the   "  second  platform,"   and 
so  on. 

9.  Decks  which  for  protective  purposes  are  fitted  with  plating 
of  extra  strength  and  thickness  shall  be  further  defined,  for  tech- 
nical purposes,  as  "  protective  "  and  "  splinter,"  in  addition  to 
their  regular  names.    Where  there  is  only  one  such  deck  it  shall 
be  defined  as  "  protective  "  and  where  there  are  two,  that  hav- 
ing the  thicker  plating  shall  be  defined  as  "  protective  "  and  that 
having  the  thinner  plating  shall  be  defined  as  "  splinter  "  in  ad- 
dition to  the  regular  names. 

10.  Where  a  protective  deck  is  stepped  a  complete  deck  height, 
the  respective  portions  shall  be  distinguished  by  means  of  the 
terms   "  middle   protective   section "   and   "  forward    (or   after) 
protective  section  "  in  addition  to  the  regular  names.     Where  a 

1  The  Bureau  interprets  this  as  meaning  that  a  deck  structure,  although 
extending  to  the  line  of  the  ship's  side  is  not  an  upper  deck  unless  the  side 
plating  proper  of  the  ship  is  carried  up  and  connected  to  it. 


APPENDIX.  799 

splinter  deck  is  stepped  a.  complete  deck  height,  the  respective 
portions  shall  be  similarly  distinguished. 

11.  Where  a  portion  of  the  protective  or  splinter  deck  is  sloped, 
the  sloping  portion  shall  be  defined  as  the  "inclined  protective 
deck  "  or  "  inclined  splinter  deck." 

§VIII.    THE   PRESERVATION  OF  SHIPS. 

Rust.  In  order  to  properly  preserve  the  steel  structure  of 
a  ship  from  corrosion,  or  wasting  away,  means  must  be  pro- 
vided for  preventing  the  formation  of  rust.  The  rusting  of 
steel  or  iron,  is  the  combination  of  oxygen  and  iron,  this  com- 
bination being  caused  by  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
moist  air  or  water  to  which  the  metal  is  exposed.  The  carbon 
dioxide  acts  upon  the  iron  to  form  a  carbonate,  which,  in  turn, 
unites  with  oxygen  to  form  iron  rust  and  new  carbon  dioxide, 
and  this  latter  feature  accounts  for  the  continuation  of  the  proc- 
ess of  rusting,  as  the  new  carbon  dioxide  attacks  new  iron,  caus- 
ing the  process  to  go  on  and  on  until  no  more  iron  remains. 

The  formation  of  rust  is  accelerated  by  heat,  as  is  commonly 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  portions  of  the  ship's  hull  near 
the  boilers  rust  much  more  rapidly  than  others ;  in  fact,  if  the 
heat  is  sufficiently  great,  the  iron  will  oxidize  without  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture.  A  hot,  steamy  atmosphere,  therefore,  is  es- 
pecially conducive  of  rusting;  and  consequently,  portions  of  the 
ship  which  are  exposed  to  such  an  atmosphere  require  special 
care  and  attention. 

The  best  preventive  of  the  formation  of  rust  is  to  provide 
a  coating,  such  as  paint,  bitumastic,  cement,  etc.,  which  shall  be 
impervious  to  moisture.  Details  of  these  preventives  will  be 
given  later. 

Galvanic  Action.  The  corrosion  of  a  ship's  structure  is  also 
caused  by  galvanic  action,  an  electrical  phenomenon  which  takes 
place  when  two  dissimilar  metals  are  placed  in  an  acid  in  metal- 
lic contact  with  each  other.  An  electric  current  is  then  set  up 
between  the  two  metals  which  flows  from  the  electro-positive 
metal  to  the  electro-negative  metal,  and  which  results  in  the 
corrosion  of  the  former.  Salt  water  has  the  effect  of  a  weak 
acid  upon  two  dissimilar  metals ;  consequently  galvanic  action 
will  occur  between  the  different  metals  comprising  the  ship's 


800  APPENDIX. 

structure  wherever  they  are  in  contact  with  sea  water,  bilge 
water,  etc.,  and  will  cause  corrosion  of  the  electro-positive  metal. 
Galvanic  action  between  copper,  bronze,  lead,  and  steel  results 
in  the  corrosion  of  the  steel;  that  is,  the  steel  is  electro-positive 
to  the  others;  but  galvanic  action  between  zinc  and  steel  re- 
sults in  the  corrosion  of  the  zinc,  this  being  electro-positive  to 
steel. 

Mill  scale,  formed  by  the  application  of  water  to  hot  steel 
while  it  is  being  rolled  at  the  mill,  is  an  oxide  of  iron ;  and  as 
steel  is  electro-positive  to  this  scale,  it  will  be  seriously  corroded 
if  the  scale  is  not  removed.  This  removal  can  be  effected  by 
pickling  the  steel  in  a  weak  acid  solution,  so  that  the  scale  be- 
comes loosened  and  can  then  be  brushed  off.  Another  method 
is  to  leave  the  steel  exposed  to  the  weather  for  some  time  and 
allow  ordinary  rusting  to  loosen  the  scale  a  sufficient  amount 
so  that  it  can  be  removed  by  wire  brushes. 

Steel  is  also  electro-positive  to  ordinary  rust  scale,  so  that 
the  presence  of  rust  upon  steel  tends  to  increase  the  corrosion 
of  the  steel  when  it  is  immersed  in  salt  water.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  all  possible  means  should  be  taken  to  re- 
move mill  scale  and  rust  scale  before  the  steel  hull  is  painted; 
otherwise  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the  scale  will  cause  gal- 
vanic action,  with  the  consequent  pitting  of  the  steel  and  blister- 
ing of  the  paint,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  rust  cones.  If 
the  steel  plating  is  thoroughly  dry  before  painting  is  done,  the 
chances  of  corrosion  are,  of  course,  greatly  lessened. 

Not  only  do  different  metals  cause  galvanic  action,  but  it  is 
also  true  that  different  grades  of  the  same  metal  may  be  sub- 
jected to  corrosion  from  galvanic  action.  In  general,  the  softer, 
or  low-carbon  material,  suffers  the  most  from  corrosion  due  to 
this  cause.  Experience  has  also  shown  that  steel  ships  suffer 
much  more  from  corrosion  than  iron  ships  do. 

The  corrosion  of  the  steel  hull  by  galvanic  action  may  be  re- 
duced by  the  use  of  zinc  protectors.  These  consist  of  unpainted 
slabs  of  rolled  zinc,  and  they  are  fitted  to  stern-posts,  rudders, 
strut  hubs,  etc.,  when  bronze  propellers,  or  other  bronze  fittings 
are  used,  so  that  the  galvanic  action  which  is  set  up  between  the 
bronze  and  the  zinc  will  corrode  the  zinc,  this  being  more  electro- 
positive to  bronze  than  is  the  steel  of  the  hull.  As  soon  as  the 
zinc  protectors  are  badly  eaten  away,  they  must  be  renewed. 


APPENDIX.  8OI 

Mild  steel  protecting  rings  for  sea  valves  have  been  substituted 
recently  for  zinc  rings,  the  steel  rings  being  slightly  more  electro- 
positive to  the  composition  sea  valve  than  is  the  steel  hull,  and 
they  do  not  require  such  frequent  renewal.  There  is  a  tendency 
at  present  to  do  away  with  all  zinc  protectors ;  but  pending  fur- 
ther experience  in  service,  this  has  not  yet  been  completely 
adopted. 

Anticorrosive  Coatings.  There  are  several  distinct  varieties 
of  coatings  for  preventing  corrosion;  viz.,  paint,  varnish,  oil, 
bituminous  compositions,  cement,  galvanizing,  etc.,  and  they  are 
used  for  different  parts  of  the  ship's  structure  depending  upon 
the  various  conditions. 

Painting  is  by  far  the  most  commonly  used  method  of  pre- 
venting corrosion ;  and  if  all  parts  of  the  ship  could  be  kept 
well  coated  with  paint,  there  would  be  practically  no  danger  of 
corrosion.  It  is  only  when  paint  loses  its  protective  qualities 
through  age  or  wear,  that  the  metal  becomes  subject  to  corro- 
sion. Paint,  or  other  coatings,  should  never  be  applied  to  damp, 
oily,  or  greasy  surfaces,  or  to  surfaces  which  have  not  been 
thoroughly  scaled  and  cleaned,  and  each  coat  of  paint  should 
be  allowed  to  dry  hard  before  the  next  coat  is  applied. 

Red  Lead  has  a  more  extensive  use  than  any  other  paint.  It 
is  used  as  a  priming  coat  on  the  entire  outer  surface  of  the  hull 
and  all  metal  surfaces  exposed  to  the  weather ;  on  all  inside  work 
(except  metal  to  which  special  paint,  cement,  or  oil,  or  bitu- 
minous compositions  are  to  be  applied)  ;  and  on  plating  behind 
armor.  Red  lead  has  been  found  by  experience  to  have  prac- 
tically no  injurious  effect  uopn  steel,  and  it  has  excellent  ad- 
hesive, wearing  and  covering  qualities. 

Ships'  Bottom  Paints.  In  addition  to  the  priming  coat  of  red 
lead  applied  to  the  bottom  of  a  steel  ship,  special  paints  are 
also  used  to  prevent  corrosion  and  fouling.  A  great  number 
of  these  special  paints  have  been  tried  from  time  to  time ;  but 
in  the  United  States  Navy  the  only  bottom  paints  now  used  are 
the  standard  antic orrosive  and  antifouling  paints  manufactured 
at  the  navy  yards.  The  purpose  of  the  anticorrosive  paint  is 
to  prevent  corrosion  by  separating  the  metals  contained  in  the 
antifouling  paint  from  the  steel  itself.  The  purpose  of  the 
antifouling  paint  is  to  prevent  fouling  of  the  ship's  bottom, 
oxide  of  mercury,  a  poison,  being  used  as  an  ingredient  to 


8O2  APPENDIX. 

destroy  any  marine  growth  which  may  attach  itself  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ship.  Care  should  be  taken  when  applying  this  paint 
that  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  steel  plating;  other- 
wise it  will  cause  corrosion. 

Anticorrosive  and  antifouling  paints  should  always  be  ap- 
plied just  prior  to  launching  or  before  undocking ;  and  in  general, 
two  complete  coats  of  anticorrosive  and  one  complete  coat  of 
antifouling  paint  are  applied.  When  a  ship  is  docked  it  is  not 
customary  to  touch  up  or  paint  the  bottom  with  red  lead,  but 
the  anticorrosive  paint  is  applied  directly  over  the  red  lead  firmly 
adhering  to  the  steel,  or  else  to  the  bare  metal.  Antifouling 
paint  should  always  be  applied  just  before  a  ship  is  put  into  the 
water,  for  the  reason  that  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours  or  more,  it  begins 
to  lose  its  antifouling  properties. 

Wooden  hulls,  such  as  those  of  submarine  chasers,  tugs, 
lighters,  etc.,  are  given  two  coats  of  an  approved  copper  paint 
in  order  to  prevent  fouling,  and  larger  wooden  ships  and  ships 
having  wooden  outside  planking  are  sheathed  with  sheet  cop- 
per for  the  same  purpose.  Marine  growths  do  not  attach  them- 
selves readily  to  copper  as  it  constantly  gives  off  poisonous 
salts  which  tend  to  destroy  them. 

Boot-Topping  Paint.  The  region  of  the  hull  between  the 
light  and  the  full-load  water-lines  is  particularly  difficult  to  pro- 
tect against  corrosion  for  the  reason  that  the  anticorrosive  and 
antifouling  paints  deteriorate  more  rapidly  when  exposed  to  air 
than  when  immersed  in  water,  and  moreover,  the  plating  in  this 
region  is  subjected  to  much  more  chafing  than  are  other  por- 
tions of  the  hull.  Here  a  special,  quick-drying  paint,  called 
boot-topping,  is  used,  the  principal  ingredients  of  which  are  var- 
nish and  drier.  For  large  ships,  the  band  of  boot-topping  is 
four  or  five  feet  wide,  and  for  small  ships  two  feet  wide. 

Bituminous  Compositions.  It  has  been  shown  by  experience 
that  the  most  efficient  coating  for  steel  work  in  double  bottoms, 
machinery  spaces,  fresh  water  tanks,  and  similar  spaces  is  a 
material  composed  of  coal  tar,  pitch,  or  asphalt.  Bituminous 
composition,  or  "  bitumastic,"  consists  of  bituminous  solution, 
which  is  applied  cold  with  a  brush  as  a  priming  coat ;  and  bi- 
tuminous enamel,  or  bituminous  cement,  which  are  applied  hot, 
over  the  solution.  The  cement  is  suitable  for  flat,  horizontal 


APPENDIX.  803 

surfaces,  and  is  spread  on  to  a  thickness  of  at  least  one  quarter 
of  an  inch,  while  the  enamel  is  suitable  for  overhead,  vertical, 
or  inclined  surfaces,  and  is  applied  to  a  thickness  of  at  least 
one  sixteenth  of  an  inch. 

Bituminous  compositions  should  be  applied  only  to  surfaces 
which  are  thoroughly  dry  and  clean,  and  free  from  paint,  oil, 
grease,  or  rust;  and  if  practicable,  they  should  be  put  on  when 
the  ship  is  out  of  water.  Artificial  ventilation  should  always 
be  furnished  when  bituminous  compositions  are  being  applied 
in  confined  spaces  as  their  fumes  are  liable  to  overcome  the 
workmen  in  their  vicinity. 

Portland  Cement.  In  many  ships  the  inner  surface  of  the 
shell  plating-  is  coated  with  cement  to  prevent  corrosion,  and 
also  to  prevent  the  wearing  away  of  rivet  heads  and  plating 
through  the  constant  washing  to  and  fro  of  the  bilge  water  and 
the  foreign  substances  sometimes  contained  therein.  No 

Portland  cement  is  used  in  the  double  bottoms  of  United  States 
ships ;  but  cement  wash,  consisting  of  cement  and  fire  clay,  is 
applied  with  a  brush  to  the  inside  of  reserve  feed  water  tanks, 
care  being  taken  that  the  metal  is  thoroughly  dry  when  the  wash 
is  applied. 

Galvanizing  is  another  method  of  preventing  corrosion,  and 
consists  in  thoroughly  cleaning  the  metal  in  an  acid  bath,  and 
then  applying  a  coating  of  zinc,  either  molten  (the  hot  process), 
or  by  electrolytic  methods.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  protecting 
deck  fittings,  such  as  rails,  stanchions,  bitts,  chocks,  cleats,  bolts, 
etc.  It  is  also  used,  in  addition  to  paint,  for  protecting  the 
steel  structure  of  destroyers,  for  the  reason  that  the  hulls  of 
these  vessels  are  built  of  such  light  material  that  only  a  small 
margin  is  allowed  against  corrosion. 

Special  Measures  to  Prevent  Corrosion,  U.  S.  Navy.  When- 
ever a  ship  of  the  United  States  Navy  is  docked  at  a  navy 
yard,  the  condition  of  the  ship's  bottom  is  examined  by  a  spe- 
cially appointed  "  Paint  Board,"  and  a  complete  report  con- 
cerning this  condition  is  forwarded  to  the  Bureau  of  Con- 
struction and  Repair. 

In  addition  to  this  board,  a  "  Hull  Board  "  is  always  appointed 
by  the  commanding  officer  of  every  ship,  and  it  is  the  duty  of 
this  board  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  condition  of  every 
part  of  the  ship  as  regards  corrosion  or  deterioration,  and  to 


804  APPENDIX. 

make   such   comment   and   recommendation   as   are   pertinent   to 
the  subject. 

§IX.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  TURNING  TRIALS  AND 
OBTAINING  TACTICAL  MANEUVERING  DATA  FOR  VESSELS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY.  (Plate  194.) 

Turning  trials  shall  be  made  under  conditions  that  permit  ac- 
curate results  to  be  obtained,  and  if  there  be  any  doubt  as  to 
the  accuracy  of  all  the  data  required,  the  trials  shall  be  repeated 
at  favorable  times  until  the  required  accuracy  is  assured. 

When  this  data  is  once  accurately  obtained  for  a  ship  there 
is  no  necessity  for  a  repetition  of  the  trials,  unless  changes  have 
been  made  in  the  hull  or  machinery  that  may  affect  the  turning 
qualities. 

The  special  reports  made  on  the  subject  will  be  reviewed  by 
officers  of  the  Navy  Department,  who  will  scan  them  carefully 
and  systematically  tabulate  the  results.  Due  credit  will  be  given 
to  succeeding  commanding  officers  who  may  be  able  to  furnish 
additional  information  whenever  an  opportunity  occurs. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  uniformity  in  the  terms  used,  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  information  required,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  data  may  be  obtained,  the  following  method 
is  given. 

Let  P,  Plr  Po,  Ps,  and  P4  represent  the  successive-  positions  of 
a  ship  in  making  a  complete  turn  with  right  rudder  from  the  in- 
stant of  beginning  to  put  the  rudder  over  at  P,  to  the  instants 
when  a  change  in  heading  of  90°  at  P,,  180°  at  P2,  270°  at  P3, 
and  360°  at  P4  is  made. 

The  most  desirable  data  is  that  which  fixes  the  positions  Pl  and 
P2  with  reference  to  P  and  gives  us  a,  the  "  advance,"  t,  the 
"  transfer,"  and  d,  the  "  tactical  diameter." 

It  is  thought  that  each  vessel's  "  final  diameter,"  /,  will  be  prac- 
tically constant  at  all  speeds  for  the  same  conditions  of  draft  and 
rudder  angle,  the  differences  in  the  tactical  diameters  for  different 
speeds  being  due  principally  to  the  differences  in  time  required  to 
put  the  rudder  over  and  the  different  distances  run  (at  the  dif- 
ferent speeds)  before  the  rudder  is  over. 

It  is  very  important  to  know  how  to  modify  the  rudder  angles 
in  order  to  turn  upon  practically  the  same  curves  as  some  other 
designated  ship,  or  upon  standard  curves  adopted  by  the  com- 
mander in  chief. 


Plate  No.    194. 


805 


|<. f -Final  Diameter  — 

|< d-Tactica I  Diameter 

N         .  - 

a* -WOyds. 


-*i 


F16.4 


PLOTTING  TACTICAL  DATA. 


8o6 


APPENDIX. 


It  is  particularly  desirable  to  know  the  "  advance,"  "  transfer," 
and  "  tactical  diameter  "  with  screws  on  one  side  backing. 

It  is  also  advantageous  to  know  the  following: 

The  distance  the  ship  will  travel  and  the  rate  at  which  she  loses 
speed,  when  all  engines  are  suddenly  reversed,  before  she  can  be 
brought  to  a  dead  stop. 

The  rate  at  which  the  ship  loses  speed  after  all  engines  are 
stopped  or  disabled. 

The  rudder  angle  required  to  keep  the  ship  on  a  steady  course 
when  screws  on  one  side  are  stopped  or  disabled,  and  the  actual 
speed  made  under  such  conditions. 

The  "  advance,"  "  transfer,"  and  "  tactical  diameter  "  with  full 
rudder  and  starting  from  a  dead  stop. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  know  the  rate  at  which  the  ship  regains 
her  initial  speed  after  a  turn  has  been  made. 

Theoretically,  the  tactical  data  of  twin-screw  and  four-screw 
ships  for  turning  to  right  ought  to  be  the  same  as  that  for  turning 
to  left,  the  speeds  and  rudder  angles  being  the  same,  but  practi- 
cally slight  differences  in  results  may  be  expected,  owing  to 
differences  in  the  working  of  the  engines  and  other  outside  in- 
fluences during  the  times  of  trial.  The  mean  of  the  right  and 
left  determinations,  one  following  the  other  closely,  made  under 
identical  conditions,  will  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  standard. 
The  data  for  complete  turns,  with  both  right  and  left  rudder, 
will  be  required  for  speeds  and  for  rudder  angles  as  follows  (the 
mean  of  the  right  and  left  determinations  shall  be  used  at  the 
different  speeds  and  rudder  angles)  : 

All  engines  ahead — full  rudder  (35°,  or  whatever  it  is). 

All  engines  ahead — rudder  angle,  20°  to  25°. 

All  engines  ahead — rudder  angle,  10°  to  15°. 

Engines  on  one  side  full  speed  astern — full  rudder. 

From  a  dead  stop,  turn  with  power  corresponding  to  speed  at 
which  the  other  ahead  trials  are  being  made. 

The  above  trials  shall  be  made  for  each  of  the  following  speeds : 


For  vessels  having  designed  speed  of  — 

Speed  A. 

Speed  B. 

Speed  C. 

Speed  D. 

Over  30  knots  
Between  20  and  30  knots  

Full  speed.. 
.  .  .do.  .  . 

20 
15 

15 

10 
10 

Between  15  and  20  knots  

...  do 

12 

10 

Less  than  15  knots  

do 

10 

8 

APPENDIX.  807 

Find  the  time  and  distance  in  which  the  ship  can  be  brought 
to  a  dead  stop,  rudder  amidship,  and  the  rate  at  which  she  loses 
speed,  by  backing  full  speed,  both  from  "  full  speed  "  ahead  and 
from  a  speed  of  10  knots. 

Find  the  time  in  which  a  vessel  loses  speed  down  to  5  knots 
after  the  engines  are  stopped,  both  from  "  full  speed "  ahead 
and  from  a  speed  of  10  knots ;  and  thence  deduce  the  rate  of 
losing  speed  per  knot. 

Find  the  rudder  angle  necessary  to  keep  the  ship  on  a  steady 
course,  under  full  power,  with  engines  on  one  side  stopped  or 
disabled,  and  the  actual  speed  made  under  such  circumstances. 

Find  the  rate  of  increase  in  the  speed  on  straightening  out 
the  course  after  making  each  of  the  above  complete  turns. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  due  credit  will  be  given 
for  additional  information,  as,  for  instance,  obtaining  the  data  of 
opposite  turns  and  other  speeds  or  rudder  angles  than  those  re- 
quired, or  noting  special  peculiarities  of  behavior  under  the  vary- 
ing influences  of  wind  and  sea. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  turning  trial  should  take  place 
are  as  follows :  ( i )  The  depth  of  water  should  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  drag  on  the  bottom  from  influencing  the  speed.  (2) 
The  tidal  movement  in  the  locality  should  be  small,  unobstructed, 
and  uniform.  (3)  There  should  be  a  clearly  defined  distant  ob- 
ject in  view.  (4)  The  weather  and  sea  should  be  smooth,  a  dead 
calm  being  preferable. 

The  following  methods  have  been  tested  and  will  give  accurate 
results  if  carefully  and  patiently  followed.  The  essential  features 
are: 

(a)  Observations  of  the  change  of  heading,   from  a  dumb 
compass  on  board,  with  reference  to  a  fixed  external  object. 

(b)  Bearings  of  an  observing  boat  or  ship  from  an  azimuth 
instrument  on  board,  with  reference  to  the  keel  line  of  the  ship, 
the  boat  not  being  anchored  but  moored  to  a  drag  sunk  to  a 
depth  corresponding  to  the  draft  of  the  ship.     A  pole  weighted 
to  float  at  the  proper  depth  with  a  flag  at  its  staff  may  be  used, 
the  observers  then  to  be  in  a  boat  under  oars  whose  bow  shall  be 
kept  close  to  the  pole  as  it  floats.     If  an  observing  sister  ship  is 
used,  both  ships  take  reciprocal  angles  and  bearings,  and  the  ob- 
serving ship  records  the  speed  and  direction  of  her  drift  during 
each  turn. 


8O8  APPENDIX. 

(r)  Ranges  or  distances  of  the  ship  taken  from  the  observing 
boat  or  ships. 

These  observations  to  be  simultaneous. 

TAKING  THE  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  observer  A  should  be  the  officer  directing  the  movements 
of  the  ship,  and  a  convenient  dumb  compass  may  be  quickly  ar- 
ranged by  ruling,  with  pencil  lines,  a  dumb  card  on  tracing 
cloth,  showing  only  the  lines  of  bearing  for  every  two  points,  or, 
if  the  view  from  the  standard  compass  is  fairly  clear  all  around, 
for  every  30°.  Paste  this  on  the  glass  face  of  the  standard  com- 
pass with  three  or  four  spots  of  photographic  paste  (after  the 
trials  it  may  readily  be  removed)  having  the  TV  point  of  the  card 
coincide  with  the  lubber's  point  of  the  compass.  If  desired,  the 
circuits  to  the  gyro  compass  repeater  may  be  cut  out  and  the 
repeaters  (with  azimuth  circles)  used  as  dumb  compasses  or 
peloruses. 

Have  a  hand  stationed  at  the  whistle  pull  instructed  to  give 
the  whistle  a  quick,  sharp  blast  whenever  observer  A  says 
"  Mark."  Have,  near  observer  A,  a  recorder  with  a  watch  ready 
to  record  the  time  of  each  order  "  Mark  "  and  the  observations 
of  observer  B,  placing  them  opposite  the  reading  of  the  dumb 
compass  for  that  mark.  . 

The  accuracy  of  results  will  be  increased  if  observer  A  is  pro- 
vided with  an  electric  contact  maker  in  circuit  with  the  automatic 
whistle.  When  he  gives  the  order  "  Mark  "  he  can  simultan- 
eously make  the  contact  which  will  cause  the  whistle  to  blow,  thus 
avoiding  loss  of  time  and  irregularity  due  to  having  this  duty 
performed  by  another  man.  It  will  be  a  simple  matter  for  the 
electrical  force  to  insert  a  contact  maker  in  the  circuit  of  the 
solenoid  which  operates  the  whistle  in  place  of  the  automatic 
circuit  closer. 

Observer  B,  stationed  abreast  of  the  foremast,  or  at  the  most 
convenient  point  for  observations,  is  to  note  at  each  order 
"  Mark  "  the  angle  between  the  keel  line  of  the  ship  and  observer 
C  (in  the  boat)  from  forward  aft.  For  this  purpose  a  pelorus 
may  be  used  if  care  be  observed  to  note  accurately  the  angle,  with 
the  instrument  level.  If  a  pelorus  on  each  side  is  to  be  used,  there 
should  be  two  contact  makers  in  parallel,  one  at  each  pelorus,  and 


APPENDIX.  809 

so  located  as  to  enable  the  observer  to  operate  them  with  ease 
while  observing  the  object.  If  there  is  any  difficulty  about  the 
observers  in  the  engine  rooms  hearing  the  whistle  signals,  elec- 
tric bells  or  lamps  should  be  installed  there  on  temporary  circuits 
which  are  also  controlled  by  the  contact  makers  at  the  peloruses. 
The  circuits  for  these  bells  or  lamps  should  be  in  parallel  with 
the  solenoid  circuit  and  the  contact  maker  should  be  in  the 
feeder  or  branch  circuit  from  the  dynamo  which  supplies  them 
with  current. 

Observer  C  has,  in  the  boat  with  him,  a  man  instructed  to 
watch  the  steam  whistle  and  to  say  "  Mark  "  the  instant  a  puff 
of  steam  is  seen  to  issue  from  the  whistle,  also  a  recorder  with 
a  timepiece  to  record  the  time  and  ranges.  Observer  C  keeps  the 
reflected  image  of  the  fore  truck  at  the  water  line  by  his  instru- 
ment and  at  each  order  "  Mark  "  calls  out  the  range  or  angle  for 
his  recorder  to  note.  The  stadimeter  is  handy  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  ship  may  get  too  near  for  accurate  observations  and  the 
stadimeter  may  get  out  of  adjustment.  Sextant  angles,  if  read 
to  seconds,  give  greater  safeguard  of  accuracy,  although  they 
require  more  time  and  trouble  in  preparing  the  data  for  plot- 
ting. 

An  observer,  D,  in  the  engine  room,  assisted  if  necessary, 
should  record  the  angle  of  heel  and  the  actual  reading  of  each 
revolution  counter  at  each  blast,  also  the  revolutions  per  minute 
of  each  engine,  before  each  turn. 

After  a  turn  is  begun,  no  change  in  position  of  the  throttle 
valves  will  be  made  until  the  turn  is  completed. 

All  recorders  should  be  prepared,  before  the  trials,  with  pads 
and  blanks  suitably  ruled  to  record  the  observations. 

The  distant  object. — A  tactical  diameter  of  500  yards  will 
subtend  about  1°  of  arc  if  the  distant  object  be  15  miles  away, 
iJ/20  if  10  miles,  and  3°  if  5  miles.  It  is  generally  difficult  to 
get  a  well-defined  object  sufficiently  distant  to  neglect  the  par- 
allax in  plotting,  and  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  object  suffi- 
ciently near  and  distinct  to  obtain  its  distance  on  the  chart  and 
to  take  account  of  its  distance  in  the  plotting.  Therefore,  at 
the  end  of  each  turn  take  sufficient*  bearings  (or  3-point  angles) 
to  plot  the  position  of  the  ship  and  thus  determine  the  distance 
of  the  object  used.  If  observer  C  uses  a  sextant,  he  will  be 
the  best  equipped  to  take  this  observation,  the  angles  between 


8lO  APPENDIX. 

three   suitable   objects   on   shore.      If   observer   C   uses   a   stadi- 
meter,  he  should  have  also  a  sextant  at  hand  ready  to  use. 

TO   EXECUTE    THE    MANEUVER. 

After  dropping  the  boat,  stand  off  far  enough  to  be  able  to 
gain  the  desired  speed  before  beginning  the  turn.  Hoist  a  pre- 
paratory signal.  Shape  a  course  to  head  for  the  distant  object 
and  at  the  same  time  to  pass  the  boat  at  a  safe  distance  and 
have  it  inside  the  turning  circle.  It  would  be  practicable  to  get 
the  observations  by  turning  so  as  to  leave  the  boat  outside  of 
the  turning  circle,  but  turning  around  the  boat  is  entirely  prac- 
ticable and  not  only  conduces  to  greater  accuracy  in  the  obser- 
vations of  C,  but  facilitates  the  observations  of  B,  who  thereby 
gets  unobstructed  views  of  C  from  one  side  of  the  ship  only 
during  the  same  turn. 

As  the  dumb  compass  takes  no  account  of  magnetic  bearings, 
the  initial  course  will  read  "  North  "  on  the  dumb  card.  When 
observer  C  bears  3  points  forward  of  the  beam,  "  mark  "  and 
put  the  rudder  over  as  quickly  as  possible,  with  the  same  force 
that  is  used  every  day  or  in  action,  the  recorder  noting  the  time 
required  to  put  it  over,  the  direction  it  is  put  over  (right  or 
left),  and  the  number  of  degrees  of  rudder.  Now  shift  the 
azimuth  circle  to  cover  the  next  line  of  the  dumb  compass,  NNE. 
or  30°,  as  the  case  may  be,  if  turning  to  port,  and  as  the  distant 
object  is  just  coming  onto  the  vertical  line  "  mark  "  again.  Re- 
peat this  for  each  line  of  the  dumb  card  until  the  full  turn  has 
been  made,  then  shift  the  rudder,  straighten  out  on  the  original 
course,  and  stand  on  toward  the  distant  object  for  at  least  one 
minute,  "  marking  "  again  at  intervals  of  15  seconds.  Haul  down 
the  "  preparatory  signal."  Note  the  direction  and  force  of  wind. 
Observer  C  takes  observations  for  plotting  the  position  of  the 
boat.  Prepare  for  another  turn. 

If  the  same  distant  object  be  used  for  all  the  turns,  the  ship 
will  now  require  to  make  two  half  turns  before  being  in  posi- 
tion for  another  exact  maneuver,  but  if  a  second  distant  object 
be  available  in  a  nearly  opposite  direction,  the  ship  may  stand 
on  after  the  first  full  turn,  and,  after  running  the  required  dis- 
tance,  return  to  another  trial  after  making  one  half  turn  only. 

In  all  these  turns  put  the  rudder  over  as  quickly  as  possible, 


APPENDIX.  8ll 

even  when  10°  only  is  required.  Uniformity  in  this  matter  is 
important. 

During  the  turns  it  may  be  that  a  mast  or  a  smokestack  will 
interfere  with  a  direct  view  from  the  compass  of  the  distant 
object  while  at  some  one  of  the  bearings  on  the  card.  When  this 
occurs,  estimate  as  near  as  possible  when  the  object  would  be 
on  that  bearing  and  give  the  order  "  Mark  "  as  usual.  Tell  the 
recorder  to  put  a  question  mark  ( ?)  after  that  observation. 
This  will  preserve  the  number  and  order  of  the  observations  and 
assist  in  the  plotting. 

To  obtain  the  distance  the  ship  will  run  and  the  rate  of  de- 
crease in  speed,  after  reversing  the  engines,  or  after  stopping 
the  engines,  stand  on  a  straight  course  past  the  observing  boat, 
"  mark "  when  the  engines  are  reversed  or  stopped,  "  mark " 
again  at  intervals  of  fifteen  seconds  and  again  when  the  ship 
has  stopped  dead  in  the  /water.1 

The  angles  observed  by  B  and  the  distances  by  C  will  enable 
the  maneuver  to  be  plotted  and  the  distances  measured.  From 
this  data  curves  may  be  constructed  to  show  the  rate  at  which 
the  speed  is  decreased. 

This  method  may  be  employed  by  two  ships  working  in  con- 
cert, one  as  the  observing  boat ;  but  to  get  the  data  for  both  ships 
it  requires  twice  as  much  time  as  if  each  ship  worked  singly, 
and  good  judgment  forbids  that  the  turns  be  made  around  the 
observing  ship.  The  importance  of  doing  the  work  during  a 
smooth  period  favors  the  use  of  a  boat.  When  another  ship 
is  used  as  the  observing  boat,  however,  great  care  must  be  used 
to  see  that  she  has  no  headway  during  the  turns. 

TO  PLOT  THE  WORK.     (Plate  194.) 

Upon  a  drawing  board,  construct  a  dumb  compass  card,  fig. 
2,  similar  to  that  used  by  observer  A,  for  plotting  the  right  turns 
and  upon  another  sheet  a  similar  dumb  compass  card  for  the 
left  turns;  a  condemned  chart  with  its  compass  rose  may  prove 
convenient.  Select  a  fixed  point,  S,  fig.  3,  to  represent  the  posi- 

1  It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  on  observing  until  the  ship  has  stopped 
during  the  maneuver  of  stopping  the  engines  only.  This  would  require 
a  useless  waste  of  time. 


8l2  APPENDIX. 

lion  of  the  observing  boat.  Place  the  protractor  on  the  dumb 
compass  course  north  and  mark  the  angle,  a,  of  B's  first  obser- 
vation (say  60°).  Carry  that  line  down  to  ^  and  lay  off  the 
distance  SPf  C's  first  observation. 

Now  do  the  same  construction  for  the  position  P2,  at  the  180° 
turn,  and  measure  the  shortest  distance  between  Pa  and  P2a.,. 
This  will  be  approximately  the  tactical  diameter  (say  500  yards). 
Lay  off  this  distance  PP2,  fig.  4,  on  the  chart  scale  at  right  angles 
to  PD,  the  distance  of  the  "  distant  object."  Draw  a  miniature 
and  similar  dumb  compass  at  PP2.  The  lines  connecting  each 
of  the  successive  points  with  D  will  represent  the  true  bearing 
of  D,  from  o°  and  360°  at  P  to  180°  at  P2.  PD,  fig.  4,  is  the 
true  bearing  of  Pa,  fig.  3,  and  P<,D,  fig.  4,  of  P2a.2,  %•  2>  so  that 
the  position  p.,  instead  of  P2,  fig.  3,  becomes  the  true  position  at 
1 80°,  or  the  seventh  point  of  observation. 

Now  correct  the  dumb  compass,  fig.  3,  for  the  parallax  of 
each  point  of  observation  according  to  fig.  4,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  in  fig.  2,  and  continue  the  plotting  of  the  various 
points  of  observation  in  fig.  3  with  the  corrected  bearings  shown 
by  dotted  lines  in  fig.  2. 

Connect  the  various  points  by  a  fair  curve,  fig.  5,  correcting 
inconsistencies  and  doubtful  observations,  and  construct  tan- 
gents from  which  the  data  a,  t,  d,  and  /  may  be  measured.  The 
"drift  angle"  will  be  the  angle  between  the  keel  line,  and  the 
tangent  to  this  curve  at  any  point  of  observation. 

The  result  of  these  observations  shall  be  entered  upon  the 
form  hereto  attached. 

NOTE. — The  pamphlet  dealing  with  this  subject  issued  by  the 
Navy  Department  (from  which  the  foregoing  is  taken)  contains 
also  instructions  for  determining  tactical  data  using  the  sun  as 
a  distant  object. 

§X.    BUOYAGE. 

Plates  195,  196,  197  and  198  show  the  systems  of  buoyage 
at  present  used  by  the  principal  maritime  powers.  These  plates 
are  put  here  rather  than  in  Chapter  XVI  because  they  are  sub- 
ject to  change. 


Plate  No.    195. 


813 


814 


Plate   No.    196. 


•/-STARBOARD  :V'  HAHD^:BUOYS  , 
(SINGLE  COLOUR, GENERALIY  RED  OR  BLACK) 


(OUTER  END) 


HAND    BUOYS. 
:;:(5'iN6Lt  COLOUR, CHEQUERED  OR  STRIPED) 


ISOLATED  DANGERS. 


. pi ui: AR ; ;B uo Y ^ ::  •; ;s PAR ^ B UOY 

"'.    MARKS  .     .      : 


BRITISH       BUOYS 


'A.R80ARD..H AMD    BUOY 


(OUTER  END)       :;    "      ;:-^:H!HNER;  END). 
MIDDLE.     GROUND;  BUOYS. 

INDIAN        BUOYS  , 


BUOYAGE. 


Plate  No.    197. 


:;SQ.UTHER.N     SIDE.  KORTHERN   SIDE  '     V:   . WESTER 

^:.OF;A!;D  ANGER.  -         •  ,:..   .OF  A  DANGER  :.V:    :-    OF  A  DANGER. 


(OUTSIDE  A  CHANNEL)  ^(STARBOARD    HAND).  '        (.PORT  HAND); 
,::  DANGERS.  ;  EMTRANCES:/yTO;:  R\VER5  .,::.;: 

KiSi;  s  s  i  AN         B  u  o Y  s  . 


>TAR80ARt)     HAND  PORT  HANP  :  :  MIDDLE  6ROU! 

-BUOYS;,  BUOYS.      ,  .,        BUOYS,.;;. 


(NOHTHERN  ED&E) (SOUTHERN  EDGE)  (EASTERN  EDGE)  (WESTERN  EDGE) 
;     SEAWARD  -.;.••-: .-.SHOALS-,./  :;;:  ./::  :  ;-.::. 


GERMAN      BUOYS 


BUOYAGE, 


8i6 


Plate   No.    198. 


STARBOARD 
HAND  BUOYS 


NNER  END):  ^ISOLATE 


FRENCH    BUOYS 


MIDDLE     GROUND 
...       .     BUOYS.       .      ! 


MID  -CHAMNEL' 
:::;.v..,-  BUOYS ;•  ; 


UNITED  STATES    OF   AMERICA 
AND    CANADA; 


II 


^STARBOARD  :••        -  PORT1  HAND  (OUTER  END)    (INNER  END)  ISOLATED 

:':HANO  BUOYS.  :'•;•••':.;'-•:     BUOYS.;  MIDDLE    GROUND  BUOYS  .  DANGERS. 

JAPANESE       BUOYS. 


BUOYAGE. 


APPENDIX.  8iy 

§XI.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  RESTORING  THE  APPARENTLY 
DROWNED. 

THE    SCHAFER    METHOD.       Plate    199. 

1.  Generally   speaking,   the   same   steps   are   followed   in   the 
Schafer  Method  as  in  any  other  method ;  namely,  remove  the 
water  from  the  lungs,  clear  the  air  passages,  restore  breathing, 
remove  wet  clothing,  and  stimulate  by  heat  and  friction.     The 
difference    between    the    Schafer    Method    and    the    Sylvester 
Method,  which  has  heretofore  been  generally  recommended  and 
practiced,  is  in  the  manner  of  restoring  respiration. 

The  simplest  method  whereby  water  may  be  removed  from  the 
lungs,  and  incidentally  from  the  stomach,  which  often  contains 
considerable  water  which  has  been  swallowed,  is  by  placing  the 
patient  face  down,  clasping  your  hands  under  his  abdomen  and 
raising  him  sufficiently  to  permit  the  water  to  run  from  the  air 
passages,  lungs  and  stomach. 

SCHAFER    METHOD    OF    RESTORING    RESPIRATION. 

2.  After  removing  water  from  the  lungs  and  clearing  the  air 
passages,  place  the  patient  on  his  abdomen  with  his  face  pro- 
tected by  clothing  and  turned  to  one  side  so  that  the  mouth  and 
nose  are  free  for  breathing.     Kneel  beside  him,  or,  if  preferred, 
astride  him,  with  your  knees  at  his  hips,  and  facing  towards  his 
head ;  place  the  palms  of  your  hands  on  the  small  of  his  back, 
the  base  of  the  palms  in  line  with  the  spinal  column,  thumbs 
extended    and    nearly    touching    and    fingers    slightly    extended. 
First  movement :  Lean  forward  and  gradually  bring  the  weight 
of  your  body  on  your  hands,  the  movement  taking  two  or  three 
seconds.    Avoid  all  approach  to  roughness,  such  as  might  injure 
the  internal  organs.    The  object  of  the  movement  is  to  compress 
the  lower  part  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  forcing  the  air  and 
water  out  of  the  lungs.     Second  movement:  Swing  backward, 
releasing  the  pressure  quickly  but  leaving  your  hands  in  place. 
The  object  of  this  movement  is  to  allow  the  lungs  to  expand 
with  the  release  of  pressure  and  therefore  for  air  to  rush  in  to 
fill  up  the  air  spaces  of  the  lungs.     These  two  movements  of 
compression  and  release  simulate  natural  breathing  and  the  move- 


818  Plate  No.    199. 

TO  REMOVE  WATER  FROM  LUNGS 


TO  RESTORE  RESPIRATION-FIRST  MOVEMENT 


TO  RESTORE  RESPIRATION-SECOND  MOVEMENT] 

REVIVING  THE  APPARENTLY  DROWNED. 


APPENDIX.  8l9 

ments  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  be  completed  about  fifteen 
times  to  the  minute,  each  double  movement  occupying  about 
four  seconds.  Continue  the  artificial  respiration  until  the  patient 
breathes,  and  for  a  while  after  signs  of  returning  life,  carefully 
aiding  the  first  short  gasps  until  deepened  into  full  breaths. 

AFTER  TREATMENT. 

3.  Externally;   As    soon    as   breathing    is    established    let   the 
patient  be  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing,  wrapped  in  blankets  only, 
put  to  bed  comfortably  warm,  but  with   a   free  circulation  of 
fresh  air,  and  left  to  perfect  rest.    The  warmth  of  the  body  may 
be  promoted  by  brisk  rubbing  of  the  limbs,  the  rubbing  being 
always  toward  the  body,  by  the  application  of  hot  flannels  to  the 
stomach  and  armpits,  and  bottles  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks, 
etc.,  to  the  limbs  and  soles  of  the  feet. 

Internally:  Give  whisky  or  brandy  and  hot  water  in  doses 
of  a  teaspoonful  to  a  tablespoonful  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes 
for  the  first  hour,  and  as  often  thereafter  as  may  seem  expedient. 
If  neither  whisky  nor  brandy  is  at  hand,  some  other  stimulant 
may  be  substituted. 

LATER  APPLICATIONS. 

4.  After  reaction  is  fully  established  there  is  great  danger  of 
congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  if  perfect  rest  is  not  maintained  for 
at  least   forty-eight  hours  it  sometimes  occurs  that  the  patient 
is  seized  with  great  difficulty  of  breathing,  and  death  is  liable  to 
follow  unless  immediate  relief  is  afforded.     In  such  cases  apply 
a  large  mustard  plaster  over  the  breast.    If  the  patient  gasps  for 
breath  before  the  mustard  takes  effect,  assist  the  breathing  by 
carefully  repeating  the  artificial  respiration. 

§XII.    INSTRUCTIONS   FOR   SAVING  DROWNING   PERSONS 
BY  SWIMMING  TO  THEIR  RELIEF. 

1.  When  you  approach  a  person  drowning  in  the  water  assure 
him  with  a  loud  and  firm  voice  that  he  is  safe. 

2.  Before  jumping  in  to  save  him,  divest  yourself  as  far  and  as 
quickly  as  possible  of  all  clothes;  tear  them  off  if  necessary;  but 
if  there  is  not  time,  loose  at  all  events  the  foot  of  your  drawers, 


82O  APPENDIX 

if  they  are  tied,  as,  if  you  do  not  do  so,  they  will  fill  with  water 
and  drag  you. 

3.  On  swimming  to  a  person  in  the  sea,  if  he  be  struggling  do 
not  seize  him  then,  but  keep  off  for  a  few  secouds  till  he  gets 
quiet,  for  it  is  sheer  madness  to  take  hold  of  a  man  when  he  is 
struggling  in  the  water,  and  if  you  do  you  run  a  great  risk. 

4.  Then  get  close  to  him  and  take  fast  hold  of  the  hair  of  his 
head,  turn  him  as  quickly  as  possible  onto  his  back,  give  him  a 
sudden  pull,  and  this  will  cause  him  to  float,  then  throw  yourself 
on  your  back  also  and  swim  for  the  shore,  both  hands  having 
hold  of  his  hair,  you  on  your  back  and  he  also  on  his,  and  of 
course  his   back  to   your   stomach.     In   this   way   you   will   get 
sooner  and  safer  ashore  than  by  any  other  means,  and  you  can 
easily  thus  swim  with  two  or  three  persons ;  a  good  swimmer 
has,  as  an  experiment,  done  it  with  four,  and  gone  with  them 
40  or  50  yards  in  the  sea.     One  great  advantage  of  this  method 
is  that  it  enables  you  to  keep  your  head  up  and  also  to  hold  the 
person's  head  up  you  are  trying  to  save.     It  is  of  primary  im- 
portance that  you  take   fast  hold  of  the  hair  and  throw  both 
the  person   and   yourself   on  your  backs.     After  many  experi- 
ments, it  is  usually  found  preferable  to  all  other  methods.     You 
can  in  this  manner  float  nearly  as  long  as  you  please,  or  until 
a  boat  or  other  help  can  be  obtained. 

5.  It  is  believed  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  death  grasp;  at 
least  it  is  very  unusual  to  witness  it.     As  soon  as  a  drowning 
man  begins  to  get  feeble  and  to  lose  his  recollection,  he  gradu- 
ally slackens  his  hold  until  he  quits  it  altogether.     No  appre- 
hension need,  therefore,  be  felt  on  that  head  when  attempting 
to  rescue  a  drowning  person. 

6.  After  a  person  has  sunk  to  the  bottom,  if  the  water  be 
smooth,  the  exact  position  where  the  body  lies  may  be  known  by 
the  air  bubbles,  which  will  occasionally  rise  to  the  surface,  allow- 
ance being  of  course  made  for  the  motion  of  the  water,  if  in  a 
tideway  or  stream,  which  will  have  carried  the  bubbles  out  of  a 
perpendicular  course  in  rising  to  the  surface.    Oftentimes  a  body 
may  be  regained  from  the  bottom,  before  too  late  for  recovery, 
by  diving  for  it  in  the  direction  indicated  hy  these  bubbles. 

7-  On  rescuing  a  person  by  diving  to  the  bottom,  the  hair  of 
the  head  should  be  seized  by  one  hand  only,  and  the  other  used 
in  conjunction  with  the  feet  in  raising  yourself  and  the  drown- 
ing person  to  the  surface. 


APPENDIX  821 

8.  If  in  the  sea,  it  may  sometimes  be  a  great  error  to  try  to 
get  to  land.     If  there  be  a  strong  "  outsetting  "  tide,  and  you 
are  swimming  either   by   yourself   or  having  hold  of   a  person 
who  can  not  swim,  then  get  on  your  back   and   float   till   help 
comes.      Many   a   man   exhausts   himself   by   stemming  the   bil- 
lows for  the  shore  on  a  back-going  tide,  and  sinks  in  the  effort, 
when,  if  he  had  floated,  a  boat  or  other  aid  might  have  been 
obtained. 

9.  These  instructions  apply  alike  to  all  circumstances,  whether 
as  regards  the  roughest  sea  or  smooth  water. 


INDEX 

References  are  to  pages.    Light  face  figures  indicate  text.    Bold  face  fig- 
ures refer  to  illustrations. 


Advance  of  vessel  in  turning  328, 

805 

Aground    (See    "Stranded"): — 
Lights  for  a  vessel,  390,  391 
Alongside : — 

a    dock.     Handling    a    steamer, 

487,  486,  488,  495,  498,  499, 

502,   505,   508,  511,  588,  589, 

596 
a  ship.     Handling  a  boat,  200, 

201 
a    ship.     Handling    a    steamer, 

681,  595,  596,  598 
Anchor  -s : — 

Advantages    of    long    scope    in 

lying  at,  270,  271,  571 
Carrying    out,    by    boats     301, 

303,  305,  307,  311,  312 
Destroyers     riding     at     single 

anchor.    To    prevent     sheer- 
ing oi  271 
Dragging,  271,  274 
Fog-signal  for  vessel  at,  396 
For   United    States    Navy   232, 

233,  234,  235,  239 
Foul,  263 

Letting     go,      (See     "Anchor- 
ing") 

Old-fashioned,  231,  232 
Patent,    various    types    of    233, 

234,  235 

Picking  up,  by  boats  316 
Riding  at  single,  270 
Riding  out  a  gale  at,  274 
Stern,  266 
Stowage  of,  236,  237,  238,  240, 

256,  272 
Stowage     of,     on     destroyers. 

271,  272 

Weighing,  262,  671 
Anchoring: —  256 
By  the  stern  266 
In  deep  water  262 
In   formation  260,  670 
Safe   speed   for,  260,  261,  670, 

280 
While  going  ahead  260 


Assistance    to    vessels    in    distress 

607,  610,  618,  619,  725,  729,  732, 

737,  741,  743,  745 
Assistance  to  vessels  stranded  (See 

"Stranded  Vessels") 
Atlantic     Fleet.    "  Notes     B,"     on 

Handling  Ships  688 


Backing : — 

Effect    of    wind    upon    a    ship, 

354 
Screw,   with    ship   going   ahead 

337,  352 
Steamers,    Rules    of   Road    for 

433 

Baldt  anchor  233,  234 
Barometer : —    539 
Care  of,  539 

Indications  of,  in  connection 
with  weather  522,  529,  533. 
534,  535,  538,  542,  548,  552, 
555 

Barometric : — 
Gradient  523 
Tides  539,  542 
Bearings : — 

Compass,  128 

Of   center  of  a  hurricane   554 
Relative,  127,   128 
Battleships  2,  3 
Battle  cruisers  4,  5 
Bend.     Rounding   a   447,   478,   606, 

607 

Blocks :—  77,  79 
and  tackles,  77 
Strength  of,  92 
Strength  of  hooks  and  shackles 

of,   92 
Boat  -s:—  147 

Build  of,  148,   149,   150 
Buoyancy  of,    151,   152,   153 
Carrying  out   anchors   by,   301, 

303,   305,   307,   311,  312 
Classification   of   (legal),   152 
Davits.     158,  166,  167,  168,  169 
Detaching    apparatus    for,    173, 
175,  177,  178,   180 


822 


INDEX. 


823 


Floating  power  of,  315,  316 
For  merchant  vessels  and  men- 
of-war  contrasted,    147 
Handling,  alongside  a  ship  200, 

201 
Handling,    alongside    a    wreck 

726 

Handling,  by  a  crane  and  run- 
ner 186,  187 

Handling,  in  a  gale  216 
Handling,   in  a  squall  210,  214 
Handling,  in  a  surf  219 
Handling,   under   oars   215 
Handling,  under   sail  209 
Hoisting,   at  sea   183,    186,   187 
Life,    (See    "Life    Boats") 
Lowering,  at  sea  in  bad  weath- 
er 182,   183,   186 
Lundin  decked  type,  159,  160 
Metallic,    148 
Motor,  155,  157,  161,   163,  189, 

198,  200 
Parts  of  a,  150 
Power,    handling    and    care    of 

189 

Releasing  gear  for   (See  "De- 
taching   Apparatus") 
Rigs   of,    for    sailing  203,    204, 

206 

Running  a  line  by  a,  216 
Self-bailing,  152.  154 
Self-righting.   155,   156 
Steward  type,  157,  158 
Stowage  and  handling  of,   153, 

166,   170,   171,   172,   181 
Towing,  217 

Types    of,    148,    149,    152,    154 

156,    158,   160,    162,    164,    165 

United     States     Coast     Guard, 

154,    155,   156 
United   States   Navv,   161,   162, 

164,  790 
Boom     for    handling    weights    98, 

100,  101 

Breakdown   in   squadron   661 
Breeches-buoy  use  of,  759    761 
Buoyage,   482,   812,   813,   814,   815, 
816 


Cable  -s    (Chain):—  241 

Advantage  of  a  long  scope  of, 

270 

Cast  steel  as  material  for,  241 
Chain   lockers   for,  248,  249 
Details  of,  for  men-of-war  242 
Manufacture   of,   241 
Marking  of,  253 
Overhauling  a,  254 


Slipping,  271 
Stoppers  for,  250,  251 
Stowing,  248,  249 
Weight  of,  253 
Canvas,  776 
Chain    (See    "  Cable-Chain  ")  : — 

Use  of,  as  a  tow  line  695,  704 
Changing  course  in  squadron,  664, 

668,  669 
Channels : — 

Passing  dredge  at  work  in,  438 
Rounding  a  bend  in  a,  477,  478, 

606,  607 

Rules  of  Road  for,  422,  433 
Circles,  turning,  326,  327,  330,  333, 

804 

Clear  and  foul  hawse  277,  280 
Clear  hawse  gear  281,    283 
Clearing  hawse  281,  282,  283,  285 
Cloud-forms.     Description    of,    540, 

542 
Cloud-formation     in     a     hurricane 

545,  546 
Coast  Guard,   U.   S.:—    745 

Assistance    to    vessels    in    dis- 
tress, 745,  751,  752,  758,  761 
Boats  of,  154,  155,  156 
Destruction  of  derelicts  by,  754 
Doctrine  of,  as  to  assisting  ves- 
sels in  distress     745 
Organization  and  work  of,  745 
Patrol  of  coast  by,  756 
Stations  of,  754 
Collision  : —  442 

Duty  of  ships  to  stand  by  after, 

441 
Effect  of  speed  upon  the  point 

of,  445 

Facts   concerning,  to  be  enter- 
ed in  log  441 
Laws  relating  to,  441 
Manoeuvring     to     avoid,     442, 

443,  444,  449,  450,  456 
,  in  a  fog,  453,  456 
Risk  of,  how  determined  404 
Rules   of  the  Road   for  avoid- 
ing, 361,  362,  404,  405 
To  avoid,  between  vessels  back- 
ing 433 
,    between    vessels   crossing 

412,  418,  420 
,    between    vessels   meeting 

408 

,   between   vessels   overtak- 
ing and  overtaken.    420, 
428 
,     between     steamers     and 

sailing  vessels.    418 
Collision  mat  462,  463 


824 


INDEX. 


Compass: —   117 

"  Boxing"  the,  118 
Cards  116,  119,  120 
Gyroscopic,    120,   123,    124,    125 
As   installed    in    battleships 

123,  124,  125 
Magnetic,   117 
Radio,  128,  123,  130 

as  used  in  navigation   128, 

130 
Composition      and      resolution      of 

forces  65,  67 
Cordage   (See  "Rope") 
Corrosion    of    ships.     To    prevent, 

801,  802 
Course.     Changing,     in     formation 

664,  668,  669 
Courts : — 

Decisions     of,     on     Rules     of 

Road,  429,  435 
,  on  men-of-war  in  forma- 
tion  434 

,  on  speed  in  a  fog  435 
,  on  steamers  meeting  and 

crossing    429 
Crane.     Handling  boats  by  a,   186, 

187 

Cross  in  hawse: —  277,  281 
Cannot  be  cleared,  287 
Crossing  steamers: —  412,  413 

Crossing  ahead.  To  be  avoid- 
ed, 418 

Manoeuvring  to  avoid  collision, 
443,  444,  445,  447,  449,  450, 
456 

Remarks  on,  429 
Rules   of   Road    for,   412,   418, 

420 

Sound  signals  for,  Internation- 
al Rules  412,  424 
Sound      signals      for,      United 
States  Inland  Rules  413,  425 
Current  -s :—  473 

Danger  of,  in  piloting  473 
Effect  of,   in   rounding  a  bend 

477,  748,  606,  607 
Screw,  321 
Tidal,   do  not  correspond  with 

high  and  low  water,  474 
Wake,  324 
Curves  of  steamers  in  turning  326, 

327,  330,  333 

Cyclones  -s  (See  "Storms,"  "Ty- 
phoons," "  Hurricanes  ")  : — 
522 

Bearing  of  center   of,   554 
Indications  of,    552 
Manoeuvring  in,   554 
Origin  and  development  of,  544 


Path  of,  549,  553,  554,  555,  558 
Signals    of    approaching,    561- 

562 
Cyclones  and  anti-cyclones  522,  527 


Danger-angle  467 

Dangers  to  navigation.     How  dealt 

with  749 
Danger-signal     in     United     States 

waters  417 
Davits  for  boats : —  166 

Mechanical,  158,   168,  169 
Old  style,  166,  167 
Decks.     Nomenclature   of,   798 
Derelicts,  how  dealt  with  749 
Derrick.     Handling    weights    by    a, 

101,  102,  103,  110,  111 
Destroyers:—  6,  9,   579,  581 
Fuelling,  at  sea  613,  614 

Maumee    method    of,    615, 

617 

Getting  clear  of  a  dock  or  ves- 
sel 596,  598 
Handling,     alongside     a     dock 

588,  589,  596,  597 
Handling,  alongside  a  vessel  at 

anchor  595,  596 
Handling,  alongside  a  vessel  at 

sea  613,  614..  617,  618 
Handling,  in  heavy  weather  603 
Handling,     in     narrow     waters 

587,  588 

Manoeuvring  of,  585 
Motive  power  of,  583 
Navigation   of,   604 
Plan    for    stowing    anchors    of, 

in  hawse-pipe,  271,  272 
Rescuing  the  crew  of  a  wreck, 

617,  619 
Riding  at  anchor,  in   restricted 

waters  603 

Riding    at    anchor    from    bull- 
nose  271,  272 
Rounding  a  bend  477,  478.  606, 

607 

Stowing  anchors  of,  271,  272 
Taking   fuel,  stores  or  passen- 
gers from  a  vessel  underway 
613,  614 
Towing,  609 

Towing,  alongside  another  ves- 
sel, 613,  614 
Turning,    in    a    limited    space, 

587,  588 
Types  of,  579 

Detaching    apparatus    for    boats:— 
173,  175,  177,  178,  180 


INDEX. 


825 


Automatic    hooks.     174,    175 
Broady,   180,   181 
Mills,  179,  180 
Rottmer,  176,  177 
Diameter,  tactical  328,  664,  804 
Differential    and    duplex    purchases 

89,  90 
Dip-rope      (See      "Clear      Hawse 

Gear  ") 
Disabled    vessel,    taking    a,    in    tow 

711,  752 
Distance : — 

Keeping,  in  formation  654,  657 
Of  an  object  determined   by  a 

vertical  angle  467 
Of    an    object    in    the    horizon 

468 
Of  an   object   by  two  bearings 

469,   470 

Distress    (See  "Assistance  to  Ves- 
sels in  Distress") 
Distress.     Signals  of,  426,  427 
Dock  :— 

Dry    (See  "Dry-dock") 
Handling   a    steamer    alongside 
a,    486,    487,    488,    495,    498, 
499,  502,  505,   506,   508,  511, 
588,  589,  596 
To  wind  a  steamer  alongside  a, 

505,  506 
Docking : — 

an  ocean-liner  511,  512 
Plan  516.  518 
Vessels  516,  518 
Doldrums,  the  530 
Drag  of  the  propeller : —  565 
Effect  of,  in  lying-to  565 
In  towing  710 
Dragging  anchor  271,  274 
Drainage  of  ships  20 
Dredge  at  work  in  channel,  Rules 

for  passing  438 
Drift-angle  328 
Drift-lead.    Use  of,  275 
Drowned.     To    restore    the    appar- 
ently, 817,  818 
Dry-dock:—  516 

Examination    of    a    vessel    in, 

520 

Placing  a  vessel  in,  516,  518 
Precautions    while    in,    520 
Removing  a  vessel  from,  521 
Dunn  anchor  233,  234 

E 

Echoes,  Use  of,  in  a  fog  482 
Elbow  in  the  hawse,  277,  281 
Electric  drive.  Handling  ships 

propelled  by.  678 
Eels  anchor  234,  235 


F 

Fair  tide:— 

Advantages  of,   in    rounding  a 

bend.    477,  478,  606,  607 
Danger    of,    in    coming    along- 
side.   497 
Ferry-boats : — 

Lights  for,  375 
Privileges  of,  423 
Firemain  20 
Fishing-vessels : — 
Described  384 
Fog-signals  for,  388 
Lights  for,  379,  382,  383,  384, 

385,  386 

Privileges  of,  422,  423 
Flare-up   lights: — 

Used  by  fishing  vessels  386 
Used  by  overtaken  vessels  390, 

391 

Used  by  pilot  vessels  380,  381 
Used  to   attract   attention   392, 

393 
"Florida,"     U.     S.     S.,    Notes    on 

handling  the,  672 
Fog: — 

Coasting  in  a,  481,  482 
Decisions  of  courts  as  to  speed 

in  a,  435 
Lookout  at  bow,  required  in  a, 

437 

Manoeuvring  in  a,  to  avoid  col- 
lision 453 
Manoeuvring  in  a,  in  squadron 

659 
Moderate    speed    in    a,    defined 

400,  435 

Navigating  in   a,  479,  481 
Running  by  soundings  in  a,  481 
Speed  in  a,  400,  435 
Fog-signal,    forward    of   beam,   400 
Fog-signals : —  392 

For   miscellaneous   craft   397 
For    small    vessels    and    boats 

398,  399 
For  steamers  having  way  394, 

395 
For     steamers     underway     but 

stopped   394,  395 
For  vessels  at  anchor  396,  397 
For  vessels  fishing  388 
For   vessels  handling  telegraph 

cable  396 
For  vessels   towing  and   towed 

396,  397 
For  vessels  not  under  command 

396,  397 

For  vessels  under  sail  396,  397 
Interval  between,   (Internation- 
al)   394 


826 


INDEX. 


Interval  between,  (Inland)  395 
Length  of  blasts  for,  392 

Forces.    The  composition  and  reso- 
lution of,  65,  67 

Formation     (See    "Squadron"):— 
Breakdown  in,  661 
Keeping  station  in,  653 
Regaining  station  in,  657 
Rules   of  the  Road   applied   to 
men-of-war   in,  434,  437 

Foul  anchor  263 

Foul  hawse  280,  277 

Friction : — 

In  blocks   and  tackles  84 


Gale:— 

Handling  a  steamer  in  a,   565 
Lying-to    in    a,    566.    569,    572, 

575 
Riding  out   a,   at   anchor,   274, 

603 

Galvanizing  wire-rope  40 
Getting  underway:—  262,  671 

In  a  squadron  671 
Ground     tackle      (See     "Anchors, 

Cables,   Windlasses,"   etc.)    231 
Gybing  a  sail  214 

Gyroscopic    compass    (See    "Com- 
pass, Gyroscopic") 

H 

Handling   ships    in    heavy   weather 

Hawse : — 

Clear  and  foul,  277,  280 
Gear  for  clearing,  (See  "Clear- 
hawse   Gear") 
To  clear,  281,  282 
Hawsers : — 

Care  of,  44,  45 

For  mooring  43 

For   towing   41,   43,   695,   696, 

697 

Manila,  696,  791 
Tables      of      dimensions      and 

strength,  791,  795 
Wire,   697,  795 

Heavy  weights.  Handling: —  83, 
91,  96,  97,  99,  100,  101,  103, 
104 

Practical  examples  in,  107 
Heavy  weather.     Handling    steam- 
ers in,  565,  603 
Hemp  rope  32,  33,  34 
"  Highs  "    and   "  Lows  "    in    atmos- 
pheric   pressure    522,    527,    528, 
533,  535 


Hoisting  a  boat  in  a  seaway   183, 

186,   187 
Hooks : — 

Automatic  releasing,   for  boats 

174 

and  shackles;  strength  of,  com- 
pared 92 

Hull  and  fittings  of  a  ship  15 
Hurricane    (See    "Cyclones"    and 

"  Storms  ") 
Signals,  558,  562 


"  Idaho,"  U  S.  S.,  Notes  on  handl- 
ing the,  677 

Inertia.  Moment  of,  as  affecting 
the  turning  of  ships  358 

Inland  Rules  of  the  Road,  United 
States  362 

Inland  Rules  of  the  Road,  Other 
Nations  440 

Inland  Waters  of  United  States. 
Limits  of,  428 

International  Rules  of  the  Road 
362 


"  Jupiter,"  U.  S.  S.,  Notes  of  handl- 
ing the,  678 


Keeping    station    and    manoeuvring 

in    squadron   653 

Kelvin  sounding  machine   127,   139 
Knots  48,  49,  51,  53,  55 
Knotting  and  splicing  48 

L 

Land  and  sea  breezes  537 

Laws  relating  of  Rules  of  the  Road 

360,  429,  435,  441 
Laws  of  storms  522 
Lead.    Use  of  the,  136 
Letting    go     Anchor     (See     "An- 
chor") 

Lever.    The,  74,  75 
Life-boats    (See   "Boats"):— 
Equipment  of,  185 
How  carried  163,  167,  172,  181, 

751 

Legal   requirements   for.    152 
Lowering,    182,    183,    186,    725, 

729 

Man-of-war  rules  for,  184 
Standard  Type  of,  152,  153 
Life-Buoys  733 
Life-rafts  159,  165 
Light-cruisers  6,  9 
Lights    for    vessels    360,    362,    365, 
370,  371,  378,  379,  410,  414,  415 


INDEX. 


827 


Line.    Keeping  station  in,  in  squad- 
ron 662 

Line  of  bearing  663 
Lone     for     towing     (See     "Tow- 
line") 

Line-throwing    gun    715,    755,    757 
Log: — 

Care  and  adjustment  of,  131 
Forbes,   136 
Nicholson,   135 
Patent,  131,  132 

Advantages   and    disadvan- 
tages of,  133 

Lookout  at  bow  in  fog  437,  462,  660 
"Lows"  "and      "Highs"       (See 

"Highs"  and   "Lows") 
Lundin  decked  life  boat  159,  160 
Lying-to  in  heavy  weather:—  566, 

575 

Destroyers,  603 
Submarines,  650 

M 

Magnetic  compass   (See  "Compass, 

Magnetic") 
Man   overboard,   733 
In   squadron,  661 
Life-buoys    and    life-rafts    for, 

733 

Picking  up,  with  ship,  662,  735 
Stopping  or  turning,  to  pick  up, 

/  oD 

Manila : — 

Fibre,  distinguished  from  hemp, 

32,  33 

For  tow  line,  696 
Rope    (See  "Rope,   Manila") 
Tables     of     dimensions     and 

strength  of,  791 
Manoeuvring: — 

in  a  hurricane  554 

in  squadron  653,  664,  668    671 

674,  675,  677,  688 
to  avoid  collision,  442,  443,  444, 

449,  450,  456 
"Marietta,"   U.    S.    S.    Rescue   by, 

731 
Mechanical  appliances  on  shipboard 

65 

Meeting  steamers:—  408,  409 
Pilot  rules  for,  408 
Remarks  on,  429,  432 
Rules  of  Road  for,  408,  409 
Sound,  signals  for,  409,  424,  425 
To  avoid  collision,  442 
Megaphone.    Use  of,  in  a  fog  461 
Moderate  speed  in  a  fog  400,  435, 
459 


Monsoons  537 
Moor.     A  flying,  279 
Moored.     A  ship,  276,  277 
Mooring:—  276,  277,  278,  279 

Advantages    and    disadvantages 

of,  276,  278 

Safe  speed  for,  261,  280 
Mooring  swivel :—  287,  283 

To  put  on   the,  290,  289,   291, 

293,  296,  298 

To  take  off  the,  297,  289,  291 
Motor    boats     (See    "Boats,    Mo- 
tor") 

N 

"National"  anchor.    The,  234,  235 
Navigating  in  a  fog  479,  481 
Navigation.     Dangers   to,  749 
"Nevada,"     U.     S.     S.     Notes     on 

handling  the,  675 
Nicholson  log  The  135 


Oars.     Handling  a  boat  under,  215 
Officer  of  the  Deck.     Duties  of  the, 

685 
Oil,    The   use   of,    for   calming  the 

sea:—  572 

For  boarding  a  wreck,  727 
For  hoisting  and  lowering  boats 

184,  575 
For  taking  a  disabled  vessel  in 

tow,  712 
Overtaking  vessel: — 

Rules  of  Road  for,  420,  421 


Paints  for  ship's  use  801 

Parbuckling  98,  99 

Parcelling  61,  62 

Patent  Logs  131,  132 

Pelorus  125,  127 

Pilot-charts  560 

Pilot     Rules     for     United     States 
waters  361,  413,  417 

Pilot  vessel.    Lights  for,  378,  380, 
381,  382,  384 

Piloting  465 

Pivoting  point  of  steamer  in  turn- 
ing 329 

Plimsoll  Mark  788,  789 

Preservation  of  ships  799 

Propeller  -s :—  21,  22 

Drag  of  the,  lying-to  565 
Resistance  of  the,  in  towing  710 

Pumps  and  their  uses  786 


828 


INDEX. 


R 

Range-lights  360,  366,  367,  370,  371, 

410,  414,  415 
Reefing,  in  a  boat  211 
Releasing  gear  for  boats  (See  "De- 
taching  Apparatus") 
Rescuing  the  crew  of  a  wreck  619, 

725,  729,  751,  758,  761 
Revolutions   of   screw    for  measur- 
ing speed  133 

Rig  of  ship's  boats  for  sailing  203 
Rig    of    various    types     of    sailing 

craft  765 

Rigging  of  ships  769 
Rocket.     Use  of,   for  throwing  line 

715 

Rocket-gun  715,  755,  757 
Rolling  of  a  ship: —  568 

Dependent  upon  period  of  ship 

and  waves,  568 
Modified  by  change   of  course 

or  speed,  568 
Rope :—  33,  79 

Fibre,  varieties  of,  32,  33 
Hemp,  33,  34,  32.  792 
Manila,  33,  34,  35,  791 

Distinguished    from    hemp, 

33,  32 
Care  of,  38 
Hawsers       (See      "Haws- 

ers") 

Manufacture  of,  34,  35,  36 
Safe  working  load  for,   91 
Strength  of,  91,  791 
Tables  of,  791 
Tow  lines  of,  695 
Wire    (See  "Wire-Rope")   39, 

42,  795 
Rope  yarn  38 
Rudder  23,  18,  22,  24 
Rules  of  Road  360  to  427,  360,  370, 
371,  378,  379,  410,  414,  415, 
428 

Authorities  upon,  361 
For  narrow  channels  422 
For   sailing  vessels   404 
For  steamers  backing  430,  433 
For  steamers  crossing  412,  418, 

420,  428 

For  steamers  meeting  408,  428 
For  vessels  towing  and  towed 

368,  369,  374,  375 
Prescribing   the    sound    signals, 
for    vessels    in    sight    of 
each  other  409,  413,  417, 
424,  425 

for  vessels  in   fog  392    to 
399 


Prescribing   vessels'    lights    362 
to  393 


Sails  766,   770,  776,  777,  778,  781, 

783 
Sailing.     Rig    of    ship's    boats    for, 

203,  204,  206 

Sailing  vessels:—  13,  14,   765,  766, 
767,   770,   773,   778,   781,   783 
Fog  signals  for,  396,  397 
Lights  for,  360,  374,  375,   378, 

379 

Rules  of  the  Road  for,  404 
Sails  of,  770,  776 
Types   of,   765,    766,    767,    770, 

783 

Scout  cruisers  4,  7 
Screw.     Effects  of,  in  steering  321 
Screws,      twin      (See      "  Twin- 
Screws") 

Screw-currents  321 
Sea  anchor  570,  573 
Seizings  61,  62 
Serving  a  rope  61,  62 
Sextant  angles,  Use  of,  in  piloting 

467 
Shackles : — 

For  chain  cables  243,  244,  245, 

246 

For  blocks  of  tackles  92 
Strength   of,  93 
Shears:—  102,  103 

To  calculate  stresses  on,  107 
Sheering : — 

Of  ships  at  anchor  271 

To  prevent,    in   destroyers   and 

eagle  boats  271,  272,"  273 
Ship.     The,   1 
Shipwreck    (See   "Stranding"   and 

"Wreck")  :— 
Instructions     to     mariners     in 

case  of,  758.  759,  761 
Side-lights  362,  363 
Signals     (See     "Fog     Signals," 
"  Sound    Signals,"   "  Danger   Sig- 
nals," "  Distress  Signals,"  etc.) 
Small-stuff  37 
Sound  Signals: — 

For  fog,  388.  392  to  399 

For  vessels  in  sight,  408,  to  417, 

424.  425 
Sounding : — 

By  hand  lead  136 
By  sounding  machine   138,   139 
Sounding  machine: —  137,   139 

Navigating   by,    in    a    fog   480, 
481,  482 


INDEX. 


82Q 


Span : —  72 

For  towing,  701,  703 

Riding  to  a,  when  moored  276, 

277 
Speed : — 

In  a  fog  400,  435,  459 
Measurement  of,  by  log  131 
Measurement  of,  by  revolutions 

133 
"  Moderate,"   defined  by  courts 

435 

Safe,    for   anchoring   or   moor- 
ing 260,  261,  280,  673,  674 
Safe,  for  towing  710 
Splicing  54,  57,  59 
Squadron     (See    "Formation"): — 
Anchoring  in,  670 
Breakdown  in,  661 
Changing   course   in,   664,   668, 

669 

Getting  underway  in,  671 
Handling  turbine  ships  in,  671 
Keeping    station    in,    654,    662, 

663,  688 

Manoeuvring   in   a  fog,   in,  659 
Man  overboard  in,  661 
Regaining   station    in,   657,   688 
Rules  of  the  Road  for  ships  in, 

434 
Squall,  Handling  a  boat  in  a,  210, 

214 
Steamers.     The     steering    of     (See 

"Steering  of  Steamers") 
Steamers   crossing    (See  "Crossing 

Steamers  ") 
Steamers   meeting    (See    "Meeting 

Steamers") 
Steam  launches : — 
Care  of,  189 

Of  U.  S.  Navy,  161,  162,  163 
Handling  of,  200 
Handling,  alongside  a  ship  200, 

201 

With  turbine  engines,    196 
Steering  of  steamers : —  320 

Analysis  of  factors  entering  in- 
to the,   321 
Effect  of  screw  currents  upon, 

321 
Effect   of   shallow   water   upon, 

356 

Effect  of  trim  upon,  355,  664 
Effect  of  wind   and   sea  upon, 

354 

In  steaming  ahead,  326 
Steering  by  twin  screws,  351 
Steering-gear,  22,  23,  24,  26,  27,  31 
Stoppers : — 

For  chain  cable,  250,  251 


For  tackles,   105,  106 

For  wire-rope,   105 
Stopping.     Space   required  for,  332 
Storms: —    522     (See    "Cyclones," 
"  Typhoons,"     "  Hurricanes," 
etc.) 

Indications  of  approaching,  552 

Manoeuvring  in,   554 

Signals     announcing     the     ap- 
proach of,  561,  562 

The  laws  of,  522,  544 

Tracks   of,    548,   549,   553,  555, 
556 

Velocity  of  translation  of,  551 
Stranded  Vessels:—  737 

Assisting.    607,    610,    619,    739, 

741,  743,  753,  758,  761 
Stranding     737      (See     "  Stranded 

Vessels") 
Straps.     For    hooking    tackles    81, 

105,  106 

Submarine  signals   140.  142,  145 
Submarines:—  8,   9,  630,  632 

Buoyancy  of,  8,  634,  638 

Chlorine  gas  in,  647 

Dangers     and     precautions     in 
handling,  646 

Diving  637,  639 

Emergencies  in,  647 

General    features    of,    630,    632 

Operating,   634,   636 

Operating,   submerged  637,  642 

Periscopes  for,  635,  642 

Submerging,    636 

Ventilation   of,  633 
Submarine  chasers: —  621,  625 

Fueling  at  sea,  626 

Machinery  of,  623 

Performance  of,   at   sea,  629 

Towing  gear  623 
Surf.     Handling  boats   in   a,  219 
Swivels:—  247,  248 

Mooring,  283,  287 


Tacking  a  Boat  212 
Tackles :—  78,  80 

Differential     and     duplex,     89, 
90 

Loss   of   power   by   friction   in, 
84,  85,  91 

Power  of,  78,  80 

Power  of,  purchased  by  loss  in 
speed,  86 

Strength    and    power    of     (ex- 
amples)  91 

Types    of,   80,    81,   82,    83,    87, 
89,  90 


830 


INDEX. 


"Yard  and  stay,"  82,  88 
Tactical   diameter:—   328 

Instructions   for  obtaining,  804 
Tanner-Blish     sounding     machines 

138,  139 

Telemotor  30,  31 
Tonnage  of  ships  785 
Tow:— 

Fog-signals  for  vessels  in,  396, 

397 

Lights  for  vessels  in,  368,  369 
Resistance  of,  710 
Taking  a  disabled  vessel  in,  711 
Taking  a  submarine  in,  651 
Turning  a,  495,  515,  713 
Towing : —  695 

Alongside  713,  720,  721 
Boats  217 

Destroyers,  596,  609 
Engines,  720,  721,  722 
Equipment,    U.    S.    Navy    718, 

719 
Fog-signals     for    vessels,     396, 

397 
Lights    for    vessels,    368,    369, 

370,  371 

Signals  for  use  in,  714 
Speed  of,  710 
Submarines  651 
Tow-line : —  695 

Chain  cables  as,  695 

Manila  as,  696 

Securing,    on    the    towed    ship 

703,  704,  705,  709 
on    the    towing    ship,    697, 

698,   699,   702,   703 
Wire  as,  695 
Wire  and  manila  combined  as, 

696 

Getting  across  by  boat,   float,   line- 
throwing  gun  or  rocket  708,  715 
Trade  Winds  524,  530 
Tugs.     Handling  a  vessel  by,   510, 

511 
Turbine  ships: —  671 

Anchoring  in   formation  673 
Cruising    and    manoeuvring    in 
formation  671,  673,  674,  676, 
677 
Getting  underway  in  formation 

673 

Stopping  and  backing  674 
Turning: — 

A  single  screw  steamer  345 
A  tow,  713,  723 
A  twin-screw  steamer  351,  352 
Circles  326,  327,  330 
Curves  326,  327,  330,  333 


In  a  limited  space  345,  347,  587, 
588 

In  squadron  formation  664,  668 

Simultaneously    669 

Utilizing  wind  and  current  for, 

347,  348 

To  pick  up  a  man  overboard,  735 
Typhoons,    (See  "Cyclones") 
Twin-Screws : —  349 

Advantages  of,  349 

Manoeuvring  by,  351 

Steering  by,  351 


Ventilation  of  ships  19 
Ventilation  of  submarines  624 
Vessels  in  distress   (See  "Distress, 
Vessels  in") 

W 

Waves:— 

Period  of,  in  relation  to  rolling  pe- 
riod of  ship  568 
Weather  :— 

Explanation    of   phenomena   of, 

523,  529,  532,  534,  550 
Map.     Details  of,   533,  536 
Signals  562 
Weather  and  the  Laws  of  Storms 

522 

Weights.    Handling  Heavy,  97 
Wind  -s:— 

Circulation  of,  in  "Highs"  and 

"Lows"  522,  527,  528 
Determined  by  barometric  gra- 
dient, 523 
Effect  of,  in  ship  backing  355, 

347 
,  on  ship  stopped,  348,  354, 

347 

General  circulation  of,  530 
Trade,  530,  524,  525 
Winding  a  Ship  at  Dock,  506,  600, 

505,  506 
Windlasses:—  255,  257,  258.  259 

Directions  for  care  of,  256 
Wire-rope: —  39 

Advantages  of,  47 

Appliances  for  use  with,  62,  63 

Care  of,  44,  45,  47 

For  towing  696,  697 

Galvanized  vs.  ungalvanized  40 

Handling  of,  44,  45 

Hawsers  of  (See'  "  Hawsers  ") 

Manufacture  of,  43 

Safe  working  load  for,  91 

Splicing,  58,  39,  61 


INDEX. 


831 


Strength  of,  91,  795 
Types  of,  41,  42 


case 


Re°scJng'  tl^'crel   of   a,   619, 
725,  729,  751 


Yard'— 

"*  "*"»  b*  '•  97' 
Yard  and  stay  tackle  88,  82 


THE  LITERATURE  OF  NAVAL 
AND   MARINE   SCIENCE 

On  our  shelves  is  the  most  complete  stock  of 
technical,  industrial,  engineering  and  scientific 
books  in  the  United  States.  The  technical  liter- 
ature of  every  branch  of  naval  architecture, 
construction,  ordnance,  marine  engineering,  sea- 
manship and  navigation  is  well  represented,  as 
well  as  are  the  various  other  related  subjects. 

A  large  number  of  these  we  publish  and  for  an 
ever  increasing  number  we  are  the  sole  agents. 


All  our  Inquiries  are  Cheerfully  and  Carefully 
Answered  and  CompUte  Catalogs  as  veil  as 
Special  Lints  are.  Sent.  Free  on  Request.  ::  :• 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

Publishers  and  Booksellers 

WARREN   STREET  NEW  YORK 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


:*' 


-r 


REC'DLD 


.   - 


:*    •"' 


180ci'62AE 


-1J3- 


W 


870  -1PWW 


& 


LD  21A-50m-4,'59 
(A1724slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YC  53855 


LOAN  PERIOD  1 


9n9/  DEPARTMENT 

202  Mam  Library  642-3403 


LIBRARY   USE 

Th.s  book  is  due  before  closing  time  on  the  last  date  starred 

DUE   AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

U8RARY  U 


FORM  NO.  DD6A,  12m/ 6'76 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


